December 2020 - civilspedia.com

Demographic Theories

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Demographic Theories

This article deals with ‘ Demographic Theories .’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

What is demography?

Demography is the statistical study of the human population. It includes the study of size, structure and distribution of population as well as changes in time and location in response to birth, migration, ageing and death.

Demographic Theories

Malthusian Theory

Humanity is condemned to live in poverty forever because Human population grow at a much faster rate than food resources. According to Malthusian Theory
- Food production increases in Arithmetic Progression (AP) while
- Population increases in Geometric Progression (GP).
Hence, to make a balance between population vs food supply nature uses positive checks

Positive checks by nature	famine disease
Preventive checks by humans	delayed marriage Family Planning

According to Malthus, famines and diseases were inevitable as they are nature’s way of dealing with the imbalance between food supply and increasing population.

Debate: Has the Malthusian theory lost its significance?

Some experts opine that with the world surplus of food and advances in medical science, the theory of positive checks of nature of Malthus has become obsolete.
Whereas other experts are of the view that we are observing the change in positive checks of nature. These include
1. With world temperature rising due to global warming, the ocean level is rising.
1. Increase in frequency of natural disasters due to climate change
2. Attack of new pests on crops.
3. The new type of pandemics caused by new pathogens like the Corona Virus.

Demographic Transition Theory

Phase-1: Period of stagnant or stationary

The period from 1901-1921.
The growth rate during this phase was very low, even recording a negative growth rate during 1911-1921.
Both the birth rate and death rate were high keeping the rate of increase stagnant.
Poor health and medical services, illiteracy of people at large and inefficient distribution system of food and other necessities were largely responsible for a high birth and death rates in this period.

Phase-2: Period of steady population growth

The period from 1921-51.
An overall improvement in health and sanitation throughout the country brought down the mortality rate. At the same time, better transport and communication system improved food distribution system. But birth rate remained high in this period leading to a higher growth rate than the previous phase.

Phase-3: Period of Population Explosion

Period of 1951-1981.
This was caused by a rapid fall in the mortality rate due to control over famines and epidemics but a high fertility rate of population in the country. (It should be noted that death rates can be brought down relatively quickly through advanced methods of disease control, public health, and better nutrition. However, it takes longer for society to adjust to change and alter its reproductive behaviour.)

Phase-4: Period of Moderate Growth

Period post-1981 till present.
The growth rate of the country’s population though remained high, started slowing down gradually. This was due to a moderate decline in fertility due to the use of modern contraceptives.

Phase 5 : Period of Contraction

India has not entered this phase. Developed countries like Japan and western European nations are in this phase.
During this phase, the population starts to contract due to low birth rate although the death rate is also very low.

	Birth rate	Death Rate
Phase 1	HIGH	HIGH
Phase 2	High	Medium
Phase 3	HIGH	Low
Phase 4	MEDIUM	LOW
Phase 5	LOWEST	LOWEST

Trade and Commerce from 200 BC to 300 AD

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Trade and Commerce from 200 BC to 300 AD

This article deals with ‘ Trade and Commerce from 200 BC to 300 AD ’. This is part of our series on ‘Ancient History’ which is an important pillar of GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Silk Route

Silk Route extended was 4,350 km long stretching from Lo-yang on Hwang – He in China to Cteisiphon on Tigris in West Asia.
There was flourishing long-distance trade during this period corroborated by
- Texts: Jataka Stories has stories of trade with Suvarnadvipa (South East Asia) and Ratnadvipa (LANKA) , Sangam Poetry (Indo-Roman trade) , Periplus Maris Erythraei etc.
- Archaeology: Dwarka & Bet Dwarka in Gujarat, Kaveripattinam, Muziris etc.
A major stimulus to trade was due to
- The demand for Chinese silk in the Mediterranean Region. Chinese silk was traded through India rather than being sent directly. The reason was the political situation. Parthians were powerful rulers along the North-Western boundary of the Indian subcontinent. There was constant hostility between them & the Roman Empire. Hence, trade routes between China & the Roman Empire were disturbed. (Route : China TO India via Silk Route => Indian Ports of Barbaricum (on Indus) & Baroach => Alexandria)
- Existence of Kushana rule which provided stability & safety to trade + reduction in tariffs.
- Traders started to take advantage of Monsoon winds. Periplus speaks about Hippalus’s discovery of Monsoon winds.
Trade with China was disturbed at the end of the 3rd century because of certain reasons like Han Dynasty ended in 220 AD, the Byzantine Empire broke away from Rome and Kushana Empire collapsed. However trade didn’t end altogether, there were some changes in routes. Trade shifted southward with the main emphasis on oceanic trade (i.e. earlier Silk to India was brought overland and then from India went to the Mediterranean world by Sea but now whole supply route shifted to Sea Route).

Trade with East & South-East Asia

Earlier, the relation between India & South-East Asia seen as political & cultural colonisation of the latter. But that perception has changed now as there were reciprocal links between India & South Asia.
Ancient Sanskrit & Pali Text refer to South Asia as Suvarnadvipa & Suvarnabhumi i.e. land of gold and associated with riches.
Since coinage was absent in SE Asia – trade must have been Barter or with the use of cowrie shells .

Major imports & exports included

Export	1. Cotton Cloth 2. Sugar 3. Certain kind of pottery
Import	1. Gold 2. Spices (cinnamon & cloves) 3. Aromatics Some of these items especially Spices were shipped to the western world. Trade in spices was an attempt to meet the great demand of spices from the Roman world. Indian production alone couldn’t satisfy their needs.

Indo – Roman Trade

Trade increased during this period because

By the end of the last century BCE, Rome emerged as the superpower of the Mediterranean world, displacing the Greek kingdoms, and the republic became an empire in 27 BCE under Emperor Augustus. Rome was the largest and wealthiest city in the world and wealth of Rome greatly increased the demand for various products from India, especially the spices and textiles of the Tamil country, resulting in a great expansion of trade.
Discovery of the pattern of monsoon winds in the Arabian Sea in the first century CE by Hippalus, an Egyptian sailor. Till then, only Arabs had the knowledge of these winds giving them monopoly of trade between India and Mediterranean world.
Overland route between India and Roman Empire became vulnerable to attacks by Parthians in Iran due enmity between Romans and Parthians.

Items of Export

Spices (especially Pepper)
Fragrant woods
Silk came from China to India and from India send to Roman World
Cotton fabric from Madurai
Pearls

Items of Import

Roman wine
Yavana lamp
Coins
Coral
wheat for the Graeco-Romans in the Tamil ports.

Roman Coins

Indians imported very few goods but were eager to get precious metal, so quest for Roman gold was driving force behind India’s International trade.
Large number of Roman coins have been discovered, especially in South India .
Roman Kings whose coins found

Maximum	– Maximum coins belonged to the reign of Augustus (31 BC -14 AD) and Tiberius (14 AD – 37 AD) . \ – Interestingly , their local imitations also found .
Post-Nero	Post-Nero (64AD) due to debasement of Roman currency shortage of Roman Coins seen.

Issue of Drain of Gold from the Roman Empire
- Roman Gold was the main item of demand in return for Indian Exports (especially spices) .
- Periplus & Sangam poems tell us about the ships of Yavannas coming with gold & returning with black pepper.
- Romilla Thappar has called Black Pepper as Black Gold of India due to gold India was getting in return for pepper
- In fact drain of wealth was so much that Romans became anxious. Roman historian Pliny complained of the trade with the east being a serious drain on the income of Rome. 1/5th of gold used in trade was being sent to India for Spice Trade

Impact of Trade on other fields

1 . Impact on Science

Two branches of science were surely impacted

1.1 Astronomy

Deep-sea navigation required reliable study of stars. Hence, it received a mercantile patronage.
Astronomy also developed due to the exchange of ideas with West Asia where this field was already very much developed.

1.2 Medicine

Indian herbal knowledge reached the western world.
Greek botanist Theophrastus in ‘History of Plants’ tells about the medicinal use of various Indian plants and herbs .

2. Impact on Culture

2.1 Western World

North India was very much impacted by Hellenistic ideas as

The emergence of Gandhara art.
Indian folk-tales and fables travelled westwards (Panchatantra) .
Chaturanga – chess using four traditional wings of army & played by 4 players reached Persia.
Certain aspects of the life of Christ-like supernatural birth & temptation by Devil influenced by legends of life of Buddha .

