IRNSS / NAVIC

Last Updated: May 2023 (IRNSS / NAVIC)

IRNSS / NAVIC

This article deals with ‘IRNSS / NAVIC‘. This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.


How Global Positioning System (GPS) works?

  • GPS is the network of 24 Satellites that orbits the Earth transmitting signals back to Earth. GPS triangulates the position by comparing the time when the signal was transmitted by the satellite with the time it was received. With the help of 3 satellites locked by the receiver, the 2D position (latitude & longitude) can be determined, and with 4 satellites, the 3D position can be determined (latitude, longitude & altitude).
  • GPS receiver is only a receiver, without any transmitting capability. The satellites contain highly precise atomic clocks, generating some code that keeps transmitting to the Earth.


IRNSS / NAVIC

  • At present, only a few countries have fully functional global navigation systems. These include
USA NAVSTAR
Russia GLONASS
China Beidou Compass
Japan Quasi-Zenith
Europe Galileo
  • American GPS has 24 satellites covering all parts of the world. Indian GPS (named NAVIC) has just 7 satellites covering India and 1,500 km beyond its borders. 
  • 7 satellites of NAVIC or IRNCC has the following composition
    • 3 Geostationary Satellites 
    • 4 Geosynchronous Satellites with an inclination of 29 degrees 
  • Area of Service of IRNSS includes 
    • Primary Service Areaup to 1,500 km from India’s boundary.
    • Extended Service Area: rectangle imagined by 30° S and 50° N and 30° E and 130° E.
  • NAVIC has an accuracy of 20 m (compared to 15 m of American GPS).
IRNSS / NAVIC

Timeline

1979The first satellite of GPS (USA) was launched.
1982 The first satellite of GLONASS was launched.
2006 The Indian government approved this project.
2016 April All 7 satellites were placed in orbit & Modi named this system NAVIC, i.e. Navigation with Indian Constellation.

Applications of IRNSS

  1. Terrestrial, aerial and marine navigation.
  2. Disaster management
  3. vehicle tracking and fleet management.
  4. Integration with mobile. 
  5. Precise timing
  6. Terrestrial navigation aid for hikers and travellers.
  7. Geotagging of all the assets created under schemes like MNREGA, RKVY etc.

Why should the Indian Government waste money on IRNSS/NAVIC? Why not simply use American GPS at a fraction of that cost?

  • Access to a foreign GPS is not guaranteed during a hostile situation. During Indo-Pakistan War (Kargil War) in 1999, the rumour circulated that the US was denying India access to the most precise level of its GPS. Although this rumour was never substantiated, this scenario presented the advantage of having such a system fully under Indian Control.
  • Americans sent wrong GPS signals to Iraqi planes during the Iraq war, and the same can happen with India as well.
  • It also bolsters the ability of India to serve as a net security provider in the neighbourhood and Indian Ocean Region. 
  • It will increase the technical prowess of India and help it in becoming a knowledge-based economy.
  • It can play a role in relief efforts post disasters such as the tsunami in the Indian Ocean region in 2004. 

Use in Diplomacy

  • As a goodwill gesture, Modi said that our SAARC neighbours could use it who depend on foreign GPS services.

New developments wrt NAVIC

  • December 2020: International Maritime Organisation (IMO) has recognized NavIC as a World-Wide Radio Navigation System (WWRNS) component. It will enable NAVIC’s utilization in maritime navigation, surveying and others.
  • Jan 2020Qualcomm Technologies has unveiled mobile chipsets supporting the IRNSS/ NAVIC. Now Mobile manufacturers can release NAVIC enabled phones in India. 

GAGAN

GAGAN
  • GAGAN = GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation System 
  • GAGAN is intended to meet civil aviation requirements, and ISRO has worked with the Airports Authority of India to establish GAGAN.
  • It is a satellite-based augmentation system for Civil Aviation purposes.
  • It depends on GPS (American navigation system) and  Indian satellites like GSAT 8, 10 & 15.
  • GAGAN  provides position to aeroplanes in the Indian airspace with an accuracy of 3 m.  

Gaganyaan

Gaganyaan

This article deals with ‘Gaganyaan‘. This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here


Gaganyaan Program or Indian Human Spaceflight Program (IHSP)

  • Gaganyaan Program is India’s first manned Spacecraft. On 15 August (2018) Speech, PM Modi has set a target of 2022 for the Space Manned Mission.
  • India will become 4th country after US, Russia and China to have this capability.

Spacecraft / Space Shuttle

  • Satellite Launch Vehicles are used to send satellites in the Orbits. In the same way, Spacecraft is used to send astronauts into space. 
  • Examples include China’s Shenzhou, America’s Atlantis, Russia’s Soyuz, SpaceX’s Dragon Capsule and Boeing’s Dreamliner.
  • India’s Gaganyaan is also a spacecraft.
Gaganyaan

Timeline

1984 Rakesh Sharma travelled to space (becoming the first and only Indian citizen to do so).
2007 The first proposal for ISRO’s human-crewed space mission.
Dec 2014 Experimental flight of manned mission launcher GSLV MK-III tested.
July 2018 ISRO conducted Pad Abort Test (PAT).  Pad Abort Test is part of the crew escape system, which assists in quickly pulling the astronaut cabin along with the crew out to a safer distance from the launch vehicle during a launch abort.
15 August 2018 PM Modi announced that Gaganyaan will be launched by 2022.
2022 First, Indian manned Spacecraft will be launched.

Earlier Manned Missions

Vostok 1 Mission (USSR,1961) Took Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union into space, making him the world’s first human in space.
Mercury Mission (USA, 1961) Alan Shepard was the first American sent to space.
Shenzou (China, 2003) This mission put the first Chinese citizen in space.
Rakesh Kumar Rakesh Kumar was the first Indian sent to space on a Russian Soyuz Space vehicle.

What will Gaganyaan Project include?

  • Gaganyaan is India’s manned mission to space.
  • In the mission, GSLV MK-III will carry a 3-member crew to the Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and safe return to the Earth after the duration of a few orbits to two days.  
  • An extendable version of the spaceship will allow flights up to 7 days & docking capability with the space station.

Key Components of Human Space  Program

  1. Building up a Habitable Module 
  2. Other life support systems like Space Suits 
  3. Astronaut training 
  4. Capabilities for recovering Astronauts safely
  5. Crew Escape System 

Do you know?

Indian Astronauts will be called ‘Vyomanauts‘.

Vyomanauts

Objectives of Gaganyaan Programme

  • The exponential growth of science and technology in the country.
  • Improvement of industrial growth.
  • Inspiring youth.
  • Development of technology for social benefit.
  • Improving international collaboration.

Benefits / Significance of Human Space Program

  • It will help India in doing Research and Development in space. Indian scientists will get the opportunity to conduct experiments in space through Gaganyaan Mission.
  • It will encourage our scientific community and will help in making India a knowledge-based economy. Significant advancement will happen in material processing, astrobiology, resources mining, planetary chemistry, planetary orbital calculus. 
  • The Manned Space Program is essential to control resources present outside the Earth. If we plan to set up colonies outside the Earth in the future, such programs will be of great help.
  • It has the added advantage to achieve the status of great power.
  • Indian industry will find significant opportunities as Gaganyaan Mission is expected to source ~60% of its equipment from the Indian private sector. 
  • According to the ISRO chief, the Gaganyaan mission would create 15,000 new employment opportunities. 
  • It will increase India’s soft power and give space to Indian Space diplomacy. India will be the fourth country to launch a human space mission, establishing India’s role as a key player in the space industry.

Challenges

  • The human body is designed according to Earth’s gravity. There is a microgravity environment in space, which affects hand-eye and head-eye coordination. In the absence of gravity, blood and body fluids cannot distribute to the lower part of the body and accumulate in the upper part. Additionally, the size of the heart decreases, bones become weak, and the brain cannot interpret information correctly.
  • Humans in space are subjected to a high degree of radiation, increasing cancer risk.
  • Space is a hostile environment as there is a lack of gravity, danger of radiation and absence of atmosphere.  
  • Financial: These missions require exorbitantly huge investment as they are highly technology-intensive. It will cost ISRO Rs. 10,000 crores.
  • Re-entry and Recovery: The biggest challenge in the case of human flight is the re-entry of the vehicle back into the Earth’s atmosphere and recovery of the module as it is subjected to extreme heat due to friction with the air. Even the slightest deviation can result in disaster. 

International Space Station

ISS

  • ISS or International Space Station is a man-made or artificial habitable satellite in Low Earth orbit (between 278 km and 460 km) and travels at 15.7 orbits per day.
  • The space station also acts as a laboratory in space where astronauts stay for an extended period to carry out experiments in microgravity.
  • It is a joint venture of NASA (USA), Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (Japan), ESA (Europe), and CSA (Canada). 
  • It has been operating since 1998 and will continue to operate till 2024.
  • Building a Space Station is an expensive affair, and ISS is the most expensive object ever constructed by man, with a cost amounting to $150 billion.
  • It will be operational till 2031.
  • ISS is the ninth space station. Earlier, Mir, Salyut and Almaz were the Space Stations of the USSR, and Skylab was the Space Station of the USA. 
International Space Station

Future Space Stations

  • Tianhe: Chinese Space Station, which is under construction phase. 
  • Russian Plans: Russia will withdraw from ISS in 2025 and will launch its space station in 2030. 

Uses of Space Stations

  • It acts as a Microgravity Lab. It is used to conduct experiments in biology, physics etc., in a micro-gravity environment.
  • Observe the long-term effects of space exposure on the human body. 
  • Study of cosmic rays, cosmic dust, antimatter and dark matter in the universe.
  • It serves as a Space Terminal. 
  • It can also be used in Space Tourism.

Artemis Accords

  • Artemis is the moon mission of NASA which aims to land the next man and the first woman on the moon by 2025.
  • Artemis Accords are agreements between NASA and its international partners that want to cooperate on the Artemis program.
  • It has been established to create a common set of principles to govern the exploration and use of outer space when numerous countries and private sector players conduct missions and operations in cislunar space (space between Earth and Moon). The agreement includes various norms such as transparency, peaceful exploration, Interoperability of systems, Registration of Space Objects, Orbital Debris & Spacecraft Disposal etc. Accord is primarily based on the 1967s Outer Space Treaty.
  • Main provisions of the Artemis Accord include 
    1. Interoperability
    2. Emergency assistance
    3. Safe disposal of space debris
    4. Preventing harmful interference
    5. Preserving outer space heritage
    6. Release of scientific data 
    7. Registration of objects
    8. Peaceful exploration
    9. Transparency 
  • Signatories include the US, New Zealand, Australia, Canada, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the Republic of Korea, the United Kingdom, the United Arab Emirates, and Ukraine. Major space players like India, Russia, China, France, and Germany are not signatories.  


Indian Astronauts

Rakesh Sharma

  • He was the first Indian to travel to space. 
  • He was born in Patiala in 1949 and later joined Indian Airforce as a pilot, from where he joined ISRO.
  • As a cosmonaut, he went to space in a Soviet Spacecraft (Soyuz T-11). 

Kalpana Chawla

  • She was the first woman of Indian origin to go into space. 
  • She did his B. Tech from Punjab Engineering College (Chandigarh) and PhD in Aerospace Engineering from the USA.
  • Her first space flight was on Space Shuttle Columbia in 1997. Unfortunately, in 2003, Kalpana Chawla was part of the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster and lost her life.

Sunita Williams

  • Sunita Williams is American of Indian (Gujarati) descent. 
  • She has done 7 spacewalks and stayed in space for the longest time in a single flight (195 days).

Raja Chari

  • NASA has selected Raja Chari to fly to ISS in SpaceX Crew-3 Mission (with 3 other astronauts). 
  • It is part of NASA’s Artemis program that aims to expand humanity’s horizons in space. 

Anil Menon

  • Anil Menon is a doctor of Indian origin who has worked in SpaceX as a surgeon during its project to launch humans into space. 
  • He has been chosen by NASA as a future astronaut. 

Indian Satellite Launch Vehicles

Last Update: May 2023 (Indian Satellite Launch Vehicles)

Indian Satellite Launch Vehicles

This article deals with ‘Indian Satellite Launch Vehicles‘. This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.


Satellite Launch Vehicles

Satellite Launch Vehicles

SLV

  • SLV = Satellite Launch Vehicle.
  • It was a four-stage launch vehicle (all stages used solid fuel).
  • Payload that SLV could carry = 40 kg till 400 km
  • The first successful launch of SLV happened in 1980 in the project headed by Dr APJ Abdul Kalam.  
  • Later, India also used SLV to place the Rohini satellite in its orbit.
Satellite Launch Vehicle

ASLV

  • ASLV = Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle.
  • ASLV was designed to augment the capacity of SLV. 
  • It was a five-stage launch vehicle (all stages used solid propellant).
  • The payload that ASLV could carry = 150 kg till Low Earth Orbit
  • The first successful launch of SLV happened in 1994, and it is retired now.
ASLV

PSLV

  • PSLV = Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle 
  • The first launch using PSLV happened in 1993. 
  • The payload that PSLV can carry = up to 1600 kg till Sun-Synchronous Polar Orbit.
  • PSLV is very reliable, and 54 of its 57 launches were successful.
  • ISRO used it to launch Indian Remote Sensing Satellites (IRS) such as Cartosat, Oceansat etc. and some other historic missions like Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), IRNSS/ NAVIC etc. 
  • It has three variants, i.e. PSLV–G, PSLV-CA and PSLV-XL. The latest version of PSLV, i.e. PSLV-XL, can carry up to 1750 kg. Chandrayaan & Mars missions were launched using this.
  • Stages of PSLV: Four stages using solid and liquid fuel alternately. 
First It uses solid fuel, i.e. HTPB- Hydroxyl Terminated Poly-Butadiene.
Second It uses liquid propellant, i.e. UDMH-Unsymmetrical Di Methyl Hydrazine with Nitrogen Tetroxide as an oxidiser.
It employs a Vikas engine.
Third It uses solid fuel, i.e. HTPB- Hydroxyl Terminated Poly-Butadiene.
Fourth It uses liquid propellant, i.e. Mono Methyl Hydrazine.
It employs Vikas Engine.
PSLV

PSLV and importance to the Indian Space Program 

  • PSLV was the country’s first operational launch vehicle and is dubbed as the ‘workhorse of ISRO’. 
  • It is highly successful and reliable. It has a record of 97% successful launches, which is one of the most successful in the world.
  • It is used to carry IRS satellites to Polar Sun Synchronous Orbits with utmost precision. Till now, India has launched 54 Indian satellites and 222 foreign satellites using PSLV. 
  • It poses potential competition to the west due to its lower launch price and is helping India to earn a lot of revenue.
  • It has also helped India in launching spy satellites and boosting national security.
  • ISRO launched the maximum number of satellites in the world in a single operation, i.e. 104 satellites using PSLV. 

Side Topic: POEM Platform

  • The PSLV Orbital Experimental Module (POEM) has been designed to use Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle’s final and otherwise abandoned stage for in-orbit research.  
  • In general operations, the PSLV is a four-stage rocket where the first three spent stages fall back into the ocean, and the final stage (PS4) — after launching the satellite into orbit — ends up as space junk.

GSLV / GSLV MK-II

  • GSLV = Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle
  • The first launch using GSLV happened in 2001.
  • ISRO made it to launch Geosynchronous and Geosynchronous Satellites.
  • It can carry up to 2500 kg till Geostationary Orbit (and 5,000 kg till Low Earth Orbit (LEO)). 
  • It can be used to launch Indian National satellites (INSAT) & GSAT  in Geostationary and Geosynchronous orbits. (but most of Geostationary Satellites are around 3000 kg to 4000 kg, which GSLV MK II can’t take till Geostationary Orbit & we used to be dependent on Ariane Aerospace for their launches)
  • The next version of this launch vehicle is GSLV MK-3.
  • Stages of GSLV: GSLV is a 3 stage vehicle
First Solid propelled
Second Liquid propelled with hypergolic fuels
Third Liquid propelled 

Stage 1 & 2 are directly taken over from PSLV.

GSLV

GSLV MK-III

Earlier (before June 2017), ISRO was in the position to launch only satellites weighing between 2 & 2.5 tons into geostationary orbits. But most contemporary communications satellites usually are in the weight category of 3 to 5 tons & therefore require a more powerful launcher. Moreover, India’s future missions to the Moon, Mars and Venus also need a powerful launcher. Appreciating this need, ISRO has made GSLV-Mark III a vehicle capable of placing 4-ton satellites in geostationary orbit.

