This article deals with the ‘Woolen Industry (in India and World).’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you canclick here.
Woolen Industry
Major
wool producers include
Australia
Australia is the largest wool
producer.
Australian Merino sheep are renowned for their
fine wool quality.
New Zealand
New Zealand is another
prominent wool-producing nation.
New Zealand wool is valued for
its softness.
South Africa
The country has a substantial
sheep farming industry.
South African wool is
recognized for its durability.
Argentina
Argentina, particularly the
interior and rain shadow areas of Patagonia, is a significant wool
producer.
Location Factors for Woolen Industry
Climate: Temperate and semi-arid
conditions are conducive to sheep farming and wool production.
Abundant
Grazing Land: Vast
expanses of grasslands and grazing areas are conducive for sheep farming
activities.
Sheep Breeds: Specialized sheep
breeds, like Merino sheep in Australia, have been developed over the years
to produce high-quality wool efficiently.
Traditional
Livelihood: Sheep
farming has been a traditional livelihood in regions like Australia, New
Zealand, Patagonia (Argentina), etc., and passed down through generations.
Decline of Woolen Industry in the Great Britain
During the Industrial Revolution, Yorkshire emerged as
a significant hub for woollen textile production due to:
Abundant local supply of wool
Access to water from nearby streams
Availability of coal for powering machines
However, the Yorkshire woolen industry declined. It can be attributed to:
The commencement of
large-scale sheep rearing in the South Hemisphere (SH) made it challenging
for Yorkshire to compete in terms of pricing.
Introduction of cheaper
synthetic fabrics, which the Yorkshire industry couldn’t compete with.
As a consequence, the industry in Yorkshire suffered, leading to its downfall. Yorkshire’s woolen industry still uses imported wool from the South Hemisphere, but it has lost its former glory.
Indian Woolen Industry
Factors influencing Woolen Industry in India
Nature of Raw Material: The location of raw material sources is not crucial as wool is non-perishable and lightweight.
Market Conditions: Winters in Northern India are extremely cold, fostering a high demand for woolen products. Approximately 75% of the woolen industry is concentrated in the northern states.
Important Note
Apparels: Imported wool is preferred due to the coarseness of Indian wool, which can cause discomfort.
Non-Apparels: Indian wool is utilized for making carpets and blankets.
Major centres in India
Near Raw Material
J&K
Srinagar
Punjab
Ludhiana,
Dhariwal, Amritsar
Gujarat
Jamnagar
(raw material from Kathiawar)
Rajasthan
Bikaner
& Barmer
Near Market
J&K
Srinagar
Punjab
Ludhiana,
Dhariwal, Amritsar
Kanpur
1870:
Woollen textile setup to meet requirement of British Indian army
Mumbai
& Chennai
They mostly utilize imported wool for making apparels
This article deals with the ‘Silk Industry (in India and World).’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you canclick here.
Location Factors of the Silk Industry
Cheap
Labour: Historically
and even in contemporary times, the silk industry heavily relies on cheap
skilled labour, particularly women, due to their dexterity and precision
required in the delicate process of silk production. Cheaper labour
reduces production costs significantly, making it economically viable for
manufacturers.
Proximity to
Mulberry Farms: Silk-producing
units are often located near mulberry farms to reduce transportation costs
and ensure a constant supply of leaves for the silkworms.
Climatic
Conditions: Silkworms
require a specific temperature range for their growth and cocoon
formation. Regions with moderate temperatures and high humidity are
conducive to sericulture. Extreme cold or hot climates are unsuitable.
Well-Drained
Soil: Silkworms
are susceptible to diseases in waterlogged soil.
Water
Availability: The
silk industry requires a significant amount of water, both for mulberry
cultivation and for the rearing of silkworms.
Government
Support: Government
policies, subsidies, and incentives play a vital role in the growth of the
silk industry.
Transportation
and Connectivity: Good
transportation infrastructure, including roads, railways, and ports,
facilitates the movement of raw silk and finished products. Well-connected
regions have a competitive advantage.
Side Topic: Silk Formation Process
India and Silk Industry
India is home to various types of silk, including Mulberry, Tasar, Oak Tasar, Eri, and Muga. Among these varieties, Mulberry silk dominates, constituting 74% of the total silk production.
Major Producers include
Mulberry Silk
Mainly in Southern states 1. Karnataka 2. Tamil Nadu 3. Andhra Pradesh
Non-Mulberry Silk
1. Jharkhand 2. Chhattisgarh 3. Odisha 4. North East
Importance of Silk Industry in India?
Women-Friendly
Occupation: The
Silk Industry in India is a women-friendly occupation, with women
consisting of more than 60% of the total workforce.
Ideal for
upliftment of Weaker Sections in Rural Areas: This industry is an ideal
program for weaker sections in rural areas due to its low capital
intensity and short gestation period.
Eco-friendly
activity: As a
perennial crop with good foliage and root spread, Mulberry contributes to
soil conservation. Waste from silkworm rearing can be recycled as inputs
to the garden.
Fulfil equity
concerns: As
end-product users are mostly from the higher economic groups, the money
flows from high-end groups to low-end groups.