2.2 Central Asia

Buddhism reached to Central Asia through Traders.
Indian traders patronised Buddhist Monasteries at places like Kashgar, Kucha, Khotan etc.

2.3 China

Goods of Chinese origin started to be used in India. Bamboo, Chinese Patta etc. clearly show that they were Chinese.
Buddhist missionaries arrived in China & established themselves at Famous White House Monastery at Lo Yang (starting point of Silk Route) .

2.4 South East Asia

Legends about the origin of kingdoms in south-east Asia trace the story back to Indian princes and merchants. Eg: Indian brahman, Kaundinya, is said to have married a Cambodian princess, & introduced Indian culture to Cambodia.
Indian literature narrates the adventures of Indian travellers in these part .

Sangam Literature

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Sangam Literature

This article deals with ‘ Sangam Literature ’. This is part of our series on ‘Ancient History’ which is an important pillar of GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

What is Sangam Literature?

Sangam literature is oral bardic literature belonging to time period 200 BC to 300 AD.

The legend associated with Sangam Poetry

History of the Sangam is clogged in legends.

Tradition says there were three Sangams patronised by Pandyas when Scholars assembled to publish their works . Work of only last one survives .
Word Sangam is of Indo Aryan Origin and is used nowhere in Sangam Literature. Scholars like Kamil Zvelebil argue that it should be called Classical Literature .
In reality, Poems were not the product of Sangam. Poems were much earlier composed in oral form by Bards between 200 BC to 300 CE. Word Sangam was associated with them when commentaries on it were written in 12-14th Century under Pandya patronage .

Sangam	Place	Chairman	Kingdom	Books
First	Then-madurai	Agasthya	Pandya	No book survived
Second	Kapatapuram	Agasthya	Pandya	No book survived
Third	Madurai	Nakirrar	Pandya	Covers entire corpus of Sangam literature

These poems were written by

Bards who roamed about singing in praise of their patron chiefs and heroes .
Some were also composed by scholarly poets who followed the bardic tradition like Kapilar and Gautamanar .

Two genre i.e. Akam and Puram

The whole text is presented in two genres

Akam	– Love poems – Deal with the inner life of people . – Love is expressed in separation & union ; before or after marriage & extramarital love .
Puram	Public or War Poems Deals with the outer life of people. Speak of public celebration of the feats of the heroes even the death of heroes in wars .

Tinai Concept & Sangam Poems

According to the Tinai concept, Tamilaham was divided into five landscapes or eco-regions, Aintinai namely Kurinji, Palai Mullai, Marutam and Neital. Each region had distinct characteristics – a presiding deity, people and cultural life according to the environmental conditions .

Tinai	Meaning	Akam Theme	Puram Theme
Kurinji	Hilly Zone	Clandestine meeting of the hero and the heroine	Cattle Raid
Palai	Arid Zone	Separation of lovers	Victory
Mullai	Pastoral Tracts	patient waiting on the part of wife for the return of her husband from a journey	Invasions
Marutam	Wet land /Riverine landscape	Lover’s quarrel due to hero’s infidelity	Seige of enemy fort
Neital	Sea Coast	Bemoaning the lover’s absence	Fierce Battle

Problem in Dating

There is problem in dating as several periods are represented in Sangam Literature

Period of actual composition and oral transmission : 2nd century B.C. to A.D. 3rd century.
Period of the codification when written form was given : 6th and 9th centuries.
Period of the commentaries : 12th – 14th centuries ( under Pandyan rulers of Madurai) – These commentaries infact give name Sangam to whole corpus

it is hard to clearly sort out the earlier from the later as they are all mixed up

Other Points

Poet in Sangam Poetry doesn’t speak through his / her own persona but uses various characters such as heroine , her friend , her foster mother or hero as his mouthpiece .
Spanned over a few centuries, the poems reflect the gradual development of the Tamil language and literature.
It is a great source of Socio-Economic life as well . Poets have taken real life situations for similes, metaphors etc .

Classification

Ettutokai	Consist of 8 collections of Poems (out of 8, 6 belong to Sangam Period)
Pattuppattu	– Ten songs – 9 out of 10 songs belong to Sangam Age .
Grammar	Tolkappiyam (Author – Tolkapiyar) is a work of Tamil Grammar. Earliest parts of the first two books of Tolkappiyam belong to Sangam Period & rest belong to later date corresponding to 400-500 AD .

Sangam Literature is not a homogenous corpus either in time or in style but spread over vast time of 5 centuries and later additions in main texts .

These were quite spontaneous songs created by bards in praise of heroes & powerful chiefs.

Side Topic : Importance of these bards

Most important basis of legitimisation of political power in south India was eulogy of poets . Poet’s praise of generosity & heroism of King that could attain lasting fame for him & conversely , poet’s anger could prove costly .
Sangam texts are secular in nature because unlike Vedic texts , they were composed by various poets in praise of heroes & heroines .

What Sangam Poems tell ?

1 . Sangam Poems are pervaded with a warrior ethic .

The goal of the hero of Puram poems was Pukal (glory , fame) and heroic death was greatly valued.
It was believed that the spirit of a warrior who died in battle dwelt in Paradise. A poem suggests that those who didn’t die in battle were cut with swords before funerary rights to simulate death in battle.

“If a child of my clan should die,
if it is born dead, a mere gob of flesh
not yet human,
They will put it to the sword, to give the thing a warrior’s death”

Losing one’s life in the battle, and that too with wounds on the chest was considered a great honour. On the contrary, wounds on the back were considered a sign of cowardice or disgrace. Numerous poems speak about the delight of brave mothers over the death of their sons in the battle with wounds on the chest.

“Her delight
When she heard that her son fell in battle Felling an elephant,
Was greater than at his birth”

The practice of Vattakiruthal is also mentioned in which defeated king committed ritual suicide by starving himself to death.

2. Cult of Hero Worship

Chiefs needed strong warriors. To attract , warriors were rewarded with the booty or land, if they happened to be alive. But more important was their reward if they lose their life by making them on par with Gods through Sangam Poems .

3. Geography

In ancient Sangam poetry, Tamilaham is portrayed as a combination of five Tinais (Aintinai) or 5 Ecozones and bards tried to correlate the activities to ecological perceptions. (as explained above)

4. Polity

Three type of Chiefs were mentioned in Sangam poems

Kizar	Little Chiefs	Headman of village(Ur) Some were subjugated by bigger chiefs and they served them in campaigns & awarded in return .
Velir	Bigger Chiefs	Intermediate chiefs who were less powerful than Vendars . They were many in number and controlled the territories of varied geographical nature, mainly hilly and forest areas, that were in between the muvendar’s fertile territories.
Vendar	Biggest Chiefs	These were the most powerful chiefdoms. There were three Vendars also known as Muvendars . These included Chera, Chola and Pandya . They controlled the fertile territories and thus had more resources at their disposal . They also patronised the bards and poets so that they glorified their name and fame. Main concern of Vendars was subordination of Velir chiefs who were next in importance. For this, they adopted following ways :- Subjugation through combats . Marriage alliances : Cholas, Cheras & Pandyas often took daughters of Velir as wife.

5. Interaction between south and north

Sangam poems also reflect emergence of new basis of legitimisation by performance of Brahmanical sacrifices , establishing links with northern epic traditions etc .
Certain chiefs were described in poems to have emerged from sacrificial fire pits of northern sages like Sage Agasthya.
Sangam poets were familiar with the Mahabharata and Ramayana legends and infact Chola, Chera and Pandya kings claim to have fed the warring armies on the eve of war.

6. Trade with Yavanas

Sangam Poems refers to Yavanas (Romans) coming by ships into ports of South India bringing Gold and wine and sailing away with cargoes of Pepper from Kaveripattanam and Muziris.

7. Social Classification

The social classification of Varna was known to Sangam Poets. There is mention of Arashar (King) , Vaishiyar (traders) & Velalar (farmers) . Brahmins are also mentioned . However, 4 fold varna classification had little application to ancient Tamil Society. More relevant basis of classification was Kuti which were clan based descent groups . Although associated with lineage and hereditary occupation , there were no real restrictions on inter dining and social interactions among Kuti Groups.