GSLV MK-III

Main Features of GSLV MK-III

  • It is the latest version of GSLV.
  • GSLV MK-III made its maiden flight from Sri Harikota in 2017, placing GSAT-19 in Geostationary Orbit. 
  • Later, ISRO used the GLSV Mk-III to launch Chandrayaan-2 Mission (India’s second Lunar Mission). 
  • GSLV Mk-3 can carry 
    • Up to 4 tons till Geostationary Orbit
    • Up to 10 tons till Low Earth Orbit (Polar Satellites) 
  • Hence, it has ended India’s reliance on the EU’s Arianespace launch vehicle to send GSAT satellites into Geosynchronous orbits.

GSLV MK-3 is a three-stage vehicle 

First Solid propellant
Second Liquid Propellant
Third Cryogenic Engine uses the Liquid Oxygen & Liquid Hydrogen as oxidiser and fuel, respectively (this stage differs from GSLV Mk-2). 

Compared to solid and liquid propellants, a cryogenic propellant is more efficient. It provides more thrust by burning the same amount of propellant than Earth-based storable liquid and solid propellants.

Note: India had signed MoU with Russia to transfer Cryogenic Engines to India in starting 1990s, but the USA pressurised Russia not to supply these to India, arguing that it would violate MTCR Treaty (although Cryogenic engines are not used in Missiles). Due to this, India’s program suffered.


Significance

  • GSLV Mark III has made India a competitive player in the multimillion-dollar commercial launch market. It will help in earning substantial foreign exchange. 
  • It will end India’s dependence on foreign launch vehicles to put its heavy satellites (GSAT series) in the geosynchronous orbit. (Earlier, India was dependent on France’s Ariane space ).
  • India can also send its astronauts into space using this.  
  • It will boost India’s communication resources as the cost of launching Communication Satellites will reduce
  • Cryogenic Technology used in it can be further used in making Inter Continental Ballistic Missile.
  • It is a massive step in making India a ‘knowledge-based economy’. Till now, only USA (Saturn V), Russia (Proton M), China (Long March 5) & European Space Agency (Ariane), along with one private player (Space X), can launch geostationary and geosynchronous satellites.

Semi Cryogenic Engine

  • MoU regarding this has been signed between the Russian Space Agency & ISRO.
  • It would be India’s third Rocket Development Program.
  • Project Cost – approx. ₹1,800 crores.
  • It will be able to launch a 6 to 10-ton payload to the height of 36,000 km (more than GSLV-Mk-3). 
  • Currently, only Russia & US has this technology.

Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV)

Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV)
  • Due to the advancement in electronics, small satellites have started to be built on a large scale. Globally, more than 17,000 small satellites are expected to be launched till 2030. Earlier, these satellites were launched as piggybacks with big satellites. But ISRO has developed a small satellite launch vehicle (SSLV) to exploit this newly emerging market fully. 
  • India is also building its second launch station in the Thoothukudi district in Tamil Nadu, and it will house one launchpad exclusively for small satellite launch vehicles (SSLV).
  • SSLV made its first successful flight in 2022 and its second in 2023.
  • India’s SSLV has the following features.
    • Weight = 110 ton
    • Payload = Can launch satellites weighing up to 500 kg.
    • Time to integrate for launch = 72 hours (in contrast to 70 days with present launch vehicles)
    • Cost = Rs. 30 crores per launch
    • Stage: Three solid stages followed by a liquid-fuel-based Velocity Trimming Module (VTM) 
    • New Space India Limited (NSIL) is the nodal agency (not ISRO)
  • The new vehicle has been developed to capture the emerging small and microsatellite commercial market, with launches offered on demand. 
  • JAXA (of Japan) was one of the first space agencies to make this type of launch vehicle. A private company named bluShift is also focused on manufacturing Small Satellite Launch Vehicles. In January 2021, their Satellite Vehicle named Stardust1.0 came into operation with a mass of 250 kg and a carrying capacity of 8 kg. 

Private Sector Launch Vehicle: Vikram-S

  • Skyroot is a Hyderabad-based company that has made a Vikram-S launch vehicle to enter the launch market.
  • Properties of Vikram-S Launch Vehicle
    • It is a single-stage sub-orbital launch vehicle. 
    • It is 3D printed. 
    • The core structure is built using carbon composites. 
    • It can carry between 290 kg and 560 kg payloads into sun-synchronous polar orbits.
    • The engine used in the launch vehicle is named ‘Kalam-80’
  • It made its first successful flight in November 2022. It was launched with support from ISRO and IN-SPACe (Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre).
  • It is part of Mission Prarambh, which involves the Indian private sector’s entry into the space launch market.

Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV)

  • In 2016, ISRO successfully launched the first technology demonstrator of the indigenously made RLV. However, many more such successful launches have to be undertaken before ISRO readies a reusable launch vehicle for commercial use.
  • In simple words, it is a winged vehicle that will take off vertically like a rocket and glide back to land horizontally like a plane.
  • It will have a two-stage-to-orbit configuration. 

Advantages

  • It will cut down the cost of launching satellites to 1/10th. The main launch cost currently comes from building the rocket, which can be used just once, as the rockets get burnt on re-entry into the atmosphere. 
  • A more developed version of the vehicle could be used for human-crewed missions in the future.  
  • It will also help in reducing space debris.

Note – No sovereign space agency has RLV for satellite launches. SpaceX is also working on this project.


Scramjet Engine

  • ISRO successfully conducted the Scramjet (or Supersonic Combusting ramjet) engine test. India has become the fourth nation to successfully flight-test a scramjet engine after the United States, Russia and China.
  • The scramjet engine uses natural oxygen present in the atmosphere to burn the fuel stored in the rocket. Hence, it reduces the amount of oxidiser carried along with the fuel, bringing down launch costs. 

Benefits

  • It increases lift-off mass as there will be no need to carry liquified oxygen on board. (Note: propellant accounts for nearly 85% of the weight of a rocket, and in that oxygen accounts for almost 60% .)
  • Scramjet does not have rotating parts, so the chances of failure are also measurably reduced. 

Mains Question: India & Satellite Launch Market

  • Satellite Launch is a multi-billion dollar industry, and Antrix (commercial wing of ISRO) is emerging as a significant player in this sector. 
  • Among 10 countries that have launch capability to launch satellites, only US, Russia, EU, Japan, China and India (6) make their services available commercially.
  • Satellite launch business has two basic categories:
    • Launching satellites into Low Earth Orbit (LEO): India provides services here using PSLV.
    • Launching 3-5 tonne satellites in Geostationary Orbit: After making GSLV MK III, hopefully, India will enter this market in the future. But presently, no commercial deal in this category has been made.
  • India launched SAARC/ South Asian Satellite in 2017, indicating that it is now using satellite technology as a foreign policy tool.  
  • ISRO has made a world record with the launch of 104 Satellites in one launch. With this, India has shown its technological prowess to the world. Out of 104, 101 were foreign satellites. 
  • With the entry of private players like SpaceX, Boeing and Blue Origin, the satellite launch market is becoming more competitive. 
  • For becoming more competitive, India needs to take the following immediate steps.
    1. PSLV’s design should be shared with the Indian private industry.
    2. India should develop more launching sites to perform more annual launches. 
    3. Small satellites below 100 kg are becoming popular nowadays, but they are launched as piggyback with large satellites. Countries like the US, Japan, Russia & China and private players like SpaceX are making LV launch these satellites. ISRO should make a conscious decision to develop a new rocket for launching the small satellites.

Challenges

  • The entry of private giants like SpaceX, Blue Origin, Boeing etc., in this field increased the competition.
  • ISRO is a minor player in the global space industry. Although ISRO is launching a large number of satellites on commercial terms, these are nano and microsatellites, while the main revenue comes from launching heavier satellites.  
  • Indian share is just 2% 
  • According to the Economic Survey, Antrix is marketing only medium and coarse resolution data products, but Commercial potential for the medium and coarse resolution data segment is facing a threat due to Free and Open Access to such data from Landsat-8 of US and Sentinel from the European Space Agency (ESA). 

Indian Satellites

Indian Satellites

This article deals with ‘Indian Satellites‘. This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here


Introduction

  • A satellite is a natural (moon) or man-made object that orbits around a planet or star. E.g., the Moon is the satellite of Earth and Earth is a satellite of the Sun. 
  • Artificial Satellites are man-made objects orbiting around the Earth which help us to study, communicate and observe the distant universe. Artificial Satellites include Aryabhata, Bhaskara, Rohini, INSAT, GSAT, AstroSat, CartoSat etc. 

Timeline

1957 Sputnik-1 launched by the Soviet Union
1958 Explorer-1 launched by the USA
1975 Aryabhattathe first Indian satellite was launched (with Soviet Launch Vehicle).
1980 Rohinithe first satellite was launched using Indian Launch Vehicle. 


Theory

Theory behind working of Satellites

If a stone is thrown with some speed in the horizontal direction, it will follow a curved path as it falls to the ground. If the stone is thrown at a higher speed, it follows a path of a bigger radius.

Conclusion: Greater the speed => Greater the Radius of Curved Path


Theory behind working of  Indian Satellite

If somehow we could throw the stone with such tremendous speed that the radius of its path becomes a little greater than the radius of Earth, the stone would never fall on the Earth & would keep revolving around it. This is the principle on which Artificial Satellites work. 


Side Topic: Types of Orbits

1. Low  Earth Orbit (LEO)

  • It is situated 400 to 900 km above the surface of the Earth. 
  • As it is situated closest to Earth, satellites have to overcome massive drag due to the atmosphere. Hence,  satellites located in Low Earth Orbit have a shorter life span of 2-3 years.
  • They appear to be moving in the sky & take approx. 1.5 hours for one revolution
  • The maximum time LEO satellites are visible from a fixed point on Earth is 20 minutes.
  • Following are placed in LEO
    • Astronomical Telescopes (eg : India’s Astrosat) 
    • Space Stations (eg : International Space Station (ISS))
Low  Earth Orbit



2. Geostationary Orbit

  • There is only one Geostationary Orbit at 36,000 km above the earth surface at the equator. 
  • Satellites placed in the Geostationary Orbit revolves around the Earth with an orbital period of one sidereal day (23hours, 56 minutes, and 4.1 seconds). 
  • It is a circular orbit lying in the equatorial plane
  • It has a special property of remaining permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, meaning ground-based antennas do not need to track them but can remain fixed in one direction. 
  • Such satellites are often used for communication and broadcast purposes (due to the above property). 
  • Note:  Single Geostationary Satellite can cover about 40% of the Earth’s surface. If three satellites are placed at proper longitude, the whole Earth can be covered. Arthur C Clarke first conceptualized this & the Geostationary orbit is sometimes referred to as Clarke’s Orbit in his honour.
Geostationary Orbit

3. Geosynchronous Orbit

  • Geosynchronous Orbit is also situated at 36,000 km above the Earth’s surface, but it is non-circular & non-equatorial.
  • Satellites placed in the Geosynchronous orbit also revolve around the Earth in one sidereal day, but they don’t appear to be stationary from Earth. 

4. Polar Orbit

  • Polar Satellites pass above both poles of Earth, i.e. they are inclined at 90 degrees from the equator.
  • They are used for earth mapping, earth observation, surveillance & weather.

How it is used for mapping?

The time period of a polar satellite is nearly 100 minutes, and the Satellite completes many revolutions in a day. A Polar satellite covers a small strip of the area from pole to pole during one revolution. The next revolution covers a different area strip since the Earth would have moved by a small angle. In this way, polar satellites cover the entire surface area of the Earth.

Polar Orbit

5. Sun Synchronous Orbit

  • It is a special type of Polar Orbit. 
  • In this, altitude & inclination are set in such a way that it guarantees the same illumination.
  • It has the same application as polar satellites.

6. Junk Orbit / Graveyard Orbit

  • When the life of Geo-Stationary Satellite completes, they are sent above Geostationary Orbit known as Junk Orbit
  • It is an excellent way to tackle space junk. 

7. Halo Orbit

  • It is a specific type of solar orbit located at three Lagrange points (L1, L2 and L3) between Earth and the Sun.
  • Lagrange point is a point in the space where the combined gravitational force of two bodies is equal to the centrifugal force felt by a third body.

Transponders

  • Transponders are part of the payload of satellites. 
  • Since the radio waves have to transverse long distances, the satellite receives the carrier signals at very low power. Therefore, satellites need to significantly boost the power of these signals before re-transmission back to Earth, ensuring that they are detectable by an Earth-based receiver. Transponders perform this function. 
Transponders

Different Types of Transponders

Transponder Band Frequency Range Application
L 1 to 2 GHz GPS
S 2 to 4 GHz Weather radar
C 4 to 8 GHz Communication 
X 8 to 12.5 GHz Military (defence tracking, maritime and air traffic control) and Meteorological (weather monitoring)
Ku 12.5 to 18 GHz DTH, Internet and VSAT services.
K 18 to 26.5 GHz BSS and FSS (Fixed Satellite Service)
Ka 26.5 to 40 GHz High resolution and close range targeting radars

Satellite Systems

Remote Sensing Satellites

  • Remote Sensing Satellites collect the data by detecting the energy that is reflected from Earth. They might track animal migration, watch crops for weather damages or see forests fire and deforestation.
  • These satellites are  
    • Placed in Polar Orbits.  
    • Sun-Synchronous (so that illuminance of the point is the same) 
    • Revolves around the Earth in low earth orbit (900 Km) 
  • Spaceborne remote sensing is better than ground surveys and airborne sensing because it is 
    1. Cheaper
    2. Speedier
    3. More accurate 
    4. Reliable 
    5. Multidimensional
  • IRS-1A, launched in 1988, was India’s first remote sensing satellite. Present examples include Cartosat, Resourcesat, Scatsat, Oceansat, Saral etc.


Applications of Remote Sensing Satellites

1. Defence

  • These satellites act as the ‘Spy in the Sky’ and are used for reconnaissance.
  • They can easily pick up the troop movement and deployments by the enemy.

2. Agriculture

  • Remote Sensing Satellites can be used to 
    1. Assess net crop area.
    2. Movement of locust.
    3. Damage assessments.
  • India is divided into 15 Agro-climatic zones based on data from IRS 1A and 1B.
  • Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana is also using the data of these satellites to estimate crop damages.

3. Disaster Management

  • They are used for
    1. Early warning of cyclones, floods etc. 
    2. Monitoring of forest fires.

4. Natural Resource Management

  • Remote Sensing Satellites are used in
    1. Land use mapping 
    2. Mineral prospecting 
    3. Forest surveys 

5. Urban Studies

  • They are used in
    1. Mapping urban sprawl. 
    2. Structural plans for cities. 

6. Governance

  • Geotagging of all the assets created under schemes like MNREGA, RKVY etc., can be done using these satellites. 

7. Fisheries

  • By analyzing the colour of the ocean, surface temperature and wind conditions from the Oceans, it is possible to identify areas in the sea where the fish school will assemble.

Side Topic: BHUVAN

  • BHUVAN is an application developed by ISRO using data provided by Indian Remote Sensing Satellites like Resourcesat, Cartosat-1 and Cartosat-2. National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) played an essential role in its creation. 
  • It provides medium to high-resolution imagery, with spatial resolution ranging from 10-100 metres, of entire India over the internet. 
  • The portal is designed to run even on slow internet. Images of Bhuvan includes weather information, administrative boundaries etc. 
BHUVAN

List of Remote Sensing Satellites

  • Starting from IRS 1A, ISRO has launched many Remote Sensing Satellites, including HysIS, ScatSat, Cartosat etc. 
  • Initially, ISRO used to name its Remote Sensing Satellites as 1A, 1B etc. Later, it started to name these satellites based on the application of the satellites like CartoSat, OceanSat etc. 

Important Indian Remote Sensing Satellites are as follows:-

1 . SARAL

  • SARAL= Satellite with ARgos and ALtiKa.
  • It is an Indo-French satellite
  • It was launched from Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh.
  • Application:  meteorology, oceanography, climate monitoring etc.

2. Megha Tropiques

  • It is an Indo-French Joint Venture.
  • It was launched in 2011 using PSLV.
  • Application: Study the tropical atmosphere and climate-related aspects such as monsoons, cyclones, etc.

3. HySIS

  • HySIS is India’s first Hyperspectral Imaging Satellite (HySIS).
  • It was launched with PSLV in Polar Orbit. 
  • Hyperspectral Imaging Technology combines the power of digital imaging and spectroscopy. Hence, every pixel in the image contains much more detailed information about the scene than a standard colour camera. It is used for mineral prospecting, soil survey, coastal water studies etc.

4. NISAR

  • NISAR = NASA-India Synthetic Aperture Radar 
  • Project was started in 2019. The satellite was completed in 2023 and has been sent to India to be launched from Satish Dhawan Launch Station.
  • It is India’s first radar imaging satellite.
  • NISAR is a combined mission of NASA (of USA) and ISRO (of India).
  • Main features 
    • It is a dual-frequency (L and S-Band) Radar Imaging Satellite.
    • NISAR is an Earth-monitoring satellite. NISAR will take images of the Earth every week. It is strong enough to take images of a tectonic plate and small changes in land use patterns.
    • Landslides, volcanoes, drought, flood, etc., can be easily be observed through NISAR.
    • Its application includes mapping and monitoring natural resources, assessing soil moisture, mangroves, surface deformation due to seismic activities, etc.