Export
Potential: India’s
Silk Industry has significant export potential, allowing the country to
earn foreign currency.
Challenges faced by Indian Silk Industry
Decreased Export Revenue: The
Indian Silk Industry has been grappling with a decline in export earnings,
primarily caused by the global recession and diminished demand for silk
products in Western nations.
Intense Price Competition: Intensified price
competition due to the incorporation of low-cost Chinese silk or
artificial/synthetic silk yarns has forced natural silk traders to resort
to distress sales to remain competitive.
Reduction in Cultivated Area: The
cultivation of mulberry silk has suffered due to a consistent reduction in
the area of mulberry cultivation.
India is a leading producer. WHY?
Raw Material: India’s leading silk
production is facilitated by the cultivation of mulberry plants. These
plants can be grown on any soil type, including hill slopes and have a
high tolerance for drought conditions.
Labour: Sericulture does not demand
hard physical labour. Silkworms, the critical players in silk production,
can be reared by individuals, especially women and older people, making
them an ideal source of supplementary income for households.
Low Capital
Requirement: Sericulture
requires minimal capital investment. This affordability enables tribals
and impoverished sections to engage in silk production, boosting their
economic prospects.
High Demand: In India, the demand for
silk consistently exceeds the domestic supply. This demand-supply gap
necessitates the import of silk to meet the market requirements.
Karnataka has a well-developed Silk industry. WHY?
Karnataka’s
thriving silk industry has prospered due to several factors.
Raw Material:
Mulberry thrives in
Karnataka’s climate, making it readily available for sericulture.
Karnataka utilizes the Bombax
variety of silkworms, which can be reared throughout the year with a high
yield.
Water Supply:
Karnataka benefits from an
abundant supply of soft water, which is crucial for silk
production.
Labour Force:
Women play a significant role
in rearing silk worms, contributing to the labor force involved in silk
production.
Capital Investment:
During World War II,
capitalists in Mysore accumulated substantial wealth, providing a
financial boost to the silk industry.
Mysore’s silk was in high
demand for making parachutes, further driving economic growth in the
region.
Technological Advancements:
Karnataka benefits from the
presence of the Central Silk Board located in Bangalore.
Location of Silk Industry in the World
China dominates global silk
production, contributing approximately 80% of the total output.
India is another substantial
producer, accounting for around 18% of the global silk production.
Countries like Japan, Brazil,
Thailand, and Vietnam individually produce 0.5% or even less of the
world’s silk supply.
Why is China a leading producer?
China
holds a prominent position as the leading silk producer due to several factors.
Climate: China’s temperate and
tropical climate provides an ideal environment for cultivating silk.
Technology: Scientists have
developed hybrid silk varieties with higher yields.
Labour: China has abundant &
skilled labour.
Government
Policy: Sericulture
in China is organized through cooperatives, ensuring efficient production
and distribution.
Japan was earlier a major producer but now produces less than 0.5%.
Japan
was once a significant producer, but currently, its silk production has
declined drastically, accounting for less than 0.5% of the total output.
Labour:
The industrial sector offers
higher wages, leading to a scarcity of labour for sericulture.
Capital:
Other sectors provide better
returns on investment compared to silk production.
Lost Market:
Traditional Japanese attire
like kimonos are no longer widely worn by Japanese women, resulting in a
diminished market for silk products. Kimonos are predominantly reserved
for ceremonial occasions in contemporary Japan.
Entrepreneurship:
An example is Koromo town,
where the silk industry was in decline, and both land and labour were
available at a low cost. Toyota seized this opportunity, purchased land in
the area, and transformed it into an automobile manufacturing
facility.
This article deals with the ‘Cotton and Textile Industry (in India and World).’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you canclick here.
Location Factors of the Cotton & Textile Industry
Many
factors have influenced the establishment of cotton and textile industries in
India.
Proximity to Raw Material: Unlike other industries where the weight or perishability of raw materials is a critical concern, cotton and textile industries benefit from the fact that cotton is relatively lightweight and non-perishable. Therefore, being in immediate proximity to the source of raw cotton is less important than in some other industries.
Proximity to Market: Given the importance of market demand in dictating the type of cloth to be produced, a significant consideration is the proximity to the consumer markets. Being close to the market facilitates efficient distribution and reduces transportation costs.
Water Availability: The textile industry involves processes like dyeing and bleaching that require substantial amounts of water. Consequently, the availability of water bodies such as rivers and lakes plays a role in industry location.
Energy Availability: Cotton and textile production requires a considerable amount of energy, particularly in processes like spinning, weaving, and finishing.
Labour Supply: Textile production involves intricate processes that require skilled workers, and a region with an ample labour pool can provide a competitive advantage.
Capital and Finance: Access to financial resources can facilitate expansions, modernization, and technological advancements.
Climate: Climate considerations are also relevant. Dry climates can lead to thread breakages during textile production. Historically, this led to the preference of coastal areas with higher humidity for textile industry setup. However, technological advancements, such as artificial humidifiers, have diminished the climate-related constraints on industry location.
At
present, the trend is to locate industry at or close to markets, as the market
decides what kind of cloth is to be produced.