8. Position of Women

Interestingly there were 30 women composers .
In these poems, women appear to be regularly labouring in the production process along with the men in different contexts . 60% of the agricultural process were associated with the women.
We also find that , women were engaged in rearing of sheep and cattle (in Pasture Zone) . In Coastal Zone , they were engaged in Salt manufacturing .
There are also references of kings employing women bodyguards.
Women also appear in Sangam texts as proud and glorified mothers of heroes .
Sangam poems speak about various types of prostitutes and illicit and stealthy love is also a regular theme

9. Deities

These poems also tell about the various deities worshipped by people of Tamilaham in Sangam period . These deities were also associated with different Ecological Zones or Tinais . Now it is considered that seeds of Bhakti in south India lies in Sangam age.

Region	Deities
Kurinji	Murukkam (later identified with Karttikeya)
Mullai	Mayon (later identified with Vishnu)
Marutam	Ventan
Neytal	Varunan (god of Sea)
Palai	Korravai (Devi)

Indian Dynasties during 200 BC to 300 AD

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Indian Dynasties during 200 BC to 300 AD

This article deals with ‘ Indian Dynasties during 200 BC to 300 AD ’ . This is part of our series on ‘Ancient History’ which is an important pillar of GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

Period between circa 200 B.C. and A.D. 300 in conventional historical writings is called dark period because of the absence of territorial large imperial dynasty (with the exception of Kushanas).

But viewed differently, this period was important due to following developments
- Development of extensive economic & cultural contacts within country and with West and Central Asia (through silk road , maritime etc.).
- Evolution of new art forms at Mathura, Sarnath, Sanchi and Amravati.
- Exalted notion of kingship developed with its pompous titles & identification with divinity .
- State formation outside Northern India happened . Eg: Kalinga under Kharvela and Satavahanas in Deccan.
- Centre of power moved North West (from Gangetic Plains) due to various invasions .
- City life spread , trade flourished and use of metallic money as medium of exchange became widespread.
- Devotional worship of images in shrines started.

Sources of Information

1 . Jataka Stories

Jatakas were written during this period.
Jataka contains many stories of ordinary people, traders & travellers .

2 . Puranas

Puranas and Epics are rich source of information on Dynasties and emergence of early Hindu cults .

3. Dharmashastras

3.1 Manava Dharmasutra aka Manu Smriti (Source for 200 BC to 200 AD)

Manu Smriti was written in 2-3rd Century BC. But the laws codified in it influenced the life from 200BC to 200AD.
Text vigorously defended Brahmanical privileges against enemies personified as Shudras & Mlechchhas & sought to strengthen the old alliance between Kings & Brahmanas .

3.2 Yajnavalkya Smriti (100 AD to 300 AD)

Yajnavalkya Smriti gives glimmers of society between circa 100 to 300 AD.

4 . Sanskrit Literature

Many Sanskrit works were written during this time. Eg :

Writer	Work
Ashvaghosha	Buddhacharita (Hagiography of Buddha)
Kalidasa	1. Malvikagnimitram 2. Abhijanashakuntalam 3. Raghuvamsha 4. Meghdutta
Charaka & Shushruta	Medical works

Later works of Mahayana thinkers such as Nagarjuna, Vasubandhu etc. are all in Sanskrit.

5 . Mahabhashya

Mahabhashya is a commentary on Panini’s Ashtadhayayi written by Patanjali .
Patanjali was contemporary of Pushyamitra Shunga .

6 . Epics

This period witnessed composition of the greater portions of two epics , namely,

The Ramayana
The Mahabharata

7. Sangam Literature

Sangam Literature is the name given to Tamil literature which gives insight into the social, political, religious etc. life in the region known as Tamilaham.
It is the main source of knowledge about the polity and administration of early Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas .

8. Graeco – Roman Texts

Works of Arrian, Strabo, Ptolemy & Pliny the elder were written during this period.

Writer	Text
Strabo	Geographikon
Ptolemy	Geography (c. AD 150)
Pliny	Naturalis Historia (about 79 AD)

8.1 Periplus Maris Erythraei

This book was authored by an unknown Egyptian Greek involved in the trade who travelled from the Red Sea to India (around 80 BC) & wrote a book based on his experience & observation.
He left a record of its ports, harbours and merchandise. This book gives us an idea of maritime activities.
‘Periplus’ claims that Hippalus a mariner, was knowledgable about the monsoon winds that shortens the round-trip from India to the Red Sea and vice versa.

8.2 Vienna Papyrus

This document was written in the 2nd Century AD in Greek (language).
The document is presently preserved in the Vienna Museum and hence known as Vienna Papyrus.
It records terms of business deal & loan between two shippers of Alexandria & Muziri.
It also tells about the route, how commodities reached from Muziri to Alexandria.

9. Chinese Accounts

Chinese texts named Ch’ien Han-Shu & Hou Han-Shu gives us information on movement & migration of people in Central Asia.

10 . Archaeology

North India : Late NBPW & Post NBPW levels represent the period between 200 BC and 300 AD.
Deccan & South India: This period corresponds to the transition from later Megalithic Phase to Early Urban Phase.

11. Inscriptions

Range & number of inscriptions increased dramatically.

North India – Royal inscriptions reflect the transition from Prakrit towards Sanskrit.
South India – Earliest inscription made an appearance.
Royal inscriptions – Provide details dynastic histories.
Ordinary inscriptions – contain a record of pious donations made by ordinary men.

12. Coins

Expansion of state polities and the spread of urban centres led to the development of coinage.

Indo – Greeks: Almost all information about them comes from their coins.
Kushanas coins: dealt in the chapter.
Satavahana coins
Roman coins provide us with information about Indo-Roman trade interactions.
City coins issued by urban administration like Ujjain , Vidisha & Taxila etc.

1. North India Dynasties

1.1 Shungas

Shungas were Brahmins from Ujjain & worked as an official under Maurayas.
This dynasty was founded by Pushymitra Shunga.

Important rulers of Shungas

Pushyamitra Shunga

Pushyamitra assassinated the last Mauryan king Brihadratha in 180 BC (works of Banabhata corroborate this).
He was a Brahmin himself and supporter of Brahmanism. He performed Ashvameda Yajna after proclaiming the throne.
Buddhist sources like ‘Divyavadana’ depicts that he persecuted Buddhists & destroyed many Buddhist monasteries.
His kingdom extended only over Pataliputra (capital), Ayodhya & Vidisha.
From Malvikagnimitrum (of Kalidasa), we come to know that he faced various incursions of Yavanas (Bactrian Greeks) in the North West but was able to defeat them with help of his grandson (Agnimitra Shunga).
According to Puranas, he reigned for 36 years & succeeded by his grandson Agnimitra Shunga.

Agnimitra Shunga

Malvikagnimitram (of Kalidasa) presents a different picture of Shunga rule under Agnimitra than that presented by Divyavadana.
There were frequent clashes with Bactrian Greeks during his reign as well. Patanjali (2nd century BC grammarian) states that Yavanas were able to come up to Saketa .

Later kings

10 Shunga kings are supposed to have ruled 112 years.
They too became a victim of a conspiracy masterminded by Brahmana minister Vasudeva Kanava who started Kanava Dynasty.

Side Topic: Besnagar Inscription of Heliodorus

Besnagar is situated near Vidisha.
Here Heliodorus (ambassador of Greek king Antialkidas) constructed Pillar of Garuda (vehicle of Vishnu) with inscription in Prakrit.
This shows that Shungas continued the Mauryan tradition of entertaining greek ambassadors.
In the inscription, Greek ambassador describes himself to be a worshipper of God Vasudeva Krishna.
This pillar is quite different from earlier Maurya pillars. (it was small, not polished and not monolithic) .

1.2 Indo-Greeks

Indo-Greeks are known as ‘Yavanas’ in Indian sources.
They were originally Satraps (principalities) of Seleucid Empire of West Asia. Later, the Seleucid Empire started to weaken. As a result, around 250 BC, Governor of Bactria, Diodotus, revolted and started to rule as an independent ruler of Bactria with capital at Bactra (Majar-e-Sharif).
Most important Indo-Greek king was Menander who can be identified as King Milinda of book Milindapanha who poses a number of question to Buddhist Monk Nagasena and reigned between 165-130 BC. He is said to have ruled a large kingdom as his coins have been found over an extensive area ranging from the valleys of the Kabul and Indus rivers to as far as western Uttar Pradesh. The incident shown in Milindapanha is claimed to have resulted in Menander’s conversion to Buddhism. This was a period when Greeks were interested in Buddhism, so such a manual is extremely useful to know about the propagation of religion.