5. EOS-01

  • EOS = Earth Observation Satellite .
  • Launched in November 2020 in Polar Orbit using PSLV launch vehicle (PSLV-C49).
  • Applications: agriculture, forestry and disaster management

6. Aditya – L1

  • Aditya-L1 is Indian mission to study Sun. Aditya L1 will study the magnetic field of the Sun’s corona.
  • It will be placed at Lagrange point (L1).
  • Note: NASA has announced its Parker program, which will study corona by going to the Sun. 

Side Topic: Lagrangian Points

  • Lagrange points are the positions in the space where the gravitational pull of two masses equals each other. The object placed at these points tend to stay put at the same place. 
  • In this case, it is about the gravity on all pulls of the Sun and Earth. There are 5 such points in the space. They are important because the object placed at these points remains stationary w.r.t. to both Earth and Sun.
Lagrangian Points


7.Cartosat Series

  • Cartography is the science of drawing maps.
  • Cartosat satellites: Cartosat series are earth observation satellites in a sun-synchronous orbit. They have high-resolution cameras installed on them. The imagery sent by Satellite is useful for cartographic (drawing maps) applications.

Cartosat-2

  • Cartosat-2 was launched in 2017.
  • In 104 satellite launches, this was the primary Satellite. 
  • It is primarily meant for military requirements (hence, it can be said that ISRO is moving from Civilian to Military uses too).

Cartosat 2s

  • It was launched in 2018.
  • It was launched using PSLV-40, which was India’s 100th launch, along with 30 other satellites.

Cartosat 3

  • Cartosat 3 satellite has high-resolution imaging capability.
  • Application: It is used for large scale urban planning, rural resource and infrastructure development, coastal land use and land cover along with Disaster Management Support Programs like Cyclone and Flood Mapping & Monitoring, Landslide Mapping & Monitoring, Agricultural Drought, Forest Fire, Earthquakes etc.

8. RISAT Series

RISAT (Radar Imaging Satellite) is series of Indian satellites providing all weather, day and night imaging.

RISAT 1 Launched in 2012
Provide high resolution images for agriculture, forestry, disaster management.
RISAT-2 Launched in 2009
Launched in aftermath of 2008 Mumbai attack, it was intended to provide border surveillance and deter terrorist infiltration
RISAT-2B Launched in 2019
Provide earth observation intended to improve agriculture, forestry, and disaster management services.
RISAT-2BR1 Launched in 2020
Applications same as RISAT-2B

9. EMISAT

  • DRDO developed EMISAT under Project Kautilya. 
  • It is India’s first Electronic Intelligence Satellite
  • Application: EMISAT is meant for electromagnetic spectrum measurement and provides information to armed forces about hostile radars placed at the borders.

10. SCATSAT

  • It is a weather satellite that mainly focuses on Cyclone formation.
  • It has replaced the (earlier) Oceansat.

11. Oceansat Series

  • Oceansat 1 (1999) , Oceansat 2 (2009) and Oceansat 3 (2022) have been launched till date. Latest, Oceansat 3 was launched in 2022.
  • It is a sun-synchronous satellite.
  • Oceansat satellites are designed and developed for ocean studies.

12. Kalam Global Sat

  • It is a global satellite for Disaster Risk Reduction.
  • It was launched at UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction held at Sendai in Japan in March 2015. 

13. ISRO Student Collaborations

  • KalamSat-V2: It was developed by students of Chennai based Space Kidz India, and it is the world’s lightest Satellite ever put in orbit with a mass of 1.26 kg. 
  • ANUSAT: Satellite built by Anna University.
  • JUGNU: Satellite built by IIT Kanpur.
  • SRMSAT: Satellite built by SRM University.

Side Topic: Indian Data Relay Satellite System (IDRSS)

  • ISRO plans to launch a set of satellites that will track, send and receive information from other Indian Satellites.
  • IDRSS satellites will be of  2,000 kg class and will be launched using GSLV launcher to geostationary orbit around 36,000 km away.
  • In the coming years, these satellites will be vital to ISRO, whose roadmap includes advanced LEO missions such as space docking, space station, and distant expeditions to the moon, Mars and Venus.


Geosynchronous Satellites 

INSAT and GSAT are the backbones of Indian Geosynchronous Satellite systems.

  • Ford Aerospace Corporation of USA built the INSAT series under contract.
  • GSAT series is an indigenous system developed by ISRO to make India self-reliant in broadcasting services. 

Applications

India is considered a leader in the application of space technology to solve problems on Earth.

1. Telecommunication

  • Satellites are responsible for the communication revolution in India.
  • Using satellites, remote and far-flung areas have been effectively connected.

2. Television

India uses geostationary satellites to provide DTH (Direct to Home) services all over the country.

3. Disaster management & meteorology

Satellites can be used to provide

  • Warning mechanism for the cyclone.
  • Short term weather forecasting.
  • Impact assessment for droughts and floods.
  • Geosynchronous satellites can also be used in satellite aided search & rescue.

4. Navigation

  • All the navigation systems like GPS, GLONASS, NAVIC, Galileo etc., use geosynchronous and geostationary satellites. 

Important Geosynchronous satellites of ISRO

Earlier, India used the INSAT series, but now the GSAT series is used. INSAT 1 and 2 series (except INSAT 2E) has expired, but many INSAT 3 and 4 series satellites are still functional.

1. INSAT-3

  • INSAT-3A was launched in 2003 using the Arianne launch vehicle, followed by INSAT-3B and 3C.
  • INSAT-3 satellites have C and Ku band transponders and were meant for communication purposes.

2. INSAT-4

  • INSAT-4A was launched in 2005 using the Arianne launch vehicle, followed by INSAT-4B.
  • These satellites are used for telecast purposes. E.g., INSAT-4A is used by TATA Sky and INSAT-4B is used by Sun Direct and DD Direct.

3. CMS-01

  • CMS-01 is the communication satellite launched by ISRO in December 2020.
  • It has replaced GSAT-12, which was launched by India in 2011 and was India’s primary communication satellite. 
  • It will provide telecommunication services to mainland India as well as Andaman-Nicobar and Lakshadweep Islands. 

4. Kalpana 1

  • It was launched in 2002 using PSLV (weighing around 1060 kg).
  • It is India’s exclusive meteorological Satellite and was initially named MetSat.

5. GSAT-7

GSAT 7 series satellites are advanced satellites developed by ISRO to meet the communication needs of the defence services. The satellites of GSAT 7 series include

  1. GSAT 7 satellite (launched in 2013) is mainly used by the Indian Navy for its communication needs.
  2. GSAT 7A (launched in 2018) helps in boosting the connectivity between the ground radar stations, airbases and the airborne early warning and control aircraft (AEW&C) of the IAF (Indian Air Force).
  3. GSAT 7B (to be launched shortly) will primarily fulfil the communication needs of the Army and enhance surveillance in border areas.

6. SAARC or South-Asian Satellite / GSAT-9

  • PM Narendra Modi announced it at the SAARC Summit of 2014, and it was launched in 2017 using a GSLV launch vehicle.
  • It points to India’s having started to use space diplomacy to strengthen the “neighbours first policy”. 
  • It is a communication satellite with Ku band transponders. South Asian countries, namely Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Nepal, Maldives and Afghanistan, will get at least 1 Ku transponder each. It will provide the nations with capability in teleeducation, telemedicine, broadcasting, Direct-to-Home services (DTH) and VSAT capacity. 
  • It was the first Indian Satellite to use Electric Propulsion. 
  • India has borne all the other costs for the launch of the satellite.

7. GSAT-11

  • It was launched in Dec 2018. 
  • It is the ISRO’s heaviest Satellite (5855 kg).
  • GSAT-11 is aimed at providing broadband internet from space to untouched areas.

8. GSAT – 29

  • It was launched in  2017 with Indian Launcher GSLV Mk – III with operational Cryogenic Stage from Sriharikota (first Satellite to be launched with GSLV MK III – Earlier all GSATs were launched with the help of French Agency Ariane Aerospace.) 
  • Application: Drive India’s Broadband Internet from space to the untouched areas by providing the throughput data rate of 16 Gbps.

Some satellites of other countries

1. Amazonia 1

  • Amazonia-1 is a Brazilian satellite launched by ISRO using PSLV (C51).
  • It is a sun-synchronous remote sensing satellite that will be preliminary used for monitoring deforestation in the Amazon forests.

2. Laser Communication Relay Demonstration (LCRD) Satellite

  • NASA has launched the LCRD, the first Satellite to use a laser communication system. Till now, radio communication has been used to transmit data via satellites. 
  • It is advantageous because it uses optical communication, which uses a shorter wavelength can transmit more data in a shorter time. Moreover, optical communication systems are lighter and are cheaper to launch.

3. Ravana 1

  • The Sri-Lankan satellite was launched with Japanese (JAXA) help.

4. Ibuki 2

  • Japanese satellite to observe Greenhouse Gases.

5. GRACE-FO

  • The joint mission of NASA and the German Research Centre for Geosciences (GFZ)  for mapping Earth’s gravitational field. 

Mission Shakti – Anti Satellite Missile

What is Mission Shakti?

  • Mission Shakti is an Anti-Satellite Missile. 
  • It is made by DRDO (not ISRO). 
  • It is the modified version of the Ballistic Interceptor Missile. 
  • It can detect, target & destroy space objects
  • To show it’s working, an obsolete (Indian) satellite at 300 km was tracked with sensors and destroyed. 
Mission Shakti
  • Note: Outer Space Treaty prohibits placing any weapon in earth orbit or on the celestial body. But none of the treaties is against such tests. 

Importance

  • It has made India a Space Power as India is the 4th country after the US (1958), Russia (1964) & China (2007) to have this capability.
  • It will create a ‘credible deterrence‘ against attacks on India’s growing space assets (especially China).
  • It will help India to avoid any chance of repeating the experience of what happened in the nuclear domain. If NPT-like mechanisms come in the space domain, India will be on the safer side.

Against

  • It has created huge space debris. Earlier, 2007 Chinese tests produced 2000 space debris. NASA criticized India for the creation of Space Debris.
  • It will lead to Arms Race in Asia. Pakistan will get an excuse to get this technology from China to claim parity.

ISRO and Indian Space Program

Last Updated: May 2023 (ISRO and Indian Space Program)

ISRO and Indian Space Program

This article deals with ‘ISRO and Indian Space Program.’ This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here


Evolution of World Space Journey

Timeline of developments in the Space Technology

Space Program of India

  • Indian Space Program is operated by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO).
  • Vikram Sarabhai is known as the father of the Indian Space Program

Objectives of Space Program

India has historically viewed space technology applications primarily for societal development. Hence, the objectives of the Indian Space Program are

  1. Using Space Technology for the socio-economic benefit of people.
  2. Make India self-reliant in space technology.
  3. Peaceful use of outer space.

Department of Space (DoS)

  • Nodal Agency for Space-related activities in India is the Department of Space (DoS). 
  • ISRO is the primary R&D wing of DoS.
  • Other Agencies of DoS include
Physical Research Lab (PRL) Ahmedabad
Semi Conductor Lab Chandigarh
National Atmospheric Research Lab Chittor
North Eastern Space Applications Centre Shillong

ISRO

  • It is the primary body of Space Research under the Department of Space. 
  • Present Chairman = Dr K Sivan 
  • It is headquartered in Bangalore.

Timeline

1961 Space Research started under the Department of Atomic Energy under Homi Bhabha.
1962 Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCSR) established & worked to establish TERLS (Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Centre) started.
1969 ISRO was formed.
1972 – Department of Space (independent department) formed.
ISRO was brought under the Department of Space.
1975 Aryabhatta – the first Indian satellite was launched (with Soviet Launch Vehicle).
1980 Rohini – the first satellite was launched using Indian Launch Vehicle

Regional Centres of ISRO

ISRO has its various regional centres like

  1. ISRO Satellite Application Centre, Bengaluru (ISAC): Design and fabricate satellites. 
  2. Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, Thiruvananthapuram (VSSC): Develop satellite launch vehicles (like PSLV and GSLV).
  3. Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota (SDSC): Satellite launching station of India. 
  4. Space Application Centre, Ahmedabad (SAC): Conceptualize and carry out different space research projects. 
  5. Liquid Propulsion System Centre, Mahendragiri, TN (LPSC): Development of satellite propulsion systems. 
  6. ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network, Bengaluru (ISTRAC) 
  7. Master Control Facility, Bhopal and Hassan (Karnataka): Observe and control all geostationary satellites.
  8. National Remote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad: Act as a key player in earth observation program and disaster management.
ISRO and Indian Space Program

Side Topic: Equivalent of ISRO of other nations

USA NASA
Russia RKA
China CNSA
Europe ESA
Japan JAXA


Antrix

  • Antrix is the private arm of ISRO
  • It was incorporated in 1992 and awarded ‘Miniratna‘ status in 2008. 
  • Its main functions include 
    1. Promotion and commercialization of space products.
    2. Providing technical consultancy services.
    3. Deals with the transfer of technologies developed by ISRO.  
    4. It also offers various services and space products to international customers worldwide.


New Space India Limited (NSIL)

  • NSIL is the commercial arm of ISRO. 
  • It was incorporated in 2019 as a Government-owned enterprise.
  • The main functions of NSIL include 
    • NSIL will enable Indian industries to build the capacity of the domestic market for space manufacturing.
    • NSIL will facilitate the transfer of ISRO technologies to the industry. 
  • The launch of a Brazilian satellite named ‘Amazonia-1’ in 2021 was the first commercial deal of NSIL.

Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre (IN-SPACE)

  • IN-SPACE works under the Department of Space.
  • IN-SPACE functions autonomously and parallel to ISRO.
  • IN-SPACE has its own directorates for technical, legal, safety and security, monitoring and activities promotion.
  • The function of IN-SPACE includes regulation and promotion of the building of satellites, rockets and commercial launch services through Indian industry and StartUps.

Satellite Launching Stations / Launch Pads

  • Presently, India has only one launch station at Sriharikota in Andhra Pradesh with two launch pads.
  • India is building its second rocket launch station in the Thoothukudi district in Tamil Nadu. 
  • Note: Satellite launching stations (including that of India) is located on the east coast and as close to the equator as possible due to the following reasons:-
    • The Earth’s rotation provides an additional boost, and the strength of the boost is higher closer to the equator.
    • In case of failure, debris would fall into the Bay of Bengal, potentially saving property and lives.

Side Topic: Satellite Launch Stations of other countries

USA Cape Canaveral (Florida)
France French Guyana (in South America)
Iran Emamshahr
China Jiquan
Japan Uchinoura
Russia Kapustin Yar

Achievements of Indian Space Program

  • India has emerged as one of the 6 most important countries in the field of space research. 
  • India is self-reliant in launching remote sensing and communication platforms.
  • With GSLV MK-III, India is now in the elite club which can launch heavy Geo-Stationary Communication Satellites. 
  • World Record was created by ISRO by launching 104 Satellites in a single launch.
  • ISRO is launching satellites for other countries as well and earning foreign exchange (Eg: Amazonia-1 (Brazil).
  • Space program contributes to national security in the form of improving surveillance capability.
  • The space program is helping India emerge as technological power and knowledge-based economy. 

Challenges to Indian Space Program

  • Indian Space Program needs to move from research and development to a commercial level.
  • India should boost the frequency of launches. This will reduce the cost & make it cost-competitive.
  • There is a need to develop capabilities to build a much larger number of satellites than the current 3-4 per year. 
  • Most of the space launches are for socio-economic development. ISRO needs to move ahead and work for the country’s military and defence needs as well.


Side Topic: Cases in news

Nambi Narayanan Case

In 1994, Nambi Narayanan, who was working on Cryogenic Engine and was on the verge of making it, was arrested for selling secrets. CBI later found that the charges were false, and he was discharged in 1996. The case was fabricated by IB Officials in connivance with the CIA because the US didn’t want India to develop a Cryogenic Engine as it would have challenged the monopoly of the US, Russia, and France.


Devas Antrix Case

In 2005, Antrix Corporation signed an agreement with Devas Multimedia to lease S-band transponders on two ISRO satellites (GSAT 6 and GSAT 6A) for a price of ₹1,400 crore, which is significantly lower than the market price. In 2009, the Devas – Antrix deal was exposed. This was named Antrix – Devas S-band spectrum scam. After a CBI investigation, the deal was annulled. Subsequently, Devas made an appeal in the International Court, which has declared that the annulling of the agreement by the Government of India was “unfair” and inequitable”. 