Another Indo-Greek king whose name is remembered is Antialcidas (or Antialkidas), (c. 110 BC). He is known to us primarily because his emissary, Heliodorus, was sent to the court of King Bhagabhadra and he erected a pillar with its capital adorned by a figure of Garuda, in honour of God Krishna (Vasudeva). Heliodorus had evidently become a follower of Vasudeva Krishna.

Coins of Indo-Greek Kings

Distinguishing feature of the reign of the Indo-Greek kings was their exquisite coinage. These coins carried the portrait of the reigning king on one side with his name and Greek or Indian deities on the other side.
Most of these coins were bilingual with Greek Language-Greek Script & Prakrit Language-Kharosthi Script.
34 out of 45 Indo Greek kings were known through the coins .
They also help us to date the rise of sects . Eg : Krishna Vasudeva and Balarama depicted on Indo-Greek coins shows that they were important deities.
Coins of Sakas , Parthians & Kushanas followed basic features of Indo-Greek coins including bilingual & bi-script .
Indo-Greek coins introduced innovations in Indian numismatics, such as
- die-striking
- use of legends
- portraits of rulers
- representation of deities.

Fall of Indo-Greeks

Attack from Scythian tribes: With the construction of the Chinese Wall, the Scythians could not move towards China and in turn attacked Greeks and Parthians. Parthians in return also started to attack Greeks. Hence, by about 165 BCE, Bactria was lost to the Parthians and Sakas. After this, the Indo-Greeks continued to rule in central and southern Afghanistan and north-western India.
The Greeks continued to be beset with internal squabbles among many claimants to power, and the names of more than thirty kings can be identified from their coins. It is possible that they all ruled small pockets as autonomous rulers and issued their own coinage.

Significance of their rule

They introduced the Hellenistic art features in north-western India which culminated in the Gandhara art style.
Coinage of Indo-Greeks was far ahead of their time in quality and aesthetics which impacted the later coinage in India .

Side Topic: Movements of the Pastoralists & building of Empires

Greek kingdoms declined in north-west due to attack on Bactria by nomadic peoples from central Asia.

Scythians/ Sakas inhabited the region around Lake Issyk-Kul and the river Jaxartes. They were attacked by Yueh-Chih/Yuezhi forcing Scythians to migrate westward.
Yueh-Chih (original home – west China) attacked Scythians because they were attacked by Xiung Nu (Hunas).
Xiung Nu were impacted because their pastures dried up and Chinese Emperor Shi Huang Ti built THE GREAT WALL restricting their movement and raids toward China.

(Source : Hou Han Shu and Chien Han Shu )

Movements of the Pastoralists & building of Empires

1.3 Sakas

Sakas aka Scythians were originally the inhabitants of Central Asia (the region around Lake Issyk-Kul and river Jaxartes).
Sources sometimes mention Scythians & Parthians together as Saka-Pahlawa.
Sakas destroyed the Greek suzerainty over Bactria with their continuous attacks.
There were many branches of Sakas ruling simultaneously like

1	Settled in Afghanistan
2	Settled in Punjab. Ruled with Taxila as their capital.
3	Ruled from Mathura.
4	Established themselves in Western & Central India. Their rule continued till the 4th century AD.

In India, the Sakas assimilated into the Hindu society. They began to adopt Hindu names and religious beliefs, so much so that their coins had representations of Hindu gods on one side.

Main rulers of Sakas

1 . Maues / Moga

He was the earliest Saka King in Gandhara with rule starting from circa 80 BCE.
We come to know about Maues from his coins & inscriptions.
He also established Stupa during his period.

2. Azes I

Azes I succeeded Maues.
He successfully attacked and defeated the last Indo-Greek king in North India (Hippostratos) and extended Saka rule as far as Mathura.

Inscription of Azes I has led BN Mukherjee to conclude that it was Azes I who started an era around 57 BC known as Vikram Era. Hence, a ruler who started an era in 57 BC wasn’t Vikramaditya but Saka ruler Azes I.

3 . Azilises & Azes II

Azilises succeeded Azes 1 who was further succeeded by Azes II.
They were definitely controlling Taxila and their control extended tIll Ganga Yamuna Doab.
They are largely known from their inscriptions.

Rudradaman

He is one of the most famous Saka Kshatrapas who ruled between 130–150 CE.
His exploits are celebrated in the famous rock inscription of Junagadh (in Gujarat).
According to the inscription, he had even defeated the Satavahanas in battle.
His name indicates that the process of assimilation into Indian society was complete by that time.

Title of Saka Kings

Saka Kings used Iranian title King of Kings (Shahanu Shahi)
- This point towards the existence of lesser chieftains or smaller kings.
- There were Provincial Governors known as Kshatrapas & Mahakshatrapas who were appointed by the king.
=> Hence, there was a confederation of chieftains headed by the Saka Kings.
But Chieftains and Governors exercised a considerable degree of autonomy.

Satrap System

Sakas along with Parthians introduced Satrap system. It was similar to Achaemenid & Seleucid systems in Iran in which
- Kingdom was divided into Provinces.
- Each Province was under a Provincial Governor called Mahakshatrapa (The Great Satrap).
- Governors with lower status were called Kshatrapas (Satraps).
Governors enjoyed AUTONOMY. They issued their own inscriptions & minted their own coins.
Later, these Kshatrapas asserted their independence.

1.4 Parthians aka Pahlawas

Rule of Sakas & Parthians was simultaneous in North & North-West India.
Parthians originated in Iran & later moved to Indo- Iranian borderlands .

Gondophaes

Aka Guduvhara.
Most prominent Parthian King.
Ruled in first century A.D.
Area: Kabul to Panjab
St. Thomas travelled to his court for the propagation of Christianity

Other points

Their rule was marked by scarcity of silver coins . It is possible that silver coins of predecessors i.e. Sakas and Indo – Greeks served their needs .
Their rule ended with rise of the Kushanas .
Gradually, Parthians assimilated in the Indian society .

1.5 Kushanas

Introduction

They are mentioned in Chinese Annals as Yueh Chi living around Lake Ysyk Kol. They were attacked & defeated by Xiung Nu (Hunas) and subsequently, Yueh Chi moved westwards.
There were 5 Yeuh- Chi principalities & one was Kuei – Shang (Kushanas) with capital (initial) at Bactra (Majar e Sharif).

Kushana rulers

1 . Kujula Kadphises

He is also known as Kadphises I.
Kujula Kadphises amalgamated 5 Yueh Chih principalities.
He established control south of Hindu-Kush Mountains and issued coins suggesting association with Buddhism .

2. Vima Kadphises

He was the son of Kujula Kadphises.
He expanded the empire to Kabul, Indus Valley & Mathura region.
He was the first in Indian subcontinent to issue gold coins.
His coins suggest an association with Shiva.

3. Kanishka

Kushana rule reached its zenith during his reign.
His reign began in 78 AD which also marks the start of Shaka Era.
His central Asian identity with boots, coat etc. is imprinted on a statue, unfortunately headless, found near Mathura.
His empire consisted of
- Afghanistan,
- Xinjiang (China)
- Central Asia up to the north of Oxus river
- Indian regions

Indian Dynasties during 200 BC to 300 AD

Towards the end of his reign, he led an unsuccessful military campaign against Chinese in which his forces were defeated & he was forced to pay tribute.
He is celebrated as the patron of Buddhism. Northern Buddhists claimed that Kanishka organised the Fourth Buddhist Council to clarify Buddhist doctrine ( parallel to Theravada (South) Buddhism claim that Ashoka organised 3rd Council). A most significant outcome of this council was (1) recognition to new Buddhist sects and (2) Missionaries were sent to Central Asia.
But given the territorial span, royal patronage was extended to Buddhism, Jainism, Bhagavata and Shaiva sects, Zoroastrianism and Hellenistic cults. Various deities like Shiva, Buddha, Nana & many other West-Asian divinities can be found on their coins.