Glance at ISRO’s flagship missions

1 . Indian Regional  Navigation Satellite System  (IRNSS) 

  • IRNSS or NAVIC is India’s indigenous GPS.
  • It is already operational.  

2. Reusable  Satellite  Launch Vehicle 

  • This mission will reduce the cost of delivering satellites into orbit to 1/10th of the present cost.  

3. Cryogenic  Engine (GSLV MK III)

  • GSLV MK III with Cryogenic Stage has been developed successfully.
  • It can be used to launch payloads of up to  4 tonnes into the geostationary orbit. 

4. Chandrayaan 2

  • After the unprecedented success of Chandrayaan-1, ISRO decided to launch Chandrayaan-2 in July 2019. 
  • It had Rover and Lander.
  • Mission achieved a partial success.

ISRO-CHANDRAYAAN 2 (3D Animation)

CHANDRAYAANØ 
Expanding the boundaries Of human knowledge

5. Aditya  Space  Satellite

  • Aditya Mission will study the Corona of Sun.
  • ISRO will launch it shortly.

6. Venus  Exploration program/ Shukrayaan

  • To study the atmosphere of Venus for a period of 4 years.
  • ISRO will launch it shortly. 
  • France is also collaborating with India on its mission to Venus. 

7. Gaganyaan

  • Gaganyaan is a 3-ton ISRO   spaceship to carry a 2-member crew to the Low Earth Orbit and safe return to the Earth after a few orbits to two days.  
  • The extendable version of the spaceship will allow flights up to 7 days and have docking capability with space stations. 

8. Second Launch Station

  • India is building its second rocket launch station in the Thoothukudi district in Tamil Nadu. 
  • The project will house one launchpad exclusively for Small Satellite Launch Vehicles (SSLV).
  • Presently, India has only one launch station at Sriharikota in Andhra Pradesh with two launch pads.

9. Space Parks

  • The government is making a 100-acre Space Park in Bangalore.
  • Private industry players would be allowed to set up facilities to make subsystems and components for satellites. 

10. Village Resource Centre

  • 473 Village Resource Centres (VRCs) have been established by ISRO.  
  • It uses Satellite Communication (SATCOM) network and Earth Observation (EO) satellites.
  • VRCs provide services like telemedicine (by connecting sick people in villages through VSAT network to the doctors), Tele-education (providing a virtual classroom facility to far-flung villages), and providing advisories related to agriculture. 
  • There is a need to upscale VRCs and link all village Panchayats. 

Outreach Programs of ISRO

  • YUVIKA ProgramProgram aims to inculcate and nurture space research enthusiasm in young minds. Under this 1-month program, 3 students from each of state and UT is selected provided that the student has just finished 9th standard and is waiting to join 10th standard.
  • Young Scientist Program: It is an ISRO program for school students aiming to teach and nurture space research fervour in young minds.
  • Samvad with Students: Under the ISRO program called Samvad with Students, the ISRO chairman meets the students during his outstation visits, addresses their queries, and quenches the scientific thrust.
  • ISRO-Student Collaborations: ANUSAT (Anna University Satellite), Student Satellite (STUDSAT), SRMSAT (SRM University), Jugnu (IIT Kanpur) etc.


This marks the end of the article titled ‘ISRO and Indian Space Program.’ For the rest of the articles, CLICK HERE.

India-Russia Relations

India-Russia Relations

India-Russia Relations

This article deals with ‘India-Russia Relations.’ This is part of our series on ‘International Relations’ which is an important pillar of the GS-2 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.


History of Relations

Timeline of India-Russia Relations

Pre-Independence Relations

  • In the early 19th century, the Russian Tsar expanded to Central Asia. Britishers perceived this as a threat to British Indian Empire. To stop Russian advancement, they started Anglo-Afghan wars, aiming to make Afghanistan a buffer between the Russian and British Empire. This whole episode culminated with the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907, under which Russians accepted the British as the paramount power in Afghanistan. 

Initial years after Indian Independence

  • India adopted the policy of non-alignment. 
  • Till 1953, when Stalin was alive, he wasn’t very keen on India. Stalin did not appreciate the non-aligned posturing of India.
  • After the death of Stalin, Indians and Soviet interests started to converge on the following issues 
    • Indian protest at the UN about extending the Korean War north of the 38th parallel.
    • Indian support for the People’s Republic of China to enter the UN. 
    • Finally, the formation of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) in 1954 and the Baghdad Pact in 1955 under the leadership of the USA was perceived by India as an attempt by the US to encircle India. India also condemned American support to Pakistan with arms. These events brought India closer to USSR. These events brought India closer to USSR.

Relations during 1962 War

  • Nikita Khrushchev favoured the improvement of ties with the US, while Mao tried to criticize it and promote his image as the sole representative of revolutionary movements. This difference between the Soviets and China led to the Soviets favouring India during the 1962 Chinese aggression. 

Relations during the Indo-Pakistan War of 1965

  • After 1962, India adopted the path of defence modernization. The Soviets decided to use it as an opportunity to build ties with India before any western country could fill this strategic space and emerged as the topmost defence supplier for India by the late 1960s. 
  • In the 1965 Indo-Pak war, India appreciated the role of the Soviets during mediation through the Tashkent Declaration. 

Relations post 1965 and leading up to War of 1971

  • In the 1970s, the US explored options of undertaking rapprochements with China and India began to fear a Beijing-Washington-Islamabad axis. 
  • India acted hastily. Since 1969, India and the USSR negotiated a diplomatic and strategic engagement. India speeded up the negotiations and, in 1971, concluded a twenty-year ‘India-Soviet Treaty of Peace and Friendship‘ with the clause of Collective Security  (i.e. if India is attacked, Soviet Union will come to help & vice versa). Shipments of arms began to arrive from Russia to India. 2021 marks the 50 years of the signing of the Indonesia-Soviet Treaty.
  • USSR has sided with India on the Kashmir issue and vetoed all resolutions against India in UNSC. 

Initial hiccups in the post-fall of the USSR

After the Cold War ended, the initial years of Boris Yeltsin’s rule were not smooth. Due to the fall of the USSR, both India and Russia were attracted towards the west without any convergence. During this period 

  • Rupees-Rouble Trade suffered as the value of Rouble declined steeply. In response, Russia asked India to pay in Dollars. 
  • Russia denied the cryogenic engine under USA pressure due to MTCR. 
  • Militancy in Chechnya and Kashmir presented a problem to both nations. 

End of the 1990s

  • Nuclear Tests of 1998 brought India Russia closer.
  • At that time, the world was divided into two groups. 
    1. USA, Japan and EU: placed sanctions on India. 
    2. Russia: Supported India arguing that India is surrounded by China & Pakistan & had the right to protect using Nuclear deterrence.

Putin’s Visit in 2010

  • During this visit, India and Russia signed a “Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership” (SPSP). 
  • One of the critical drivers for this move was India’s assertion for a multipolar world. The resurgence of Russia in the world to project itself as an independent pole in the international system suits India as it will prevent any form of unipolar assertion by either the US or China.

Crimea Issue

  • Russia annexed Crimea from Ukraine, where the Russian Black Sea Fleet is placed permanently and has been an outlet of Russia to the Mediterranean Sea. Although Western countries placed sanctions on Russia due to Russian expansionist policy, India supported the Russian decision.

Present Collaborations

India and Russia are presently collaborating on the following projects

  1. International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC)
  2. BRICS and Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
  3. S-400 Triumf Air Defence Systems
  4. Joint development of Kamov-226 helicopters
  5. Development of Far East Russia
  6. Sputnik – V vaccine against Corona developed by Gamaleya Research Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology was used by India.

Convergence of Interests

Russia needs India

  • To bypass western sanctions, Indian help is required.  
  • Act as a hedge against forthcoming Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP)  driven by the US & EU.
  • India is the market for the Defence Industry of Russia. 
  • India is a significant market for oil.

India needs Russia 

  • To secure energy supply at a cost-effective price.  
  • To get cutting edge defence technology (no country provide its new technology). 
  • Russia is a good market for Indian pharmaceuticals, manufactured goods, dairy products etc.  
  • Russian Veto at UN matters for India. 

India-Russia Economic Cooperation

India-Russia Economic Cooperation
  • Indo-Russian trade flourished during the Cold War based on the Rupee-Rouble agreement. However, the foundation of this agreement was dismantled in 1992, which led to a decline in trade.
  • Annual Indo-Russian trade is $8.1 billion (2021).  The target is to increase it to $30 Billion in a decade. 
  • ONGC Videsh has invested $5 billion in Sakhalin I project in Siberia and Imperial Energy Ltd. 
  • Russia has developed Kudankulam nuclear energy project (1000 MW).
  • India and Russia are also in the advanced stages of talks of signing a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) between Indian and Russia-led Eurasian Economic Union (EEU).

Problems in trade with Russia

  • There are no direct overland trade routes possible today, though the International North-South Transit Corridor (INSTC) will try to establish that connectivity.
  • Supreme Court in 2012 declared 2G licenses as null and void after Russian AFK Sistema had teamed up with Shyam Telecom. It sent negative sentiments in Russian business houses.
  • Custom clearances and inspections are complex & time-consuming.
  • Russian importer needs to get a license to import. Russian businessmen demand Indian exporters to pay for these charges.
  • Product-specific approvals are required. 
  • Banking & finance issues due to strict norms in Current Account & Capital Account convertibility. 

Defence Relation

  • Defence Cooperation is more important than economic cooperation. India is going for massive weaponization, and Russia is the most crucial ally in this regard as 2/3rd of Indian military hardware comes from Russia. 
  • Following weapons of India are of Russian origin
Defence Cooperation in India-Russia Relations

1 . IAF

  • 32 out of 41 fighter Indian Air Force squadrons are Russian. These include
    1. MIG 21,23,27 and 29
    2. Sukhoi 30- MKI
  • New Deals have been signed for the following systems
    1. Joint Production of Kamov -226 Helicopter
    2. India has started receiving deliveries of S-400 Air Defence Systems

2. Army

  • T-72 & T-90 constitute 60% of 4168 battle tanks .
  • Indian army personnel will use AK-203, and a joint production facility to manufacture more than 600,000 Kalashnikov rifles will be set up in Korwa. 

3. Navy

  • INS  Vikramaditya (Gorshkov:) Aircraft Carrier 
  • Akula II class (INS Chakra): Nuclear Submarine
  • India and Russia conduct Joint Armed exercises known as  INDRA. 
  • Even after increased bonhomie with the US, the Indian government has already declared that Russia is India’s primary defence supplier.

Defence relations are changing

  • India is trying to diversify its arsenal because dependence on one nation in defence is a strategic liability. MMRCA (Rafale) Deal with France vouches for that.  
  • Russia is also trying to diversify its relations in response to the Indian position & is engaging with Pakistan to sell weapons. 

Issues in Indo-Russian Defence Relations

  • CAATSA, i.e., Countering American Adversaries through Sanctions Act of US, has the provision of Sanctions against American adversaries if they are doing trade with them. These adversaries include Russia, Iran and North Korea. It is presenting difficulty in payments. 


Space Cooperation

Space Cooperation in India-Russia Relations
  • Space cooperation between two countries goes back four decades. 2015 marked the 40th anniversary of India’s first satellite “Aryabhatta” on a Russian ( USSR) launch vehicle ‘Soyuz.’ 
  • In 1984, Indian astronaut Rakesh Sharma visited space in the Soyuz T-10, an issue of great political prestige for India. 
  • After the fall of the USSR, relations deteriorated for some time. In 1992, Russia denied providing cryogenic rocket engines to India as a non-signatory to MTCR. The sudden suspension of the deal came as a severe setback to the Indian space program. But relations have been stabilized again. Various MOUs have been signed between ROSCOSMOS and ISRO since then.
  • Earlier, India was using GLONASS as an alternate to US-controlled GPS. 

Energy Cooperation

  • Russia is an energy supplier, while India has a huge energy demand. As India is a net importer of energy, Russia is in a strategic position to cooperate.
  • The former Soviet Union played a significant role in building India’s energy sector in the following way
    1. Developing tens of hydropower stations
    2. Developing India’s coal industry
    3. Finding oil in Indian soil 
    4. Helping in setting up India’s energy major ONGC.  
  • India has invested 
    1. $5 billion in the Sakhalin-1 project, controlling 20 per cent stakes in the venture. 
    1. Purchased Imperial Energy, a London-listed oil major in the Tomsk region. 
    2. India is also interested in the Timon Pechora basin and Vankor in East Siberia. 
  • Both India and Russia are extending civil nuclear cooperation to 3rd countries, e.g. Bangladesh.

Indo-Russian Cooperation to develop Russia’s the Far East

  • India participated in the 5th Eastern Economic Forum (2020), which aims to support the economic development of Russia’s resource-rich the Far East. 
  • India has unveiled the “Act Far East” policy to boost India’s engagement with Russia’s Far East region. 
  • India has extended a $1 billion line of credit for the development of this region. 
  • India has proposed developing a maritime route between Chennai and Vladivostok to bypass Europe to reach Russia. This will reduce the time for cargo to reach Russia to 24 days from the current 40 days.
  • Several Indian companies have been successfully set up in the Russian Far East region, such as KGK in Vladivostok in the field of diamond cutting and Tata Power in Kamchatka in coal mining. 
Far East Russia and India

Multilateral Engagements

  • Russia has supported India’s bid for a permanent seat in UNSC. 
  • Russia has been favouring Indian entry to the Nuclear Supplier Group. 
  • Both countries are on the same page regarding the reform of multilateral institutions like IMF and the World Bank.  
  • Both countries are a member of important international organizations like
    1. BRICS
    2. Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) 
    3. G-20  


People to People Cooperation

  • Programs like ‘Namaste Russia’ have been run in Russia.
  • Institutes like Jawaharlal Nehru Cultural Centre, both the countries have had good cultural links. 


Downturn in Relations

  • During the Cold War, defence ties were the most important elements of our relationship. In the post-Cold War era, the US, France and Israel have emerged as direct competitors to Russia in providing defence supplies to India. Russian share in India’s defence imports has decreased from 79% (2008) to 62% (2017).
Defence Relations between India and Russia
  • India’s growing proximity to the United States: Rapidly expanding ties and growing defence relationship between India and the US corroborated by the fact like joining Quad led by the USA, signing of logistic agreements like BECA, LEMOA, COMCASA etc. with the US has impacted the India-Russia Relations. 
  • One dimensional trade: Trade has been one-dimensional, i.e. defence based. The trade between India and Russia in 2017-18 was $11 billion, which is far below potential.  
  • Russian leaning towards China: Russia has sold advanced military technology to Beijing and endorsed China’s One Belt One Road. There has also been concern about Moscow leaning toward Beijing in forums like the BRICS. Also, China and Russia inaugurated the first cross-border pipeline to China from Russia’s far-east regions. Russia accounted for 77% of Chinese arms imports in 2016-2020.
  • Increasing bonhomie between Russia and Pakistan: In 2014, Russia lifted the arms embargo on Pakistan and is the second-largest weapons supplier to Pakistan, accounting for 6.6% of its arms imports.  
  • Issues wrt Taliban: Russia showing an inclination towards Taliban in Afghanistan while India continues to have concerns about the group. Hence, India and Russia have divergent interests in Afghanistan.
  • Issues with Quad: Russia is critical towards the concept of Quadrilateral Security Dialogue and has termed it as Asian NATO designed to contain China and Russia.

Steps taken to address this

  • Despite the threat of US sanctions under the Countering America’s Adversaries Through Sanctions Act (CAATSA), India has remained firm on buying the S-400 Triumf air defence missiles system. 
  • Reinforcement of Defence Ties: India has finalized the following defence deals with Russia in recent times 
    1. Joint production of Kamov-226 helicopters.
    2. S-400 Air Defence System
    3. Nuclear-powered submarine (Chakra III)
    4. AK-203 Guns
  • INDRA upgraded to Tri-Services Joint Exercises.
  • Improving trade relations: In 2017, trade between countries increased by 20%. Two countries decided to reach the $30 billion investment goal by 2025.
  • Indian Prime Minister participated in the Eastern Economic Forum of 2020 and announced to make substantial investments in Far East Russia.
  • Indian Defence Minister undertook a trip to Russia for its ‘Victory Day’ parade even during the COVID-19 pandemic. 
  • India and Russia are developing the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) to address connectivity issues. 

Is Russia still important?

  • Russia is a time-tested friend who has helped India on numerous occasions earlier. Increasing Russo-Pak Ties is just a symbolic gesture by Russia to tell India that they can find friends. 
  • Russian Defence partnership is important because they give Transfer of Technology in cutting edge technology which other countries including the US willn’t offer. In the US, all the defence system manufacturing is under private companies, while in Russia, they are state-controlled. Hence, the way in which Russia can help by supplying arms to set diplomatic relations on the right track can be done by the US (INS Vikramaditya, Nuclear Subs, Sukhoi, etc. ) 
  • Along with that, joint production deals in high-end products like Kamov Helicopters, Brahmos Missiles etc., matter to India if it wants to develop the domestic defence industry. US and western powers never agree to such agreements.
  • In Civil Nuclear Aspects, only Russia has given the best deals, like in Kundankulam. Other nations care too much about financial aspects and want to increase profits. 
  • If India wants to book its seat in UNSC, Russian support is critical. 
  • On various multilateral forums, Russia and India share space. BRICS & SCO are the most important.   
  • Russia has significant energy resources, and India needs Russia to satisfy its hunger for energy. 
  • Overall, as mentioned by PM Modi, Russia remains our principal Defence Partner. About 70 per cent of our weapons and equipment are of Russian or Soviet origin. 
  • Military Exercise with Pakistan should not be seen from a narrow perspective. In the age of Realpolitik, every nation wants to have maximum manoeuver spaceIndia conducts military exercises with China too.

=> Overall, it can be concluded that, as Modi said in his joint statement (2016 meet) Old friend is better than two new friends, India shouldn’t abandon Russia because of what Russia can provide, no other nation in the world can do that. India should diversify its defence partnership, but Russia should remain India’s topmost priority, who was always there when India needed. 

India-Iran Relations

India-Iran Relations

India-Iran Relations

This article deals with ‘India-Iran Relations.’ This is part of our series on ‘International Relations’ which is an important pillar of the GS-2 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.


Brief History

  • With the creation of Pakistan in 1947, India and Iran lost their geographical contiguity. 
  • In 1950, India and Iran signed a Treaty of Friendship and Perpetual Peace, marking the beginning of diplomatic relations between independent India and Iran. 
  • In 1953, Central Intelligence Agency orchestrated a coup to remove Iran’s elected Prime Minister, Mohammad Mossadegh and instituted the rule of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. 

From 1953 till 1979 (Under Shah’s regime)

  • In Cold War Politics 
    • Shah of Iran allied with the U.S.A. after signing the Baghdad pact in 1954. 
    • India was non-aligned.
  • Along with that, due to its affiliation to CENTO, Iran also developed proximity with Pakistan. 
  • During the 1965 and 1971 wars, Iran provided military assistance to Pakistan. 
  • Hence, nothing significant happened during this period. 

Period between 1979 – 1990s

  • In 1979, Islamic Revolution happened in Iran, and Iran came under the control of the theocratic regime of Ayatollah. 
  • Post-1979, India and Iran began to establish proximity. 
    1. During the Iran-Iraq war, India remained neutral.
    2. In 1983, both countries established an India-Iran Joint Commission (J.C.) to promote economic cooperation and organize foreign minister-level meets.
    3. During the 1990s, Afghanistan came under Taliban rule. Northern Alliance was fighting against Talibs. Pakistan supported the Taliban while India & Iran supported the Northern Alliance.
    4. Meetings between heads of government started. In 1993, Narasimha Rao visited Tehran, while in 1995, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani visited India. In 2001, Vajpayee and Khatami signed the Tehran Declaration, while, in 2003, Khatami signed the New Delhi Declaration on his visit to India.
    5. During this period, India started to import gas & oil from Iran in massive amounts. 

Post 2005-06

  • But after 2005-06, relations dipped due to Iran’s nuclear program, as a result of which Iran was placed under Western sanctions. India was forced to reduce trade with Iran under western pressure. 
  • Initially, India maintained that Iran had the right to have its nuclear program. But Western Pressure on India to reduce trade relations with Iran was too enormous for India to ignore. 
Timeline of India-Iran Relations

Geo-political dynamics of Iran

Iran is the leader of Shia World

There is a Shia-Sunni divide in the whole Islamic world

  • Iran = Leader of Shias
  • Saudi Arabia = Leader of Sunnis 
Shia versus Sunni
  • Due to this, Iran supports Shia militias like Hezbollah, Houthi rebels (in Yemen), Fatemiyoun (made up of Afghan Shias), Zainebiyoun (Pakistani Shias) etc.

Developing Nuclear Weapon

  • Iran wanted to develop a Nuclear Weapon for the regime’s security. 
  • But Saudis & Israel are U.S. allies, and they don’t want this because it will disturb the Balance of Power in the Middle East in Iran’s favour. 

India-Iran Cooperation

India-Iran Cooperation

1 . Strategic Aspects 

  • Iran is critical in the fight against Al-Qaeda, ISIS, Taliban etc., which pose a danger to India. 
  • Iran is the crucial player in the stability of Afghanistan, which is important for Indian security considerations. 
  • Iran is also important for securing Sea Lanes of Communication (SLoC) by combating piracy in the Indian Ocean region. 
  • India aspires to become a net security provider in the Indian Ocean region, where Iran is a significant stakeholder. 
  • Due to the sectarian divide, India can use Iran to contain Pakistan (a Sunni country).

2. Energy Cooperation

  • Iran has the fourth-largest reserve of oil and second-largest reserve of Natural Gas globally.
  • Iranian crude offers many benefits to India, including a long credit cycle, payment in the local currency, and shorter voyage on freight costs.
  • ONGC Videsh Ltd has stakes in the Farzad-B gas field in Iran (the world’s biggest natural gas field).
  • India also wants to set up joint-venture fertiliser plants in Iran to exploit cheap natural gas. 
  • IPI Pipeline (Iran -Pakistan- India) is also on the cards from Iran to India. But India fears the safety of the IPI pipeline passing through Pakistan, and India favours that Iran takes responsibility for the pipeline’s security.

3. Cultural Relations between India and Iran

  • India’s sizeable Shia population has an emotional connection with Iran.
  • Lucknow is influenced by Persian (/Irani) culture.
  • Hyderabad’s Qutb Shahi Dynasty was Persian (/Irani) in origin. 

4. Connectivity

Chabahar Port in Iran is the key in all connectivity projects of India as

  • It provides an alternate route to Afghanistan
  • It provides connectivity to Central Asia and Europe via International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC).
  • It is an essential part of the Ashgabat Agreement.

5. Other Points of Cooperation

  • Indian Wheat and Pharmaceuticals are in great demand in Iran. Even during sanctions, wheat and pharmaceuticals were exported to Iran from India because these two items were out of the ambit of sanctions.  
  • India and Iran have stakes in the Indian Ocean, and both can cooperate for regional security from piracy.  

Challenges in India-Iran relations

Economic Challenges

  • Due to Western sanctions, it is difficult for Indian companies to trade with Iran. 
  • India stopped oil imports from Iran under US pressure. Before that, India imported about 2.5 billion tonnes of Iranian oil a month, which accounted for more than 10% of its energy needs. 
  • Due to decades of harsh economic sanctions, Iran faces massive unemployment and inflation. These conditions are creating massive unrest in Iran.

Political Challenges

  • Fundamental authority in Iran rests with Supreme Leader Khamenei, an unelected cleric.
  • India has enormous stakes in Saudi Arabia, U.A.E. and Israel. Indian bonhomie with Iran can upset these Middle Eastern powers at odds with the Iranian regime.  

Involvement in Proxy Wars

  • While Iran itself is facing an economic crisis at home, the Iranian regime is fighting and supporting a large number of proxies in the Middle East as part of its foreign policy. These include 
    • Saudi versus Iran Cold War in the Middle East is going on.   
    • Irani militias are supporting Bashar al Assad in Syria.
    • Yemen, where Iran is supporting Houthi rebels. 
    • Iran is supporting Hezbollah in Palestine and Lebanon. 

Kashmir Issue

  • In many of his sermons, Iran’s supreme leader Ayatollah Khamenei has supported the terrorists in the Kashmir conflict. 

Issue of Farzad-B gas field

  • ONGC Videsh Limited discovered the gas in the Farzad-B gas field in 2008. As India was waiting for the contract, Iran asserted that India would not receive preferential treatment and compete with other bidders. India is upset that Iran wishes to auction the Farzad-B field even when India asserted in 2017 that it is willing to put in $11 Billion in the project. India says that it expects preferential treatment in the Farzad-B field as Indian firms in 2008 had discovered gas in the field.


Chabahar Port Issue

The idea of Chabahar port came up in 2003 when Iranian President Khatami visited India, and a deal was signed between the two states. Post-1947, the partition has deprived India of physical access to Afghanistan and Central Asia. Chabahar port was envisaged as a project to correct this historical injustice. 

In 2016, the Trilateral Agreement was signed between India, Iran and Afghanistan. Under this agreement, India committed to developing Chabahar port and the land-based route connecting Chabahar port to Zahedan along the border with Afghanistan. India has committed to invest $500 million in this project.

Importance of Chabahar Port

India- Iran Relations

Its importance can be seen in two aspects

1 . Strategic Importance

  1. Alternate Route to Afghanistan
    • The route is from Chabahar to Zaranj to Delaram . 
    • It will help to end Afghanistan’s dependence on Pakistan for trade.
  2. Counter China at Gwadar Port
    • It will help to counter the Gwadar port of Pakistan built by China
    • Chabahar is located 72 kilometres west of Pakistan’s Gwadar port.
  3. It will help in Anti-Piracy Operations.


2. Economic importance

  • Increased connectivity with energy-rich Central Asia is in line with India’s Connect-Central Asia policy.
  • It will act as a lynchpin in  International North-South Transit Corridor that connects India to Central Asia, Russia and Europe.

Still an Issue

  • U.S. sanctions: Due to economic sanctions on Iran, it is difficult for India to fund the project. Although the U.S.A. has provided a sanctions waiver for the Chabahar port, it has been difficult to find equipment suppliers and partners due to worries that the U.S.A can target them. 
  • With the Taliban in power in Afghanistan, the rationale to reach Afghanistan is gone.
  • Saudi Arabia and Israel will be antagonised because of Indian association with such mega projects in Iran. 

2020 Update : Iran has decided to proceed with constructing a rail line from Chabahar port to Zahedan, along the border with Afghanistan, without India as India was finding it challenging to build the infrastructure due to U.S. sanctions.


Issue: Increasing Chinese influence in India

  • Belt and Road Initiative (B.R.I.): Under the B.R.I. umbrella, China is presently strengthening its ties with Iran, Saudi Arabia, U.A.E., Egypt and other Middle East countries using engagements such as the construction of stadiums, railways, industrial parks, 5G highways, clean energy project etc.
  • 25-year comprehensive strategic cooperation agreement: Iran and China have signed an agreement under which China would invest $400 billion in Iran over 25 years in its economy, infrastructure and industries.
  • Gwadar-Chabahar connectivity: Iran proposed a tie-up between Gwadar and Chabahar.  
  • Bandar-e-Jask port: Iran has offered this port to China, located just 350km away from Chabahar to China.
  • In 2019, a joint naval exercise was conducted between China, Iran, and Russia in the Gulf of Oman.
  • China is offering its G.P.S. to Iran and has committed to building infrastructure for 5G. 
  • China continued to buy Iranian oil even after the U.S. sanctions waivers expired, although in smaller volumes. In contrast, India stopped buying Iranian oil last year after U.S. waivers ended.


Issue: US out of Iranian nuclear deal

  • In 2015 an agreement, the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) or Iran nuclear deal, was reached between Iran and the P5+1 group — U.S., U.K., France, Russia, China and Germany — on Tehran’s nuclear program. The JCPOA was designed to stop Iran from producing its atomic weapons and set up a framework limiting the amount and degree to which Iran could enrich uranium. 
  • However, in 2018 U.S.A. unilaterally announced to decertify the nuclear deal on account of non-compliance by Iran and announced two rounds of economic sanctions on it. 
  • Dec 2020: New President Joe Biden has declared that his administration will revive the Iran Nuclear Deal. 

Limitations agreed by Iran under JCOPA

JCOPA
  1. Low enriched Uranium stockpile can’t exceed 300 kg.
  2. Enrichment of Uranium cant exceed 3.67% (for weapons, 90% enrichment is required, but after 20% enrichment, 90% can be achieved very quickly). 
  3. UN & IAEA Inspectors can inspect facilities. 

In return, Iran gets the termination of all economic and diplomatic sanctions imposed on it by the U.N. Security Council (UNSC), the European Union (E.U.) and the U.S.

US has pulled out of the deal and imposed sanctions

Sanctions include

  • No individual or company can trade with Iran. 
  • Sanctions re-imposed are “extraterritorial” in nature, i.e. they apply to not just American individuals and businesses but also non-American businesses or individuals.

US problems and Reasons for withdrawal

  • The deal doesn’t have binding restrictions on Iran’s Ballistic Program.
  • Many of the restrictions in JCPOA have sunset clauses, i.e. provisions will become less strict over the years.  
  • The deal doesn’t prevent Iran to prevent the sponsorship of terrorism in the region. 

Implications of US withdrawal from JCOPA on India

  • Higher Oil price 
    • Iran was India’s third-biggest supplier.
    • India faced the added cost of having to recalibrate Indian fuel refineries that are used to process Iran’s special crude.
    • Iranian oil came with discounts on freight and favourable payment terms, including non-dollar payments.
  • Indian projects impacted 
    • Chabahar project: Chabahar port is nominally exempted from U.S. sanctions, but suppliers are reluctant to deliver equipment.
    • It has prevented ONGC Videsh to invest in the Farzad B gas field.
  • Remittance: More than 50% of the total remittance received by India last year came from the gulf region. Any disturbance in the region would lead to a decline in such remittances.
  • The security of the Indian Ocean Region has been disturbed due to the volatile situation at the Strait of Hormuz impacts Indian trade negatively. It also allows outside powers to set base in the Indian Ocean, impacting the Balance of Power. 
  • Giving Space to China: If India succumbs to U.S. pressure while China remains firm, then India will lose strategic space to China.

Approach of Other nations to deal with this

  • China is routing transactions through the Bank of Kunlun. U.S. sanctions on this bank are ineffective since it is carefully insulated from the U.S. financial system. (India must learn from this)
  • European countries have attempted to bypass sanctions through a unique mechanism called INSTEX.

Indian payment approach

  • India has given the responsibility to UCO Bank to route the payment as it has no exposure to the U.S. financial system.  
  • Oil payments are being made in rupees only against earlier arrangements of 45% rupees and 55% Euros. 

India Bangladesh Relations

India Bangladesh Relations

This article deals with ‘India Bangladesh Relations.’ This is part of our series on ‘International Relations’ which is an important pillar of the GS-2 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.


Brief History

  • Bangladesh became  Independent in 1971 with the military & political assistance of India.  In 1970, the Bengali Awami League Party won the Pakistani National Elections. But West Pakistan refused to recognize the election results and used brutal force to suppress the agitation by the Awami League Party. This situation led to a near war scenario, with armed East-Bengalis forming the Mukti Bahini (freedom force). India’s support to the Mukti Bahini by training and the supply of arms became imminent with millions seeking refuge in India. Pakistan’s pre-emptive strike at India provided the Indian army with the much-needed excuse to attack East Pakistan. By December 1971, Bangladesh emerged as an independent state.
  • Independence was won under the leadership of Sheikh Mujibur Rehman. He and his party Awami League was  Anti-Pakistan (and Anti-China)  and Pro-India (and USSR). India was the first country to recognize Bangladesh as a separate and independent state and established diplomatic relations with the country immediately after its independence in December 1971. From 1971 to 1975, came the era of Sheikh Mujibur Rehman who assumed power. In 1972, India and Bangladesh signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation which became the foundation of the modern India-Bangladesh relations.
  • In 1975, Mujibur Rehman was assassinated due to a military coup by Zia-ur-Rehman. It ended the honeymoon period between Indo-Bangladesh relations. The regime thus formed was Pro-China, US & Pakistan and Anti-India & USSR. Later, he established Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) .
  • Hence, due to historical reasons, BNP has a propensity to incline its policies to favour Pakistan and China while the Awami League favours a partnership with India. The BNP is not favourably disposed to India and has at times stated that it is suspicious of India.
India Bangladesh Relations

Various aspects of Indo-Bangladesh relations

Geopolitical Importance

  • Bangladesh shares a border of 4,096 km with India (longest border of India).
  • Bangladesh can act as an outlet for the North Eastern States which are land-locked and have a shorter route to the sea through Bangladesh. Eg: Chittagong and Ashuganj ports are just 70 and 40 km from the Indo-Bangladesh border with the North-Eastern States.
  • Act-East policy: Bangladesh can act as a ‘bridge’ to India’s economic and political linkages with South East Asia.
  • Bangladesh is an integral part of India’s ‘Neighbourhood First Policy.

Security Importance

  • Bangladesh can also help India to overcome the strategic vulnerability of Chicken Neck by providing an alternate route.
  • Bangladesh is also important for the Security of the Bay of Bengal  & tackling pirate activities.
  • Various Joint exercises of the Army ( Sampriti) and Navy (Milan) take place between the two countries.
  • Bangladesh can help to contain insurgency in the North-East.
  • In 2013, the nations also signed an extradition treaty.