4. Successors

His immediate successors were Vasishka, Huvishka, Kanishka 2 & Vasudeva I.
Empire started to decline from the time of Vasudeva I & Vasudeva 2 was last Kushana ruler. Their rule ended in 262 AD.

Kushana Coinage

Kushana coins were of the highest quality and conformed to the weight standards of Roman coins.
In the coins, Kushana rulers are referred to as “king of kings”, “Caesar”, “lord of all lands” and by other such titles. Unfortunately, the titles did not leave much room on the coins for the actual name of the ruler.
Kushana coins tell us that Kushanas were eclectic. Different divinities like Shiva, Buddha, Nana etc. on their coins corroborate this fact.
Coins of Kushanas shows that Kushanas were appropriating Divine Status for the Kings because of features like a halo around the head, flames on shoulders etc.
Importance of the Kushana coins in international transactions is borne out by the discovery of Kushana coins in Ethiopia.

Art and Literature during Kushanas

During the reign of Kushanas, art and literature flourished. This was partly due to royal patronage and partly due to other factors, like the growing ascendancy of Mahayana Buddhism, which allowed the representation of the person of Buddha in human form.
Two separate schools of art developed during this period
1. Gandhara School: It was influenced by Greeks and also known as Indo-Greek style of sculpture and art.
2. Mathura School: It was red sandstone sculpture produced in areas around Mathura.
Buddhists began to carve out rock caves in the hills of western India, which served as religious centres with chaityas and viharas, stretching from the Ajanta caves to the Kanheri caves in Mumbai. Large statues of Buddha were sculpted in these caves as a part of the Mahayana tradition.
Kanishka was the patron of Buddhist philosophers such as Asvaghosha (writer of Buddhacharita and Sariputraprakarana), Parsva and Vasumitra, as well as the great Buddhist teacher Nagarjuna. Among the Hindu treatises, Manusmriti and Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra took final shape during this period.

2. South India

2.1 Mahameghavahanas

Mahameghavahanas were ruled Kalinga in Orissa (earlier Kalinga was conquered by Asoka from the local power).
During Post-Maurya period again came under the local line of rulers named Mahameghavahana who descended from an ancient line of the Chedis.

Kharvela

He was the third Mahameghavahana ruler.
Important Source: Hathigumpha Cave Inscription (near Bhubaneswar) which provides the following information
- It gives a year-wise account of his reign.
- Tell his military victories in north, west and south India .
- Undertook many public works.
- As practising Jaina excavated cave-shelters for Jaina monks on Udayagiri hills.
Agricultural Expansion: Kharavela refers to irrigation canals built by the Nandas, but proudly mentions his own efforts in this direction.
Kharavela did not issue coins. It is possible that the Kalingan economy was not yet ready for its own coinage.
Mahameghavahana Dynasty collapsed after his demise .

2.2 Satavahanas

Sources

Satavahanas are the Andhras of Puranas.
Gatha Saptasati, a Prakrit text composed by the Satavahana king Hala.
Inscriptions like Naneghat & Nashik inscription.
Account of Pliny: Eg – Andhra country had 30 walled cities and a large army of 1 lakh infantry, 2000 cavalry & 1000 elephants.
Accounts of Periplus in Periplus Maris Erythraei.
Coins of Satavahanas. Eg – Coins of Yajnashri Satkarni has ship on the coins showing the importance of Trade & Commerce.

Satavahana rulers

Although there is controversy about dates but a sequence of rulers is fairly clear.

1 . Initial rulers

Satavahana dynasty was founded by Simuka who was followed by Kanha (brother of Simuka) followed by Satakarni I.

2. Satkarni I

Naganika (wife of Satkarni I) in his Naneghat inscription describes him as Lord of Dakshinapatha who performed two Ashvamedha Yajanas.

3. Gautamiputra Satkarni

Gautamiputra Satakarni was the greatest of the Satavahana kings.
He defeated the Shaka ruler Nahapana and reissued the coins of Nahapana with his own royal insignia.
Achievements are engraved in Inscription of his mother (Gautami Balashri) in Nashik. He is described as the destroyer of Shakas, Pahlavas, & Yavanas.
He is also said to have performed the prestigious Vedic Asvamedha sacrifice.
Towards the end of his reign, he suffered defeats from Rudradaman I.

4 . Vasishthiputra Pulumayi

Vasishthiputra Pulumayi, the successor of Gautamiputra Satakarni, expanded the frontiers of the Satavahana Empire. The coins issued by him are found scattered in many parts of south India.

5. Yajnashri Satkarni

Yajnashri Satkarni was another famous ruler who issued coins with a ship motif, indicating the importance of the overseas trade during his reign.

Satavahana dynasty came to end in mid 3rd century CE . The breakup of empire paved way for the rise of

Vakatakas in Deccan
Kadambas in Mysore
Abhiras in Maharashtra
Ikshvakus in Andhra

Descent of Satavahanas

They claimed Brahamana descent.
Nashik Inscription states them to be Ekabamhana i.e. Peerless Brahamana and Khatiya dapa manamada i.e. who destroyed the pride of Kshatriyas.

Use of Matronyms

Satavahanas use name of their mother like Gautamiputra Satkarni, Vasishthiputra Pulumayi etc. This is significant, however, this doesn’t mean they followed the matriarchal system. Their succession was still Patrilineal.
They were followers of cross-cousin system of marriage, especially with father’s sister’s daughter.

Land Grants

Offering land grants was an important development of the Satavahana times. The beneficiaries of these grants were mostly Buddhists and Brahmins. The Naneghat inscription refers to tax exemptions given to the lands granted to Buddhist monks. These land donations created a group of people who did not cultivate but owned land.

2.3 Muvendors: Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas

From Sangam poetry, we come to know that Muvendar, ‘the three crowned kings’, the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas controlled major agrarian territories, trade routes and towns.

Cholas

The area under their control included central and northern Tamil Nadu i.e. Kaveri delta also known as Cholamandalam.
Capital: Uraiyur
Main Port : Puhar or Kaviripattinam
Emblem: Tiger
Sangam literature point towards fact that Kaviripattinam attracted merchants from various regions of the Indian Ocean and Roman Empire.
Sangam poems portray Karikalan as the greatest Chola of the Sangam age. Karikalan’s foremost military achievement was the defeat of the Cheras and the Pandyas, supported by as many as eleven Velir chieftains at Venni. He is credited with converting forest into habitable regions and developing agriculture by providing irrigation through the embankment of the Kaveri and building reservoirs.
Perunarkilli performed the Vedic sacrifice Rajasuyam or Rajasuya Yajna.

Cheras

The area under their control included central and northern parts of Kerala and Kongu region of Tamil Nadu.
Capital: Karur
Main Port: Muziris
Emblem: Bow and Arrow
Sangam poems speak about eight Chera kings, their territory and fame.

Pandyas

Capital: Madurai
Main port: Korkai
Emblem: Fish
According to traditions, they patronized the Tamil Sangams and facilitated the compilation of the Sangam poems .

Migration

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Migration

This article deals with ‘ Migration.’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here .

What is Migration?

Migration refers to spatial mobility between one geographical unit and another, generally involving a change of residence for a considerable period.
The Census defines a migrant as a person residing in a place other than their place of birth or who has changed his/ her usual residence to another place.
Migration includes both additive (at the place of destination) and separative (at the place of origin) aspects.

Types of Migration in India

India has witnessed waves of migrants coming from Central and West Asia. The history of India is a history of waves of migrants arriving and settling one after another in different parts of the country. Similarly, many people from India have been migrating to places in search of better opportunities, especially to the Middle East, Western Europe, America, Australia and East and South East Asia.

Based on Origin and Destination

Migration can be divided into the following types based on origin and destination:

Rural to Rural R → R (mostly in cases of marriages only)
Rural to Urban R → U (also known as Urbanisation)
Urban to Urban U → U
Urban to Rural U → R (very unlikely. It includes government employees going to a village for a job or reverse migration of the earlier migrant)

Based on Country of Destination

Another basis of division can be whether within or outside the country.

Internal Migration: Internal Migration occurs within the same country. It can further be divided into
- Intra-state: Within State
- Inter-state: Between States
International Migration: International Migration occurs from one country to another country.

Based on Duration

Migration can also be classified based on the duration.