Economic importance

  • Bilateral trade between India and Bangladesh has reached $9 billion apart from large unaccounted informal trade. But trade potential between two countries is 4 times this amount.
  • Bangladesh presents investment opportunities for Indian companies.
  • India and Bangladesh can cooperate in the blue economy(deep sea fishing, hydrocarbons, disaster management etc).
  • India is also developing business haats  (trading centres)  on Tripura-Bangladesh and Meghalaya – Bangladesh border.
  • India announced a $ 2 billion Line of Credit (LOC) for Bangladesh in 2015. The new LOC will cover projects in the areas of Roads, Railways, Power, Shipping, SEZs, Health & Medical Care and Technical Education. 

Cultural importance

  • Bangladesh is closely linked to India through its shared culture and ethnicity with West Bengal.
  • The Bengali language acts as a bridge between West Bengal, Tripura and Bangladesh.
  • Rabindranath Tagore is equally famous in Bangladesh (‘Amar Sonar Bangla’  was written by him).

Multilateral Cooperation

India and Bangladesh are co-partner in various multilateral Groups

  • Most important of which are SAARC & BIMSTEC.
  • Bangladesh supports India’s bid for observer status at OIC  and helps in countering Pakistan’s statement on Kashmir at OIC Forums. 

Energy Sector Cooperation

  • Bangladesh is an energy deficit country. India is providing 600 MW of power to Bangladesh since 2010.
  • Maitree thermal power plant is being developed as a joint venture between the National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) of India and the Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB) at Rampal. 
  • Rooppur nuclear power plant (Bangladesh’s first nuclear power plant) is being made by  Russia’s Rosatom and  Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL).
  • Many Indian public sector units such as Indian Oil Corporation etc. are working with their Bangladeshi counterparts in the oil and gas sector of Bangladesh.
  • ONGC Videsh Ltd has acquired two shallow-water blocks in Bangladesh.

Connectivity

  • Passenger train service ‘Maitree Express’ between Kolkata and Dhaka operates 3 days a week. 
  • Regular bus services are present between Kolkata-Dhaka, Shillong-Dhaka and Agartala-Kolkata via Dhaka. 
  • Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepal (BBIN) – Motor Vehicles Agreement (MVA) will significantly boost connectivity by road.

To reduce the influence of China

  • ‘Neutral’ Bangladesh helps to counter China’s One Belt One Road (OBOR) strategy.

Diaspora

  • About 10,000 Indian citizens are estimated to be living in Bangladesh. Most are engaged in the Ready-Made Garments (RMG) sector or as professionals in MNCs, Indian or Bangladeshi companies.

Issues in Indo-Bangladesh relations 

India and  Bangladesh resolved the most contentious land boundary issue. But  there  are  still  some  contentious  issues  that need to  be  resolved

  1. Teesta  Water  Treaty:  Teesta originates in Sikkim and enters Bangladesh after passing through West Bengal. There is conflict on water sharing between West Bengal and Bangladesh.
  2. Ganga Water: Treaty was signed in 1996 but India constructed Farakka Barrage to supply water to Hooghly and in the dry season, Bangladesh doesn’t get a fair share of water. India constructed the Farakka dam in West Bengal, about 11 miles from Bangladesh’s border. India maintains that it needs the barrage for the purpose of flushing the Hooghly River to make it free from silt and therefore keep the port of Calcutta operational and also to meet the demand from Kolkata for industrial and domestic use, and for irrigation purposes in other parts of West Bengal. 
  3. Border Issue:  India and Bangladesh have a 2,979 km land border and 1,116 km of the riverine boundary. Due to the porous border, there is rampant smuggling, trafficking in arms, drugs and people.
  4. Illegal  Immigration / NRC Issue:   Historically people of Bangladesh have been moving into the region of Brahmaputra valley due to the lack of habitable and arable land in Bangladesh. India perceives this movement as illegal immigration into Indian territory. According to the NRC draft, 40 lakh people living in (just) Assam are Bangladeshis. India’s initiation of the National Registration of Citizenship and Citizen Amendment Act has ignited popular resentment in Bangladesh. 
  5. Chakma Refugee Issue: The Chakmas and Hajongs living in the Chittagong Hill Tracts fled erstwhile East Pakistan in 1964-65 since they lost their land to the development of the Kaptai Dam. In addition, they also faced religious persecution as they were non-Muslims and did not speak Bengali. They eventually sought asylum in India. The Indian government set up relief camps in Arunachal Pradesh and a majority of them continue to live there even after five decades. According to the 2011 census, 47,471 Chakmas live in Arunachal Pradesh alone.
  6. Transit  Rights  –  India wants transit rights to develop its North-East but Bangladeshis see it as an infringement of its sovereignty.
  7. Security  Concerns –  Bangladesh provides safe havens to insurgents active in North East.
  8. Tipaimukh  Hydro-Electric  Power  Project built by India on the  Barak river at the junction of Mizoram, Assam and Manipur for electricity generation (capacity = 1500 MW) and irrigation. Bangladesh says that the dam will affect the water supply downstream and affect the flow of water in summers.
  9. Rohingya crisis: There are 11 lakh Rohingyas refugees in Bangladesh. India is providing financial help to Bangladesh via ‘Operation Insaniyat’ but Bangladesh expects India to put pressure on Myanmar for the repatriation of Rohingyas.
  10. Bangladesh uses China card to supplement its bargaining capacity against India. 
  11. Growing Islamic radicalisation in Bangladesh can destabilise the Indian Subcontinent. The Islamic NGOs of foreign nations have been promoting Wahhabism in Bangladesh. Pakistan has links with many such NGOs in Bangladesh which it uses to target India.
  12. India and Bangladesh compete in some sectors like Textile in the world market.

Conclusion: India should adopt the Gujral doctrine of unilateral support to its smaller neighbours to gain their confidence especially given China’s presence.


Things done by India

  • India has played the main role in Bangladesh’s Independence.
  • Land Boundary issue solved: In 2015 the enclaves of India and Bangladesh in each other’s countries were exchanged and strip maps were signed.   India lost some land and EEZ but accepted the agreement for sake of friendship.
  • Maritime Issue solved: India accepted the settlement of the maritime boundary arbitration between India and Bangladesh, as per the UNCLOS award in 2014 where India lost a large chunk of EEZ.
  • SAARC satellite launched by India provides free access to transponders to Bangladesh.
  • The Visa  regime in India has been liberalized for  Bangladeshi tourists and businesses
  • Border Haats have been developed on Bangladesh-Meghalaya & Bangladesh – Tripura border.
  • 130 km India-Bangladesh Friendship Pipeline Project has been constructed for transportation of petroleum to Bangladesh.
  • India is exporting 660 MW of electricity daily, will add 500 MW more.
  • India provides duty-free, quota-free access for Bangladeshi exports to India.
  • India also gives a line of credits and loans to Bangladesh and provides developmental aid.
  • Indian companies are investing in Bangladesh. Eg: Tata is establishing a three billion USD steel plant in Bangladesh.


Issue: Teesta Water Dispute

54 rivers pass from India to   Bangladesh. Being a lower riparian state, Bangladesh is affected by dams built on them.

About Teesta

Teesta Issue
  • Teesta originates in Sikkim & after passing through West Bengal, it enters Bangladesh
  • It is very important for irrigation on both sides.
  • The problem arises due to the severe shortage of water in the dry months.

Issue

  • India has built three Projects on Teesta like Gajoldoba Barrage (in Jalpaigudi) to divert water to other areas. As a result, Indian regions started to prosper but Bangladeshis are raising voice against this.
  • Radical Islamic Parties like Jamaat-i-Islami is using this issue to consolidate people against Sheikh Hasina.
  • In 2011,  Teesta Accord was drafted which proposed to divide Teesta waters between India & Bangladesh in the ratio 50:50%respectively. But, West Bengal Government is acting as an impediment to signing this Accord.

Importance of Teesta Accord for India

  • PM Hasina is an important ally of India who has adopted a zero-tolerance policy against Anti-Indian terror outfits and has helped India in containing the influence of China in the Bay of Bengal region. Signing the deal will consolidate her position in Bangladeshi polity.
  • Not signing such a deal give oxygen to radical elements. Jamiat-e-Islami is becoming powerful by portraying Sheikh Hasina as a puppet of India.

Bangladesh’s trust in India will increase if there are more water-sharing agreements.

Teesta & Indian Internal Politics

  • Teesta is the “lifeline” of north Bengal; ruling parties have never touched it for fear of losing the northern base. 

China Factor in Bangladesh 

  • Bangladesh is part of the One Belt One Road (OBOR project) & has also attended the OBOR Summits.
  • China is increasing its Defence Partnership with Bangladesh => recently Bangladesh procured two submarines from Beijing.
  • China is using Bangladesh as an outlet for Kunming Province by investing Chittagong Port Project).
  • Bangladesh is part of the BCIM project.
  • China is financing 25 energy projects in Bangladesh including  Bangladesh’s 2nd Nuclear power plant.
  • Bangabandhu-1, the first communication satellite of Bangladesh will be launched with Chinese help.
  • As part of its soft diplomacy, China is training Bangladeshi personnel, including Chinese language teachers.

But points in Indian favour

  • During the freedom struggle,  Communist China helped Pakistan and opposed the creation of Bangladesh.
  • China also cast a veto in the Security Council to block new Bangladesh’s entry into the United Nations.
  • The issue of China building dams on the Brahmaputra unilaterally impacts Bangladesh as well.

New Moore Island Issue

  • New Moore Island is a small uninhabited offshore sandbar landform in the Bay of Bengal, off the coast of the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta region. It emerged in the Bay of Bengal in the aftermath of the Bhola cyclone in 1970 and disappeared at some later point. For nearly 30 years, India and Bangladesh have argued over control of a tiny rock island in the Bay of Bengal but later in 2010, the rising sea levels have resolved the dispute for them as the island was submerged.
  • New Moore Island, in the Sundarbans, has been completely submerged. Its disappearance has been confirmed by satellite imagery and sea patrols. Bangladesh was using the argument of extension of its continental shelf according to which it can demand up to 350 NM EEZ.  Although the island was uninhabited and there were no permanent settlements or stations located on it, both India and Bangladesh claimed sovereignty over it because of speculation over the existence of oil and natural gas in the region.
  • The Resolution: In the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PAC), the dispute was settled in July 2014 by a final verdict not open to appeal and in favour of Bangladesh. The Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) verdict awarded Bangladesh with 19,467 km2 out of 25,000 km2 disputed area with India in the Bay of Bengal. However, New Moore Island has fallen in India’s part of the Bay of Bengal.
New Moore Island Issue

Land Boundary Agreement

  • When India became independent, Sir Radcliffe demarcated the boundary between India and Pakistan as well as India and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). While dividing the territory in East Pakistan, Radcliffe did not pay attention to small patches of land called ‘enclaves’.
  • These enclaves were, in the pre-independence era, called Chitmahals and they were used by the Raja of Cooch Behar and Maharaja of Rangpur as stakes in the game of chess. In 1947, kings were asked whether to join India or Pakistan (Cooch Bihar joined India and Rangpur joined Pakistan (now Bangladesh)). Hence, Feudal belonging of land in earlier times  is the genesis of the problem
Indo-Bangladesh Land Boundary Agreement

Timeline of Events

1958 Nehru-Noon Agreement to solve this issue but didn’t fructify because of deterioration in the situation.   
1974 Awami League was in power.  Mujibur Rehman and Indira Gandhi went for Land Boundary Agreement.
– In this, physical exchange of enclaves was to take place.
– But this needed ratification by Parliament with Special Majority.
– Bangladesh ratified this but India failed.
 
1975 Mujibur Rehman was assassinated.  
1982 Until complete exchange takes place, India decided to give a corridor known as Tin Bagha Corridor on lease so that Bangladeshis can use that to come to their enclaves. It was opposed by most of the opposition parties.  
2011 & 2015   2011: Awami League came to power (Congress Government in India at that time ).
– India and Bangladesh agreed on a protocol that required Constitutional Amendment. This was passed in 2015 (100th Constitutional Amendment Act ).
As per this protocol, India gave 111 enclaves and Bangladesh gave 51 enclaves. 
– People living in these enclaves were given the following options
1. They can choose to stay back and acquire new citizenship status.
2. Or can leave the enclave and go back to the country whose citizenship they have.  

Potentials & prospects

  • North-East India, Bangladesh & Myanmar should create a tourist circuit.
  • Bangladesh is an electricity deficient country.  The hydropower potential of northeastern states and  Bhutan can be harnessed to satisfy the need of Bangladesh. 
  • India can jointly develop Bangladeshi ports  (like Ashuganj)  to connect them with our northeast.
  • BIMSTEC  and  SAARC  have opened up avenues for the multilateral exchange of goods and services.
  • India and Bangladesh can cooperate on climate change as West Bengal and Bangladesh are low lying areas and will face large scale submergence of land due to ocean level rise.

India-Pakistan Relations

India-Pakistan Relations

This article deals with ‘India-Pakistan Relations.’ This is part of our series on ‘International Relations’, which is an important pillar of the GS-2 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.


Brief History

Common history

  • Pakistan was part of India before 1947. 
  • Pakistan was formed based on the flawed Two Nation Theory. 

J&K Conflict

  • Post-independence, one of the first issues faced by India and Pakistan was the accession of Kashmir. Pakistani Army, under the guise of Tribals, attacked Kashmir. But Maharaja of Kashmir signed ‘Instrument of Accession’ with India. As a result, Indian forces were airlifted to Kashmir, culminating in the creation of Pakistani Occupied Kashmir and the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. Since then, J&K has remained the core issue between India & Pakistan. 

Indo-Pakistan Wars

In the subsequent period, India and Pakistan have fought three wars 

  • War of 1965: India lost to China in 1962, which encouraged Pakistan to take away Kashmir from India via force. But the 1965 war was a military stalemate, and USSR brokered peace between India and Pakistan via Tashkent Agreement. 
  • War of 1971: In December 1970, Pakistan held a general election in which Awami League based in East-Pakistan (led by Sheikh Mujibur Rehman) won the election. The PPP and Awami League failed to reach a power-sharing agreement, and consequently, Awami League supporters in East Pakistan initiated a massive protest to seek autonomy. The Pakistani Army began to suppress the Bengalis in East Pakistan, due to which they began to leave their country and take refuge in India. India’s R&AW saw it as an opportunity to break East Pakistan away from West Pakistan’s control. The R&AW began to train and support the Mukti Bahini movement. Witnessing renewed unrest, the Pakistani Military launched a strike on India in North India. India perceived the attack as an attack on the sovereignty and decided to retaliate militarily. The Indian forces entered deep inside East Pakistan and captured around 90,000 Prisoners of War (POW). Bangladesh was finally born out of the conflict. The crushing defeat of 1971 came as a big blow to Pakistan. 
  • Kargil War of 1999: India fought a brief but bitter conflict with Pakistani-backed forces when they occupied the positions on the Indian side of Line of Control (LOC) in operation code-named as Koh-e-Paima. The plan was to control the heights and push mujahideens into the valley to create instability.

Cross border Terrorism

  • Most of the terrorist attacks in India have their origin in Pakistan.
  • India has been a victim of terrorism several times 
    • 2001: attack on Indian Parliament 
    • 2008: Mumbai attacks 
    • 2016: Pathankot Airbase Attack
    • 2016: Uri attack on Military base 
    • 2019: Pulwama Attack
  • These attacks have seriously impacted India’s relations with Pakistan. 

Present stalemate in talks

  • India has consistently repeated that Talks cannot resume until Pakistan actually cracks down on state-funded terrorist organizations in the last years. This boycott includes suspension of trade and refusal to attend meetings hosted by Pakistan (including SAARC meetings).  
  • Pakistan has also used various international and regional platforms to raise its voice over the Kashmir issue and the revocation of Article 370 by India in August 2019. 