Permanent Migration
Semi-Permanent (due to a lack of economic resources, people cannot sustain their living in the destination regions and are forced to migrate back).
Seasonal / Circular (because of the rainfed nature of our agriculture and the lack of employment opportunities, people migrate to other areas during lean season and return to the source region once that period is over).

Trends of migration in India

According to Census 2011, 45.36 crore people, i.e. 37% of the population or every third citizen of India is a migrant —now settled in a place different from their previous residence.

1 . Intrastate Migration

About three-fourths of all intrastate migrants were females, demonstrating that marriage is the prime reason for such migration. Most people, 49%, migrate for marriage (while globally, migration is an attempt by people to survive and prosper, in India, marriage appears to be the biggest reason why people migrate).
Other reasons
- Rural to Urban in search of good jobs and educational facilities.
- Urban to Urban: Due to job transfers

2 . Interstate Migration

In India, people migrate from underdeveloped states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar etc., to comparatively developed regions like Maharashtra, Punjab, NCR Delhi, Chandigarh etc.
As per the 2001 census, Maharashtra occupied first place in the list with 2.3 million net in-migrants, followed by Delhi, Gujarat and Haryana. On the other hand, Uttar Pradesh (-2.6 million) and Bihar (-1.7 million) were the states which had the largest number of net out-migrants from the state.

Interstate Migration is also of two types with different destinations.

2.1 Rural as Destination

Agricultural labourers from underdeveloped states migrating to Punjab, Haryana etc.

2.2 Urban as Destination

These include groups of industrial labourers.
Due to the ICT revolution, there is large migration of skilled professionals in IT sectors to Bangalore, NCR, Mysore, Hyderabad, Chandigarh etc., where BPOs are situated.

3 . International Migration

Large-scale international migration is seen from the whole country, especially Kerala & Punjab.

Kerala	Mainly to Gulf Nations
Punjab	Mainly to Canada, UK, Australia and to lesser extend to Gulf nations

Side Topic : Curious Case of Mexican International Migrants

Mexico’s emigration problem is a unique one, with more than 98% of all Mexican migrants living in the U.S.A, the country with which Mexico shares a border that runs 3110 km in length.
The Mexican emigration rate increased substantially since the 1960s and, with more than 11% of Mexicans living abroad, Mexico is the country with the largest number of emigrants in the world.

Side Topic: Brain Drain

Brain drain is related to the selective migration of educated people. Some countries are losing the most educated segment of their population. It can be both a benefit for the receiving country and a problem for the country of origin.

Impact on receiving country

Receiving country gets highly qualified labour which contributes to the economy right away.
It promotes economic growth in strategic sectors, especially science and technology.
Receiving country doesn’t have to pay for education and health costs; for example, 30% of Mexicans with a PhD are in the US.

Country of origin

Education and health costs are not paid back to the country of origin.
It has a long-term impact on economic growth. It has the possibility of getting remittances. Many brain-drain migrants have skills that they can’t use at home. The resources and technology may not be available there.

Theories of Migration

1. Ravenstein’s Gravity Model

According to Ravenstein’s Model, the movement of the population gravitates around the centres of socio-economic opportunities.
Ravenstein’s model accepts the Distance Decay Principle, according to which ‘as distance increases, the tendency to migrate decreases’.

2. Pull-Push Hypothesis

Migration is the result of an interplay between expulsive forces at the place of origin and attractive forces at the destination.

Push Factors	1. Famine & Floods 2. War 3. Huge Crime Rate 4. Low Jobs 5. Harsh Climate
Pull Factors	1. Better Jobs 2. Good education opportunities 3. Cleanliness 4. Better Standard of living 5. Better Climate

3. Cost and Benefit Model

Difference between cost and benefits that will accrue after migration determines Migration.

Cost of Migration	Cost of travelling Costs of searching job Getting training Psychic costs
Benefit	More earnings Better living standard Enhancement of prestige

Causes of Migration

1 . Push Factors

Push factors are the factors forcing a person to leave his residence and move to some other place.

1.1 Economic Causes

Lack of jobs
Rural Poverty
Low levels of Economic development.
Development-led migration: For example, building a dam can force a number of villages to be evacuated.
The pressure of population has resulted in a high man-to-land ratio.

1.2 Socio-Cultural Causes

Caste System: Dalits feel suffocated in villages due to the low status bestowed upon them by the caste system. Hence, they migrate to an urban place where they can live anonymously.
Higher pressure on limited land in bigger families forces some members to migrate and search for jobs other than agriculture.
Marriage: Most people, 49%, migrate for marriage purposes.
Family conflicts also cause migration.

1.3 Political Causes

Targeted violence against the community creates fear among the survivors. It forces them to migrate. E.g., Large Sikh migration from Delhi to Punjab post-1984 riots and exodus of Kashmiri pandits from the valley.
Adoption of the ‘sons of the soil policy’ by the State governments. E.g., The rise of Shiv Sena in Bombay, with its hatred for the migrants and the occasional eruption of violence in the name of local parochial patriotism.

2. Pull Factors

Migrants are lured by the attractive conditions in the new place, called Pull Factors.

2.1 Economic Causes

Economic opportunities & jobs in cities and abroad act as an incentive to migrate.
Better standard of living, health & educational facilities at the destination point act as a huge pull factor to migrate. E.g., In recent years, the high rate of movement of people from India to the USA, Canada & Middle East is due to better employment opportunities, higher wages & better amenities.

2.2 Socio-Cultural Causes

Due to urban anonymity, caste doesn’t play a significant role in urban areas.

2.3 Political Causes

People want to enjoy political freedom in western countries.

3. Pull Back Factors

Pull-back is a recent phenomenon. With better opportunities for employment (due to MGNREGA and other schemes), individuals are pulled back to their native places.

Side Topic: Internal Migration due to disasters

India had the highest number of internally displaced people (IDP) due to disasters worldwide (five million till 2020).
IDPs are different from refugees. Having not crossed a border, international refugee protections do not typically cover them. They remain subject to national laws and, as such, are afforded less protection.

Consequences of Migration

1. On the destination

Migration creates pressure on urban infrastructure due to increased traffic, competition for housing facilities & water etc.
Create social and ethnic tensions and xenophobia due to a clash of interests between migrants and locals.
Mismanaged migration leads to the formation of slums and ghettos and acts as the source of the outbreak of diseases.
It leads to a skewed sex ratio in favour of males.

2. On the source

Cost of Migration on the Source

Migration results in the separation of individual migrants from their origin & relatives.
It results in a loss of human resources for the state, especially if the migration is of employable people.
Impact on women: It leads to ‘Feminisation of labour & agriculture’ at the source. Additionally, because of the male migration, wives suffer from neurosis, hysteria and depression.

Benefits of Migration on the Source

Migrants act as agents of social change. Internalised urban values are transmitted to the native place.
Remittances sent by migrants have an important impact. Remittances are mainly used for food, repayment of debts, treatment, marriages, children’s education, agricultural inputs, construction of houses, etc. For thousands of the poor villages of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh etc., internal remittance works as the lifeblood of their economy.
Migration leads to the evolution of composite culture and broadens the mental horizon of the people at large.
Migration also changes the demographic profile of rural areas in following ways following ways
- Reduced family size among the migrants as compared to non-migrants. The separation of rural male migrants from their wives for long durations tends to reduce the birth rate.
- Ageing of Villages as migrants are young, leaving old age in villages.
- Increased Sex Ratio in villages as men usually migrate, leaving females behind.

3. On migrants

The problem of identity documents deprives them of social security benefits and government socio-economic programs.
Migration and slums are inextricably linked. The migrants inhabit most slums. Such slums are deprived of primary healthcare and sanitation facilities.
Limited access to Formal Financial Services results in them being exploited by their employers, and they risk theft and personal injury while transferring their earnings.
They face political exclusion because they often don’t have voting rights at their place of destination. Further, they are the target of political rhetoric of local identity politics and are subjected to violence and abuse.
Augmenting Human capital: Evidence reveals that with rising incomes, migrant remittances can encourage investment in human capital formation through increased expenditure on health and education.

Legal Measures and Government Schemes

Inter-State Migrant Workmen Act, 1979, requires all establishments that hired inter-state migrants to be registered and all contractors who recruited these workers to be licensed. The aim was to protect the migrant workers. But it has major lacunae as it covers only those migrant workers who are hired through contractors.

Schemes

‘One Nation One Ration Card’ scheme: The government of India started the ‘One Nation One Ration Card’ scheme in 2021 to benefit the migrant population. The migrants don’t need to make separate Ration Cards at each place, and the same Ration Card can work throughout the country.
(State Specific) Project Changathi: Implemented by the Kerala State Literacy Mission, this is a literacy scheme targeted at migrant children to learn Malayalam. It helps in better integration of migrants into the local society.

Way forward

There is legislation, i.e. Interstate Migrant Workmen Act of 1979, which aims to safeguard migrant workers. But its ambit needs to be increased (as suggested above).
Rather than treating migration as a problem, destination states should aim to accommodate them into the state’s economy. There is ample evidence to support the fact that migrants generally take up those jobs and businesses, which the locals do not do.
The planning of cities should keep in mind the needs of the migrants.
Political class, civil society and NGOs should conduct inter-group interactions to ward off mistrust between natives and migrants.

Women Safety in India

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Women Safety in India

This article deals with ‘ Women Safety in India .’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

Women’s Safety includes various dimensions like sexual harassment in the workplace, rape, marital rape, dowry, acid attack etc.
India is the 4th most dangerous country in the world for women (Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Congo are ahead of India).
NCRB data (2019) shows that 88 rape cases are recorded daily in India.

Factors aggravating & affecting women safety

1 . Socio-Economic-Cultural Factors

Patriarchal nature of society: Due to the patriarchal nature of Indian society, women are considered inferior to men leading to gender-based crimes like rape, domestic violence, workplace harassment etc. Furthermore, patriarchal attitudes also create barriers for women seeking help and support.
Objectification / Commodification of women: In Indian society, women are viewed as objects to be used for men’s pleasure. It leads to a disregard for their rights and safety.
Influence of “Western culture”: The encroachment of Western values like consumerism and hedonism has changed social norms as Indians have started prioritizing personal pleasure and self-gratification over the welfare of others.

2 . Institutional Failures

Poor enforcement of laws and present laws have various lacunae.
The poor conviction rate in crimes against women.
Slow criminal justice system
Inadequate gender sensitization of law enforcing agencies like police, judiciary etc.

3 . Lack of Reporting

Women don’t complain due to various reasons like women are afraid to speak out, lack of faith in the legal system, family pressure to keep quiet, complex and lengthy legal process etc.

4. Infra Gaps

Poorly lit urban spaces and inadequate police patrolling make it easy for criminals to hide and carry out their nefarious activities. Due to this, women who go out in the evening are more likely to become victims of crimes, such as sexual assault and molestation.

Note – Not only in physical spaces, but women are not safe in India, even in digital spaces (Internet).

Justice Verma Committee

Justice Verma Committee was formed after the horrific event of Nirbhaya’s death.

Recommendations of the committee

It rules out the death sentence for rape convicts.
Life Imprisonment in the case of rape should mean imprisonment for the entire natural life of the convict.
Stalking is to be viewed as a serious offence.
It observed that Law Enforcement Agencies are gender insensitive. Hence, an officer who doesn’t report an FIR or delays it for a rape case should be punished.
Marital rape should be made an offence under IPC.

Government schemes in this regard

1 . Acts and legal measures

Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act 2013
Various provisions under IPC

Provisions in IPC for Women Safety in India

States also have specific laws. Some states, like Maharashtra, have amended their statutes making their provisions more stringent. Under the new Shakti Act 2020, provisions include the death penalty for rape, a fine up to Rs 10 lakh on perpetrators of violence, an investigation to be completed within 15 days after an FIR is filed, the trial has to be completed within 30 days after the chargesheet is filed against an accused.

2 . Surakshit Nari , Sashakt Nari

The following things have been done under this scheme

Panic Button has been introduced in Mobiles.
181 – Universal Women Helpline number has been started.
Himmat App: To raise SOS alert has been started.
CCTV Surveillance cameras have been installed in trains.

3. Sakhi-One Stop Centre Scheme

It provides support to women affected by violence.
Scheme offers Medical Aid, Police Assistance, Legal Aid, counselling and shelters.

4 . Transportation Schemes

Pink Auto initiative of Odisha: Pink autos drivers have undergone psychological tests and training.
Delhi: Special women’s compartment in Metro.

Domestic Violence

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Domestic Violence

This article deals with ‘ Domestic Violence .’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

Domestic violence is the use of physical, sexual, emotional, psychological, or financial abuse by one person against another in an intimate relationship like marriage. This behaviour is used to gain power and control over the victim (woman) and can cause significant harm and fear.
It is also known as Intimate Partner Violence (IPV).

Forms of Domestic Violence

Physical Injury	– Includes slapping, kicking, hitting, beating etc. – It is the most visible form of Intimate Partner Violence.
Emotional Abuse	– Includes harassment, threats, verbal abuse, blaming and isolation etc. – It erodes a woman’s sense of self-worth.
Sexual Assault	– Includes touching or fondling, sexual coercion, wife swapping etc.

Causes of Domestic Violence

Dowry Demands: It can lead to physical & emotional abuse and even dowry death and bride burning.
The patriarchal structure of household where men claim ownership over women’s bodies, labour, reproductive rights and level of autonomy
Cultural acceptance of Intimate Partner Violence
Alcoholic husband.
Not having a male child
Legislative lacunae, as marital rape is not punishable under Indian law
Violence against young widows, esp. in rural areas, as they are cursed for their husband’s death
Under Reporting: Underreporting & non-reporting encourage partners to indulge more in this.
Erosion of the joint family structure has reduced the check on the spouse’s violent behaviour.
Lack of awareness of women’s rights and belief in women’s subordination perpetuates a low image of women.
Increasing stress has increased the instances of Intimate Partner Violence

Effects of Domestic Violence

Emotional distress & suicidal tendencies in women suffering from Intimate Partner Violence
Infringement of Fundamental Rights of women, including the Right to Life
Serious health problems: Injury, Unwanted Pregnancy etc.
Negative Impact on Children: Children of such parents also face psychological problems and live in an atmosphere of fear.

Act: Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005

Provisions of the Act

The definition of Domestic Violence has been modified recently – it encompasses actual or threat of physical, sexual, verbal, emotional, and economic abuse, as well as harassment in the form of unlawful dowry demands made on the woman or her relatives.
It has widened the scope of the term WOMEN: The act now covers “live-in partners”, wives, sisters, widows, mothers, single women, and divorced women.
Right to Secure Housing, i.e. the right to live in a matrimonial or shared household, regardless of whether or not she has any ownership or rights.
The principle of Locus Standi doesn’t apply.
The state needs to create shelter homes for women who prefer not to stay in the shared household.
To fast-track the verdict, the first hearing should happen within 3 days after receiving the application, and the case should be disposed of in 60 days.
Protection Officers should be appointed to assist women with medical examination, legal aid etc.
The act has a provision of up to 1-year imprisonment.

Lacunae in the Act

Madras High Court Bench observed that it could be misused by the women to file frivolous cases.
A man can be booked under the act even if women feel she has been mentally harassed and verbally abused. But these terms are subjective.
The conviction rate in such cases is very low (just 3%).
Marital rape is not included in the definition of Domestic Violence.
There is no provision for the online filing of cases.
The number of protection officers appointed in the state is inadequate.
The law specifically targets men as being responsible for domestic violence and only recognizes women as being victims. This law fails to acknowledge the rights of male victims of domestic violence. In contrast, domestic violence laws in the Western world provide equal protection to both genders.

Therefore, the present legal framework fails to address the issue of domestic violence effectively. It places an excessive burden on men while denying them rights and granting women numerous rights without holding them accountable.

Recent Judgement making it Gender Neutral

The Supreme Court has declared that a female individual has the right to file a complaint against another woman who she believes is responsible for domestic violence.

Reasoning of Court

Since the perpetrators and abettors of Domestic Violence can also be women, insulating them would frustrate the act’s objectives. Under this immunity, females and minors can continue to commit domestic Violence.
It discriminates between persons similarly situated and, thus, violates Article 14 of the Constitution.

Significance of the Change

It makes Domestic Violence gender-neutral.
However, there are concerns that it would encourage husbands to file countercases against their wives through their mothers or sisters.