Timeline

1947 As part of its pullout from the Indian subcontinent, Britain divided it into secular (but mainly Hindu) India and Muslim Pakistan on August 15 and 14.
1947/48 The first India-Pakistan war over Kashmir was fought after armed tribesmen (Lashkars) from Pakistan’s North-West Frontier Province (now called Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa) invaded the disputed territory in October 1947.
1954 The state’s constituent assembly ratified the accession of Jammu and Kashmir to India.
1963 Following the 1962 Sino-Indian war, the foreign ministers of India and Pakistan – Swaran Singh and Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto – held talks under the auspices of the British and America regarding the Kashmir dispute.
1964 Following the failure of the 1963 talks, Pakistan referred the Kashmir case to the UN Security Council.
1965 India and Pakistan fought their second war.
1966 On January 10, 1966, Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistani President Ayub Khan signed an agreement at Tashkent (now in Uzbekistan), agreeing to withdraw to pre-August lines.
1971 India and Pakistan went to war a third time over East Pakistan.
1972 Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi signed an agreement in  Shimla.
1974 The Kashmiri state government affirmed that the state “is a constituent unit of the Union of India”. However, Pakistan rejected the accord with the Indian government.
1988 The two countries signed an agreement that neither side would attack the other’s nuclear installations or facilities.
1989 Armed resistance in the Kashmir valley began.
1998 India detonated five nuclear devices at Pokhran. Pakistan responds by detonating six nuclear devices in the Chaghai Hills.
1999 Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee met with Nawaz Sharif in Lahore. Kargil war was an armed conflict between India and Pakistan later in the same year.
2001 Tensions along the Line of Control remained high, with 38 people killed in an attack on the Kashmiri assembly in Srinagar.
2007 On February 18, the train service between India and Pakistan was bombed near Panipat. Sixty-Eight people were killed. (Samjhauta Express)
2008 Pakistani terrorists attacked Mumbai including Taj Hotel killing 166 people.
2012 In November, India executes Pakistani national Kasab, the lone survivor of a fighter squad that killed 166 people in a rampage through the financial capital Mumbai in 2008, hanging him just days before the fourth anniversary of the attack.
2016 In September, India launched “surgical strikes” on terrorist units in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir, less than two weeks after an attack on an Indian army base left 19 soldiers dead.
2019 In the early hours of February 26, India conducts air attacks against what it calls Pakistan-based rebel group Jaish-e-Mohammad (JeM)’s “biggest training camp”, killing “a very large number of terrorists”.
2020-21 Following the abrogation of Article 370 in J&K, Pakistan has been violating ceasefire violations.

Important Issues

Issue 1: Issues related to Indus Water Treaty,1960

Indus Water treaty

  • It was signed in 1960.
  • It was brokered by World Bank.

Treaty allocates the water in the following manner:-

Eastern Rivers

The water of the following rivers belongs to India exclusively:-
1. Sutlej
2. Ravi
3. Beas
Western Rivers

The water of the following rivers belongs to Pakistan.
1. Chenab
2. Jhelum
3. Indus
However, India can make limited use and build run of the river hydro Projects to generate hydroelectricity. Pakistan has the right to raise objections on the Indian projects if Pakistan is not satisfied with the design of Indian projects on these rivers. 
Indus Water treaty
  • Treaty also established a ‘Permanent Indus Commission (PIC)‘ with each country having one commissioner to share data and cooperate in all the matters related to the treaty. 
  • It is said to be the most successful water treaty globally as it has survived the India-Pakistan wars. 

Should India (unilaterally) review Indus Water Treaty?

Why in the news?

  • Pakistan is stopping India from doing projects like Kishanganga Hydro-Electricity Project (HEP) and taking India to the International Court of Arbitration on minor grounds.
  • Pakistan is sponsoring terrorist attacks in India. In such a situation, the Indian government believes that treaties signed under goodwill shouldn’t be obliged.

Yes, India should review the treaty

  • In 1960, India gave the most genuine deal to a lower riparian state, hoping that Pakistan would ensure peace. But Pakistan didn’t keep its end of the bargain.
  • Kashmir has been suffering because they cant utilize the waters of three rivers, i.e. Indus, Jhelum and Chenab. Even Kashmir Assembly has passed a resolution to revoke the Indus Treaty twice.
  • Given the climate change and melting of the glaciers, a review of the treaty is the need of the hour. 

Other points to keep in mind

  • It can worsen India’s terror problems as Pakistan uses Indian control over water to recruit terrorists & justify the fight for Kashmir to control Indus.  
  • India is a lower riparian state in many rivers like Satluj, Brahmaputra etc. China can stop water & India will not have a moral high ground to oppose it.
  • Effect on India’s other lower riparian state: The abrogation of the Indus Water Treaty will send an alarming signal to friendly lower riparian countries such as Bangladesh, which receives around 90% water from rivers passing through India. 
  • Indus Water Treaty was signed under the guarantee of the World Bank. India still needs funds from World Bank.
  • It will help Pakistan to Internationalize the Kashmir Issue.
  • Legally, abrogating the treaty isn’t workable. There is no clause in the Indus Water Treaty regarding one party unilaterally denouncing the treaty. Treaty can be modified when both countries ratify the modifications. 
  • Brahma Chellaney (expert on International Water Affairs) believes that future wars in Asia could be driven by issues related to water. The Abrogation of the Indus Water Treaty has the potential to result in such conflict. 

Side Note: Indian Projects on Tributaries of Indus which were contested by Pakistan

Project River
Kishanganga Project Kishenganga Project was constructed by India on the Jhelum river.
It is a run-of-the-river project designed to divert the water of the Kishanganga River to a power plant in the Jhelum River basin. In 2010, Pakistan appealed to the International Court of Justice against the project.
In the final award of 2013, ICJ has allowed India to complete the construction of the Kishanganga dam with minor modifications.
Wullar Barrage / Tulbul Project 1985 India constructed barrage on Jhelum river near Wullar lake.
– Pakistan saw it as a violation of the Indus water treaty because of less water flow in the river Jhelum.  
Salal Dam The issue emerged in 1978 when India constructed Salal Dam 64 kilometres away from the Indo-Pak border on the Chenab River. Pakistan objected to the construction of the Salal Dam. 
In 1978, after negotiations, India decided to lower the height of the Salal Dam and assured Pakistan that the dam would be used only for the generation of power. 
Ratle Dam Chenab 
Pakal Dul Dam Chenab
Miyar Dam Chenab
Lower Kalnai Dam Chenab
Baglihar   Dam In 2005, Pakistan objected to India’s 450 Megawatt Baglihar Dam constructed on the Chenab River.
A neutral expert was appointed for arbitration. The verdict was announced in 2011 in favour of India. 

Issue 2: Kashmir Issue

  • Kashmir issue involves three contesting nationalisms, i.e. Indian, Pakistani & Kashmir.  
  • At the time of independence, a Princely State could either join India or Pakistan, as was announced in the provision by Lord Mountbatten. Kashmir posed some difficulty because it was a Muslim-majority state ruled by a Hindu monarch, Maharaja Hari Singh. Initially, Hari Singh was reluctant to join either India or Pakistan. Meanwhile, Pakistan launched a campaign by sending its troops disguised as tribesmen to annexe the Kashmir state forcefully. He approached Delhi and signed Instrument of Accession acceding Kashmir to India, after which Indian forces landed in Kashmir to stop falling the whole Kashmir valley into the hands of invaders. 
  • Under the influence of Mountbatten, JL Nehru took the issue of J&K to the UN for dispute resolution. It was decided in the UN that two states would maintain the status quo, i.e. Pakistani infiltrators who came to Kashmir would withdraw & then a plebiscite would take place. India alleged that the stalemate over Kashmir could not end. A plebiscite could not happen as Pakistan did not withdraw its troops from the PoK, which was a necessary condition for restoring peace leading to a future plebiscite.
  • Later it became part of Cold war politics. This issue was regularly supported by the US because Pakistan was part of the capitalist block & India stalled all such moves with the help of the veto power of Russia. 
  • In the Shimla Agreement of 1972, it was decided that India & Pakistan would resolve this issue bilaterally & any third power wouldn’t be involved.        
  • The situation deteriorated at the end of the 1980s and the start of the 1990s. The reasons for this were as follows 
    1. In 1989, as Soviet rule ended, Pakistan’s ISI started developing confidence that a successfully trained Mujahedeen campaign could also be launched in Kashmir. Hence, they started a proxy war against India by weaponizing & training militants
    2. In the 1980s, various social and religious organizations that wanted to resolve the Kashmir issue peacefully formed the Muslim United Front (MUF). They participated in the 1987 elections but were badly defeated. The MUF alleged that the elections were rigged, after which the MUF candidate Mohammad Yusuf Shah was imprisoned. As the MUF cadres were suppressed, they began to cross over to Pakistan for support, where ISI started to train them with arms and ammunition. The JKLF militants attacked a Hindu Kashmiri Pandit, Tika Lal Taploo, in 1989 and asserted that Kashmiri Pandits should leave the valley immediately, resulting in the mass exodus of Kashmiri Pandits.
  • From 1999 to 2002, the ISI used Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammad in a ‘fidayeen phase‘ of the campaign. The idea was to attack army camps, zero down on targets, terrorize the Kashmiri population and cause a psychological blow to the Indian forces, Indian people and the Indian state.  
  • Kashmiri Intifada: Burhan Wani was the commander of Hizb-ul-Mujahedeen of South Kashmir. On July 8, 2016, the Indian armed forces killed Wani in an encounter. His death led to an upsurge in the valley. Lakhs of people attended his funeral. The ISI, through social media, instigated the youth to resort to stone-pelting against the Indian forces. Stone pelting in 2016-17 has emerged as a cult in Kashmir.  
  • Repealing Article 370: On August 5, 2019, the President of India gave assent to the constitutional amendment, which abolished Article 370 of the Indian constitution. It led to a major upsurge in the state. 

Gilgit-Baltistan Issue

  • Gilgit Baltistan was part of the erstwhile princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. It has been under Pakistan’s control since 1947, following the invasion of Kashmir by tribal militias and the Pakistan army.
  • In 1949, it was renamed as ‘Northern Areas of Pakistan’ and put under the direct control of the Pakistan federal government.
  • In 2020, it was made the fifth province of Pakistan. 
Gilgit-Baltistan Issue

India’s stand on Gilgit-Baltistan

  • India believes that the entire Union Territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh, including areas of Gilgit and Baltistan, are “an integral part of India”.
  • Before this move, Pakistan’s federal institutions had maintained that Gilgit-Baltistan is an UN-disputed area. Its residents cannot be declared citizens of Pakistan until India and Pakistan resolve the issue of Jammu and Kashmir.

Importance of Gilgit-Baltistan

  • Strategic Location: Gilgit Baltistan lies at the intersection of the Indian Subcontinent, Central Asia and China.
  • Large Territory: The territory of Gilgit Baltistan is more than five times larger than Pakistan occupied Kashmir. It consists of two ethno-geographically distinct regions: Baltistan, which was part of Ladakh, and Gilgit.
  • Water and Energy Security: Gilgit Baltistan is also significant due to its water and energy resources. Before entering Pakistan, the Indus River passes through it. Important glaciers like Siachen Glacier are located here. The hydroelectric potential of the Indus River makes it vital for energy security as well.
  • Chinese Interference: China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) passes through Gilgit Baltistan, and China is building large-scale infrastructure in this area.

Issue 3: Terrorism

  • Almost all terror attacks in India originate from Pakistan. For example 
    • 2001: Parliament Attack 
    • 2008: Attack in Mumbai
    • 2016: Pathankot Airbase Attack  
    • 2016: Uri Attack
    • 2019: 44 CRPF men killed in an IED attack in Pulwama 
  • Terrorist groups which attack India are active in Pakistan & terrorists are trained on Pakistani soil. E.g., Jaish-e-Mohammad, Hizb-ul-Mujahidin etc., operates from safe havens in Pakistan. 

Why Pakistan is using terrorism as tool ?

  • The realisation that Pakistan can’t defeat India in a conventional war. As a result, the Deep State in Pakistan has nurtured Islamic Radical Groups (Mujahideens) as strategic assets. 
  • After the success of Afghan Mujahideens against the USSR, the Pakistani Deep State started to use it as a strategy against India in Kashmir.  
  • It is part of ISI and Pakistan Army’s ‘Bleeding India by Thousand Cuts‘ approach.
  • Whenever the governments of two nations have tried to indulge in confidence-building measures (Bus Diplomacy, Sports, Summits, Kartarpur Corridor), the Pakistani deep state has used cross-border terror activities to derail such Indo-Pak dialogue.

What should be India’s response?

India is responding in a very responsible way and has always stressed on making this area terrorism free. India believes that all the nations in Asia must ensure that their lands are not used for terrorist activities.

  • Diplomatic Isolation of Pakistan: But Pakistan hasn’t responded to these urges. Hence, India should expose Pakistan on various International and regional platforms and isolate Pakistan on the international front.
  • Use Financial Action Task Force (FATF) to blacklist Pakistan (Pakistan is already in Greylist). 
  • Mossad Way: India should carry out covert operations inside Pakistan to kill high-value human targets.
  • Conducting Surgical Strikes on the training camps in Pakistan to neutralise the terrorists (as was conducted by the Indian army post-Uri attack). 
  • Pressurising China to stop giving unconditional support to Pakistan.
  • Support Balochis and other sub-entities in their fight for independence to bleed Pakistan as a counter-strategy. 
  • Economic Efforts: Indian government has already withdrawn the “Most Favoured Nation” or MFN status accorded to Pakistan to punish it for supporting terrorism in India. 
  • India should take a leading role in the process to adopt a universal definition of terrorism and steps needed to tackle it under the Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism (CCIT).

Issue 4: Siachin Glacier

India-Pakistan Relationship

Importance of Siachen glacier

  • It is the largest source of fresh water in the Indian sub-continent.
  • Siachin is the source of the Nubra river that feeds the mighty Indus.
  • Siachen is near Karakoram pass, forming almost a triangle with India, China & Pakistani Occupied Kashmir.

Disagreement

  • Line of Control in J&K is as per the Shimla Agreement of 1972. But the boundary was specified only till NJ-9842, from where Siachen starts. Both countries claim Siachin belongs to it.
  • The matter was non-controversial till the 1980s. In 1984, the Indian R&AW realized that Pakistan Army had purchased specialized clothing for very low temperatures from a supplier in London. The R&AW alerted the Indian army, and during one of the operations, the military found a Pakistani expedition team in a place near Siachen. Before the Pakistani expedition could resort to any adventurism, the Indian army launched Operation Meghdoot, and Indian troops captured it. Now India controls the heights.

Should Siachen be demilitarised?

Yes, it should be demilitarised

  • India lost around a thousand army personnel due to weather-related casualties, and ₹7,500 crore was spent on military operations in the last 4 years
  • At Siachen glacier, temperatures dip to as low as – 45° C, making it the world’s highest & the most challenging battlefield.  
  • Due to global warming, glaciers are becoming very unstable. As a result frequency of Avalanches has increased. 
  • Demilitarization would increase trust and confidence between India and Pakistan.

No, it shouldn’t be demilitarised

Siachen is strategically important to India for a number of reasons such as 

  1. Saltoro Ridge at Siachen overlooks the entire region and provides an advantage of height.
  2. Control of the area prevents Pakistani and Chinese troops from linking up.
  3. Pakistan’s control over Siachin will make Leh and Kargil vulnerable as control over Siachin will give Pakistan the ability to oversee the Ladakh region and the crucial Leh-Srinagar highway.

Way Forward : India can demilitarise the Siachin Glacier provided that present situation is recorded and Pakistan assures to maintain status quo .


Issue 5: Sir Creek Issue

Sir Creek is a 96 km strip of water that is disputed between India & Pakistan. Originally named Ban Ganga, Sir Creek is named after a British representative. The Creek opens up in the Arabian Sea and roughly divides the Kutch region of Gujarat from the Sindh Province of Pakistan. The dispute lies in interpreting the maritime boundary line between Kutch and Sindh.

Sir Creek Issue
  • The dispute lies in the interpretation of the maritime line between Pakistan & India.
  • Pakistan lays claim to the entire creek as per the Sind Government Resolution of 1914 signed between then Government of Sindh and Rao Maharaj of Kutch. 
  • India sticks to its position that the boundary lies mid-channel, as depicted in another map drawn in 1925. Further, India supports its stance by citing the Thalweg Doctrine in International law.   
  • The issue involves losing a vast amount of Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) rich with gas and mineral deposits. 

Problems arising due to unresolved dispute

  • A maritime boundary isn’t properly demarcated, which creates confusion for fishermen. Their boats cross boundaries & they end up being arrested by the other side.
  • Creates security problems as well like 
    • Terrorists are frequently using this route to enter India.
    • Even 2008 Mumbai Attackers used this route.
  • Cartels (drugs & illegal weapons etc.) transact their business in the disputed waters so that they are beyond the reach of both Indian and Pakistani agencies.
  • It creates problems in exploiting resources as the region is rich in oil and gas below the sea bed.

Areas of Engagement

The focus should be on low hanging fruits for building amicable Indo-Pak relations

  • People to People contact by opening religious tourism to places like Kartarpur Sahib Nankana Sahib (birthplace of Guru Nanak Dev ji), Katas Raj Temple (Hindu temple in Pakistan), Ajmer Sharif (Sufi shrine in India) etc.
  • Trade and Commerce: India and Pakistan collectively constitute 90% of the region’s GDP, and peace between the two states could yield a 405% rise in trade at the bilateral level.
  • Electric grid: Pakistan is an electricity deficit while India has become surplus. 
  • Medical tourism
  • Energy pipeline: TAPI, IPI pipelines etc.
  • Social networking platforms have led people from the two states to establish a connection.
  • Bollywood and Pollywood: Hindi and Punjabi movies have a huge demand in Pakistan. 