Honour Killing

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Honour Killing

This article deals with ‘ Honour Killing (UPSC) .’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here .

Introduction

According to Britannica , Honour Killing is the murder of a woman or girl by male family members. The killers justify their actions by claiming that the victim has brought dishonour upon the family name .

Reasons

Problem of Honour killing is quite complex & reasons vary in different areas.

Feudal Mindset : woman marrying outside her community brings dishonour to the family and it is better to kill them and set example for others .
Strike against Dalit Assertion especially when women is from OBC caste & boy from Dalit caste .
Inter religious marriages : Politicisation of matter especially in UP and ‘Love Jihad’ campaign by Hindutva ultra right wing.
Same Gotra Issue in Haryana : In Haryana, marriages between couples belonging to the same gotra are not recognised leading to incidents of honour killing.
Law Commission of India observed that one of the reasons of honour killing is change in economic status of women and taking a stand against the male-dominated culture.

Law regarding this

But, inspite of the increase in the number of crimes in the name of honour there is

no definition of the crime
no protections legally afforded to couple

Special law like Scheduled Caste/Scheduled Tribe Prevention of Atrocities Act could render some justice to the victims of honour killings.

Judgements wrt Honour Killing

1 . Shakti Vahini Case (2018)

NGO Shakti Vahini filed PIL in Supreme Court.
Supreme Court gave various guidelines to end honour killings like
1. State Government should identify districts where honour killing happened in last 5 years .
2. Khaps should not act as they are conscience-keepers .
3. Police should help couples .
4. Safe Houses for couples (1 month to 1 year) .
1. Fast Track Courts should be made to decide case within 6 months .

Earlier Judgements regarding Honour Killings

2. Supreme Court Judgement on Khap Panchayats (2011)

In 2011, Supreme Court termed

Khaps were termed as “kangaroo courts” .
They were declared them illegal .
Court wanted them to be stamped out ruthlessly.

3. Lata Singh v. State of U.P.

Inter-caste marriages are in fact in the national interest as they will result in destroying the caste system.

4. Bhagwan Das v. Delhi (2011)

Supreme Court deemed honour killings in the “rarest of rare” category of crimes that deserve the death penalty.

Triple Talaq

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Triple Talaq

This article deals with ‘ Triple Talaq .’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

Triple Talaq (also known as Talaq-e-Bidat) is a practice in which a man pronounces ‘talaq’ thrice in a sitting, or through the phone, or writes in a talaqnama or a text message and the divorce is considered immediate and irrevocable, even if the man later wishes to reconciliation.
The only way for the couple to go back to living together is through Nikah Halala and then return to her husband. In Nikah Halala, a divorced Muslim woman is required to wed another man and then obtain a divorce.
Then and only then will she be qualified to remarry her ex-husband.
In Shayara Bano v. Union of India (‘Triple Talaq case’), Supreme Court declared Triple Talaq as un-Islamic and “arbitrary”.

Why should Triple Talaq be banned?

Triple Talaq is not Essential Practice of Islam: It is not an Islamic Practice but social practice of Arab Society which has gradually crept into Islam.
Islamic countries such as Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco, Sudan, Syria, UAE and Yemen have made the concept of Triple Talaq unconstitutional & India must follow suit.
It infringes on the Right to Equality and the Right to Life of women.
Committee on the Status of Women (2012) has also recommended banning Triple Talaq and polygamy.

Arguments against Supreme Court’s interference in Triple Talaq

In Narasu Appa Mali’s (1952) Case, Supreme Court held that personal laws are not ‘laws for the purpose of Article 13.’ Hence, they can’t be scrutinised for violation of fundamental rights violations.
Religious practices are safeguarded under Article 25 of the Constitution.

Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Act

Timeline

1986: Shah Bano Case	Shah Bano Case was to decide whether the relief extended to divorced women under CrPC, 1973, applied to Muslims too. The Constitution bench decided that it extended to Muslim women as well.
1986	Shah Bano Act/Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act was enacted by the Rajiv Gandhi government to overturn the Supreme Court order. It held that divorced women were entitled to maintenance for the period of iddat (3 lunar cycles/menstruations) only.
2001	Daniel Latifi Case – Maintenance for a period of (only) iddat was challenged in the Supreme Court for violating Articles 14 & 21. Supreme Court held that this doesn’t violate Articles 14 & 21 as an intelligible difference can be made in this case.
2017	Shyara Bano Case: Supreme Court declared Triple Talaq to be unconstitutional.
2019	The government introduced the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Act.

Provisions of Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Act

Triple Talaq will not nullify the marriage.
The act makes Triple Talaq a criminal offence with imprisonment of up to 3 years.
The act shall be cognisable and non-bailable (i.e. police officers can arrest without a warrant.)
Principle of Locus Standii don’t apply: Complainant can be anybody – not just wife.
The Muslim woman who has been subject to Talaq is allowed to seek subsistence allowance from their husband for both herself and her dependent children. The Magistrate will determine how much the allowance will be.

Main issues with Act

Act converts a civil wrong into a criminal wrong as marriage is a civil contract.
Against the Doctrine of Proportionality and hence infringes on the Right to Equality. Under IPC, a 3-year jail term is for crimes like rioting.
Against principles of natural justice: Triple Talaq doesn’t nullify the marriage. Hence, when a crime is not committed, how can a person be punished for the act of crime?
Issue of implementation: The is challenging to implement, especially in cases of oral triple divorce given by husbands when no one other than the couple was present
Rise in divorces and abandonment: Issues remain as no husband, on his return from jail, is likely to retain the wife on whose complaint he had gone to prison.

In favour of the Criminalization of Triple Talaq

Triple Talaq has never been sanctioned, even in Islamic scripture. In Pakistan and Bangladesh too, which are Islamic countries, Triple Talaq is a criminal offence (with imprisonment of up to 1 year ).
The government’s intent is not to punish. The government argues that if nobody gives Triple Talaq, nobody gets punished.
Supreme Court judgment of 2017 recognized the discriminatory nature of Triple Talaq. The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Act 2019 offers Muslim women recourse and access to the protection of the law from the practice of arbitrary instant divorce.

Women in Combat Forces

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Women in Combat Forces

This article deals with ‘ Women in Combat Forces .’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here .

In news because

2018: Government of India allowed women to occupy combat roles in all sections of the army, navy and air force.
2019: Sainik Schools opened for girls (Earlier, only boys could be admitted)
2020: In the Babita Punia case (2020), Supreme Court ordered the government to ensure that Women are allowed Permanent Commission in the Armed Forces. Till that time, women officers were recruited through the Short Service commission for 14 years.
2021: The Supreme court authorised women to take the National Defence Academy entrance exam (NDA).

Current position of woman in Combat Forces

Despite being inducted in the armed forces since the 1990s, women officers form a meagre number in the total armed forces of the country. Currently, the percentage of women in the Indian Forces

Army: 3.80%
Air Force: 13%
Navy: 6%

Earlier, Women officers were mainly inducted under the Short Service Commission (SCC), where they could serve a maximum of 14 years. Women were permanently commissioned only in the education, legal branches, medical, dental and nursing services.

In other countries as well, this issue is contentious. For example, countries such as UK and USA have been conservative about women in their respective combat arms. In contrast, others, like the Israeli Defense Forces, have achieved widespread integration of women.

Case study of Gunjan Saxena

The rationale for the decision to include women in forces

Unequal treatment of women leads to the infringement of
- Right to Equality
- Right to freedom of profession (Article 19(1)(g)).
Qualities required for a good soldier are taking responsibility for fellow soldiers, moral and mental toughness, being an expert in the use of a weapon, commitment etc., and women score better in these skills.
The best and fittest people should be taken, and the resource pool should not be limited to half by putting a blanket ban on women.
The landscape of modern warfare has changed with more sophisticated weapons, a focus on intelligence gathering and the emergence of cyberspace as the combat arena.
Granting Permanent Commission to women officers will make them eligible for full pension post their retirement, thereby securing their futures.

Concerns

Issue of acceptability of women as an officer by male jawans.
Concerns over women’s vulnerability in capture.
The combat roles are physically demanding.
Certain situations, such as pregnancy, can affect the deployability of women in combat.
It should not be a political gimmick.
In the name of Gender Equality, the security of the nation shouldn’t be put at risk.