It is advised that both countries shift their focus from geopolitics to geoeconomics to boost their economies and bring millions out of poverty. Both countries should remove their preconditions to start the talks. 

India-US Relations

India-US Relations

India-US Relations

This article deals with ‘India-US Relations.’ This is part of our series on ‘International Relations’ which is an important pillar of the GS-2 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.


History of India-US relations

Before  Independence

  • In the beginning, due to British control over India, the communication between India and the US at an independent level was impossible. Although Indians in the USA started Ghadar Movement and raised voices for the independence of their motherland, they had to wait till World War 2 for the US to pressure Britain to give the right to self-determination to Indians. Later, US President Roosevelt argued that the Atlantic Charter, which advocated the right to self-determination, applies to India as well, in contrast to Churchill’s view that the right to self-determination applies exclusively for Nazi areas won in the war. 
  • Apart from that, the relationship between the people of India and the USA was developing, corroborated by the fact that
    1. A large number of American Missionaries were active in India. 
    2. Rabindranath Tagore, Lala Lajpat Rai and Swami Vivekananda visited the USA.  
    3. Ambedkar studied at Columbia University from 1912-16. 

Initial Years

  • Soon after independence, India developed amicable relations with the USA. The Indian leaders acknowledged the positive role played by America in exerting pressure on the British Government to expedite the grant of independence to India. The democratic ideals of America fascinated the Indian leaders. 
  • The US also made available to India vast quantities of food grains to tide over the food shortage problem through the PL-480  Scheme.
  • IIT Kanpur was established with US help. 
  • Norman Borlaug & the Ford Foundation of the USA played an important role in introducing the Green Revolution in India.  
  • During the Indo-China conflict of 1962, the US-supported India and even decided to supply military equipment and weapons.  

Cold War Period

  • The emergence of free India coincided with the emergence of the United States and the Soviet Union as two Super Powers. With faith in their respective ideologies and way of life, both these powers looked suspiciously towards each other and set up military blocs like NATO, CENTO, SEATO, ANZUS, and the Warsaw Pact to meet the possible threat from the other. When India gained independence, there was the option of joining either of the two power blocs. However, India decided to keep away from these blocs and follow an independent foreign policy.
  • A major shift occurred when Indira Gandhi became the Prime Minister in January 1966. Her first foreign policy move was to visit the US in March 1966. She was received warmly by President Johnson. In response, India softened its stand on the Vietnam war and devalued its currency (rupee). But gradually, strains started to develop due to America’s consistent support to Pakistan on the Kashmir issue, its decision to provide shelter to the Naga rebel leader Phizo in the US in 1967 and US arms supplies to Pakistan. In return, India supported the Arabs in West Asia in their war against Israel and hardened its stance on Vietnam.
  • The relationship became more bitter during the war of 1971. Pakistan received massive military supplies from the US even before the Bangladesh crisis, including 100 tanks of M‐47 category, B‐57 bomber aircraft and other lethal weapons. Meanwhile, India signed the Indo‐Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation to counter the US-Pakistan axis. During the 1971 war, the US-supported Pakistan and dispatched the aircraft carrier  USS Enterprise to the Indian Ocean to help Pakistan in East Pakistan. 

End of Cold War

  • The Soviet Union collapsed in 1991. Like the rest of the world, India wasn’t prepared for this development. With the disintegration of the Soviet Union and the emergence of the US as the sole Super Power, India’s relations with the United States have undergone a significant shift.
  • After the disintegration of USSR, the closer cooperation and integration with the West became Russia’s top priority. As Russia and America moved closer, Russia neglected its traditional relations with long‐standing friends like India. India’s trade with Russia came down from 16% of its exports in 1989-90 to 9% in 1991-91. Russia also refused to supply cryogenic technology to India under US pressure.

Post-1990

  • India suffered from the Balance of Payment crisis due to the Persian Gulf War, which led to an exponential rise in the price of oil and the repatriation of Indian workers. IMF loan saved the Balance of Payment crisis, but it came with the condition of SAP. SAP (Structural Adjustment Plan) consisted of disinvestment, privatization, currency convertibility, and reducing tariff & subsidies in agriculture. The US government strongly supported India’s case for financial assistance from the institutions like the World Bank and IMF.  
  • The reasons behind the change in relations are
    1. Strategic Reason: The US is trying to contain hegemonic China in the Asia-Pacific region. India can prove a vital ally in this pursuit.
    2. Economic Reason: India’s 1.2 billion population can be an important market for US products.  

Issue 1: Indo – US Trade Issues

Indo - US Relations

Trade Imbalance

  • Trade between India and US $ 120 billion (2021).
  • US is the largest Trade Partner of India, while India is the 9th largest trade partner of the USA. 
  • But Trade Balance is in India’s favour, with India having a current surplus account. To bridge this gap, India has started to buy the following from the USA.
    • Gas and Crude Oil 
    • Commercial Aircrafts
    • Military hardware
  • Indo-US Trade is well below its potential. For example, South Korean Trade with the USA is 1.5 times that of India, although the South Korean GDP is 40% lesser than India.

CAATSA Issue

  • CAATSA, i.e. Countering American Adversaries through Trade Sanctions Act, is a US act that aims to counter the aggression by Iran, Russia and North Korea. According to the act’s provisions, the USA can impose sanctions on any country doing trade with these nations. 
  • It is problematic for India as
    1. Wrt Russia: India imports defence products like S-400, Kamov Helicopters etc. and has joint projects like Brahmos with Russia.
    2. Wrt Iran: India used to import vast amounts of Irani oil, which was impacted due to CAATSA. 

Generalized System of Preference (GSP) Issue

  • GSP was started in 1974. 
  • It provides opportunities to the world’s poorest and developing countries to use trade to climb out of poverty and grow.
  • India was getting the benefits of this scheme. But, under the Trump regime, the GSP of 94 products from India was removed by the USA. It impacted Indian exports to the USA.
  • In return, India imposed retaliatory tariffs on US imports like almonds, apples etc. 

India-US Solar Dispute

  • India launched National Solar Mission in 2011 to increase India’s solar electricity capacity to 100 GW. 
  • Under the scheme, the government offered financial support of ₹1 Crore / MW if the orders were placed with domestic (/Indian) manufacturers. 
  • The US took the matter to WTO in 2013, alleging this to be violative of TRIMs. India lost the case in Dec 2017 and agreed to change rules and procedures. 
  • Present Issue: India says they have implemented the order, but the US disagrees. 

Digital companies

US complains that the Indian government’s policies to restrict companies from sending personal data of Indian citizens outside India act as a significant barrier to digital trade for US companies.


Intellectual property rights

  • US concerns include software piracy, film and music, and weak patent protection in India. Due to these issues, India remained on the Priority Watch List of the U.S. 2021 “Special 301” report.
  • India amended the Patents act to recognize products rather than process patents to address these concerns.
  • The US has raised concerns about insufficient patent protections, restrictive standards for patents, and threats of compulsory licensing.

Dairy Industry Issue

  • US dairy products are banned in India on religious and cultural grounds. 
  • Reason: US dairy products are derived from cows that consume feed containing internal organs, blood and tissues of the animals of ruminant origin, while the cow in India is considered sacred and herbivore.
  • In 2015, the US proposed the permit entry of US dairy products with a ‘red dot’ (non-veg products). But India has not accepted the proposal. 

Harley Davidson Issue

  • The US demands duty cuts on bikes imported to India. 
  • In 2018 India reduced the import duty from 75% to 50%, but the US wants it to be zero. 

WTO disputes between India-US

India and US are fighting following disputes at Dispute Settlement Mechanism  under the WTO

  1. Poultry and poultry products from the US
  2. Countervailing duties on Indian steel products.
  3. The subsidy provided to Indian solar cells and modules under the provisions of the National Solar Mission
  4. Indian schemes to promote its exports, such as MEIS and SEIS.
  5. Renewable Energy Programs of the USA.
  6. US measures concerning non-immigrant visas
  7. The increased tariff on steel and aluminium. 

Issue 2: Defence Cooperation

#2.1 US foundational Defence Pacts

  • The US considers 4 defence pacts as the foundation of her defence cooperation. These include 
    1. General Security of Military Information Agreement (GSOMIA) – Signed in 2002.
    2. Logistics Support (LEMOA) – Signed in 2016.
    3. Communication (COMCASA) – Signed in 2018 .
    4. Basic Exchange & Cooperation Agreement (BECA) – Signed in Oct 2020. 
  • The USA has signed all of them with India. 
GSOMIA 
Signed in 2002 
COMCASA 
Signed in 2018 
LEMOA 
Signed in 2016 
BECA 
Signed in 2020

GSOMIA

  • GSOMIA = General Security of Military Information Agreement.
  • It was signed in 2002.
  • GSOMIA facilitates cooperation in intelligence sharing between the USA and the signatory.

LEMOA

  • LEMOA = Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA).
  • India signed it in 2016. 
  • Under this agreement, US and Indian forces can access each other’s resources for logistical purposes. 

COMCASA   

  • COMCASA = Communication Compatibility & Security Agreement.
  • India signed it in 2018. 
  • Pentagon signs this agreement before transferring its sensitive communication and IT technology used in US planes and drones to any other country.

BECA

  • BECA = Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement.
  • India signed it in October 2020. 
  • With this, the US and India can share highly classified geospatial and satellite data.

Importance of foundational agreements

  • It signals the affirmation of the mutual trust between India and the USA.
  • Strengthen India’s conventional offensive and defensive capacity as India can access sensitive data and buy advanced US weapons to get an edge over its rivals, namely Pakistan and China. 
  • It will result in close cooperation between Indian and US armed forces, especially to contain Chinese expansionism. 
  • Apart from the military, these agreements will also help the US and Indian armed forces to cooperate in providing humanitarian assistance during disasters.

Issues with these foundational agreements

  • Russia Factor: After signing these agreements, the USA wants India to buy American weapons and move away from Russia. Close cooperation between India and Russia can expose its technology to Russians.
  • It imperils India’s policy of Strategic Autonomy by unduly binding India to the US systems and procedures.
  • More favorable to the US: These agreements are more favorable to the US. The provisions of these agreements have been formulated by US policymakers giving precedence to US interests.

But India remains reluctant to become fully plugged into US defence systems due to India’s longstanding commitment to non-alignment (and its post-Cold War variants of strategic autonomy/ omni- or multi-alignment). Moreover, India’s preference for India to be a pole in a multipolar world is also not entirely in concordance with an American view that does not see the benefits of multipolarity in the same way.


#2.2 Weapon Trade

  • The USA has become the second-largest arms supplier to India. 
  • During Barack Obama’s term, the US recognised India as a “Major Defence Partner (becoming the only non-NATO member to get this tag). 
  • Later in 2018, India was moved to Strategic Trade Authorisation (STA)-1 list. It gives license-free access to almost 90% of dual-use technology to India. 

Buying Weapons

  • The US has become 2nd biggest armaments supplier to India.
  • India has bought or has signed deals to buy the following weapons.
Aeroplanes 1. Boeing C17 Globemaster military transport
2. C – 130 J Super Hercules
3. P8-I Poseidon Maritime Patrol  
UAV 1. India has bought the  Guardian Drones (naval & unarmed version of Predator UAVs)     
Helicopters 1. Romeo MH-60 Seahawk (it is the most advanced naval helicopter which can hunt submarines)
2. Chinook
3. Apache  
Howitzer 1. M-777 Ultralight Howitzer
C-17 Globemaster 
(Transport) 
Guardian 
(Reconnaissance) 
Super Hercules 
(Transport) 
civilspedia.com 
Chinook 
(Transport) 
P8-I Poseidon 
(Maritime Patrol) 
Apache 
(Attack)

#2.3 Military Exercises and Alliances

Malabar Exercise

  • Trilateral Naval Exercise between India, US and Japan (Note: Australia is not part of this). 

Quad

  • The ‘Quad’ consists of India, the United States, Japan and Australia
  • Main Aim: To secure Indo-Pacific.

#2.4 Other aspects

US Presence in the Indian Ocean

  • Diego Garcia in the Indian Ocean is the Military base of the US army.
  • India doesn’t like an influential nation in her footsteps as it challenges the Indian position of ‘net security provider’ in the Indian ocean.

Fight against terror

  • The US frequently helps India in its war against terror. E.g.:
    • US played the main role in listing Jaish-e-Mohammed leader Masood Azhar as an international terrorist by the UN 
    • US is also helping India to control Pakistani terrorism using FATF.

Issues in India-US defence relations

  • The difference in core goals of defence engagement: From the Indian perspective, the core goal of defence engagement with the US is that the US should assist the Indian defence industry in manufacturing technology in India. For the US, its defence diplomacy with India is to establish a long-term relationship that would allow both India and the US to jointly address contingencies in the region that may arise in the future. 
  • US equipment is costly. India wants to deal on the basis of fixed costs. On the other hand, suppliers favour’ life cycle costs’-based bidding asserting that they offer expensive equipment, but the costs come down when it comes to contracts for long-term maintenance.

Issue 3: Nuclear Diplomacy in the US- India relations 

Timeline of Indo-US Nuclear Deal
  • 1974: India experimented with the Nuclear Explosion named Pokharan-1. The USA opposed it. 
  • 1978: Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty was signed under the leadership of the USA, in which India was not accepted as a nuclear state. India resented NPT, terming it as Nuclear Apartheid. 
  • 1998: Nuclear Test (Pokharan-2) was conducted, making India a nuclear power. In retaliation, the US imposed economic sanctions on India.  
  • 2000: Clinton’s visit to India marked the beginning of a new era, followed by Jaswant – Talbot Dialogue.
  • 2008: This process culminated in the Civil Nuclear Deal signed in 2008. 

Bush – Manmohan Civil Nuclear Deal

  • It was signed in 2008.
  • The main provisions of the agreement were
    1. India agreed to the separation of civil & military nuclear programs.
    2. India allowed inspection of the civilian program.
    3. India agreed to refrain from transferring nuclear enrichment and reprocessing technologies to states that do not have them.
    4. India agreed to adhere to the Missile Technology Control Regime and Nuclear Suppliers Group.
    5. In return, the US offered nuclear fuel & technology. The US also ensured supplies for the civilian program from the 44‐nation Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG).

Issue 4: Indian diaspora in USA and H1-B Issue

  • India has a 4-million-plus strong diaspora in the USA, accounting for about 1% of the total population. It is the second-largest Asian community in the country.
  • Indian diaspora includes many professionals, business entrepreneurs and educationalists with increasing influence in society.  
  • Examples include
    1. Kamala Harris: US Vice-President
    2. Satya Nadella: Microsoft Head
    3. Sundar Pichai: Google Head
    4. Nikki Hellay: Seasoned politician who has held important positions like US Ambassador to UN.  
  • The Indian community has assimilated into their adopted country and is a catalyst to forge closer and stronger ties between India and the USA.

H1-B Visa Issue

About H1-B Visa

  • H1- B visa is a non-immigrant visa given by the US to skilled workers (technical or theoretical skill in the specialized field) for a specific period of time.
  • It was started in 1952 to attract quality workers from other countries.
  • Lottery System: US administration grants H1-B visas to 85,000 workers annually, of which 20,000 are reserved for those who have one of their Masters in the US. The process to select is completely random based on the Lottery System. 

H1-B Visa
H1-B Visa issue

Changes introduced by Trump

Trump introduced some changes in the H1-B visa regime to make companies hire US workers and give visas to highly expert workers. These changes were 

  1. The minimum salary to be considered eligible for an H1-B visa increased from $60,000 to $130,000 per annum.
  2. Spouse of H1-B visa holder can’t work in the USA.
  3. Preference to be given to students with US education for H1-B visas. 

These changes impact Indian interests because out of the 85,000 H1-B visas, approximately 70% are Indians. 


Other Cooperation

  • Space Cooperation: The two sides have had a long history of cooperation in the Civil Space arena. NASA and ISRO are cooperating on various projects. India also helps multiple US companies to launch their satellites at cheap rates. 


Other Irritants

  • Question of Human Rights: There have been profound differences between India and America on human rights. Various NGOs, including Amnesty International and Asia Watch, have raised voices against human rights violations in India and draconian acts like TADA. 
  • Religious Freedom: Various US Congress committees and NGOs such as Freedom House frequently comment on the status of religious freedom in India, which impinges Indian sovereignty and tarnishes the image of India in international forums.
  • Afghan Question: USA and India were not on the same page on the Afghan question. India was not in favour of handing over Afghanistan to the Taliban as it endangers security in India.