Cotton Industry in India
Cotton Industry in Ancient & Medieval India
The cotton textile sector has been integral to India’s traditional industries. Across the globe, India held a renowned reputation for crafting muslin, an exceedingly delicate form of cotton fabric, along with calicos, chintz, and various other superior cotton textiles.
The development of the textile industry in India stemmed from many factors.
Firstly, the nation’s tropical climate made cotton the optimal fabric, providing a large market.
Secondly, India has abundant raw materials due to the substantial cultivation of cotton.
The country possessed an abundant reserve of skilled labour necessary for this industry.
During the Colonial Era
Initially, the British didn’t foster the growth of the native cotton textile sector. They shipped raw cotton to their mills in Manchester and Liverpool, then imported the finished goods back to India. These products were more affordable due to mass production in British factories.
In 1854, the first modern cotton mill was set up in Mumbai. The city had various advantages as a hub for cotton textile manufacturing:
It was situated close to Gujarat and Maharashtra, key cotton-producing regions.
Mumbai’s status as a financial centre provided access to the necessary capital for industrial initiation.
Its urban nature attracted a substantial labour force, ensuring a readily available pool of affordable workers.
The machinery required for cotton textile mills could be directly imported from England.
Subsequently, Ahmedabad saw the establishment of two more mills, namely the Shahpur Mill and the Calico Mill.
By 1947, the total number of mills in India rose to 423. However, this situation changed after the partition, leading to a significant downturn in the industry. This was because most of the prime cotton-producing areas were now in West Pakistan, leaving India with 409 mills and only 29% of the previous cotton-producing territory.
After Independence
After Independence, this
industry gradually recovered and eventually flourished.
Production of cotton cloth has
increased almost five times since Independence. Cotton textile has been
facing tough competition from synthetic cloth.
Importance of Cotton and Textile Industry
India’s
Cotton and Textile industries are vital to the nation’s economic landscape,
owing to their multifaceted significance and widespread impact.
Backward Linkage with the Agriculture Sector
Employs 4.5 crore individuals
Approximately 12% of the nation’s total exports are comprised of textiles and textile products.
Rural Development: Cotton cultivation and subsequent processing through the textile value chain often occurs in rural areas. As a result, the growth of these industries contributes to rural development.
Location of Cotton and Textile Industry in India
The Cotton and Textile industry is located in almost every state where one or more
locational factors have been favourable.
South India
Coimbatore, Madurai, Tirunelveli and Bengaluru
Central India
Ahmedabad,
Vadodara, Ujjain, Nagpur, Indore, Kolhapur and Solapur
UP
Kanpur,
Agra and Hathras
West Bengal
Kolkata
(due to port facilities)
Punjab
Ludhiana
Important Points
Among the major centres of
this industry, Ahmedabad, Bhiwandi, Solapur, Kolhapur, Nagpur, Indore, and
Ujjain stand out, which are strategically located in proximity to
cotton-producing regions, optimizing their supply chains.
The role of
hydroelectricity in
shaping the industry’s geography cannot be overlooked. Cotton textile
mills began to sprout away from traditional cotton-producing areas due to
the availability of hydroelectric power. This shift is particularly
evident in Tamil Nadu.
Labour costs can play a pivotal role
in determining industry locations. Centres like Agra, Ujjain, Bharuch,
Agra, Hathras, Coimbatore, & Tirunelveli capitalized on lower labour
expenses, prompting the industry to be located away from primary
cotton-producing areas.
Reasons: Why Cotton and Textile Industry is located in Mumbai?
Mumbai,
known as the “Cottonopolis of India,” is the epicentre of the
country’s thriving cotton and textile industry.
Abundant Raw Material: Maharashtra,
particularly the region around Mumbai, has black soil well-suited for
cotton cultivation.
Access to Premium Cotton: Being a
busy port, Mumbai historically had access to international trade routes as
a bustling port city, allowing the import of long-staple cotton from
places like Egypt.
Favourable Climate: Mumbai’s proximity to the sea
results in a humid coastal climate conducive to textile manufacturing.
Reliable Power Supply: The Tata
hydroelectric grid in the nearby Western Ghats provides a consistent and
reliable source of power.
Availability of Soft Water: The Mithi
River in Mumbai supplies soft water, which is ideal for dyeing and
bleaching (important processes in the textile industry).
Capital and Financial Infrastructure: During the
American Civil War, Mumbai-based capitalists amassed substantial profits
through the cotton trade. They later reinvested this wealth into the
establishment of textile industries. Today, Mumbai is home to a
well-developed banking and financial sector.
Skilled and Affordable Labour: Mumbai and
its surrounding regions provide a vast pool of labour, which is both
skilled and cost-effective.
Access to Expansive Markets: Mumbai’s
strategic location places it at the heart of India, with access to the
local and national markets.
Reasons: Why Cotton and Textile Industry is located in Gujarat?
Abundant Raw Materials: Gujarat benefits from its proximity to cotton-producing districts in the state and neighbouring regions.
Water Availability: Water is a crucial resource in textile manufacturing, particularly for dyeing, cleaning, and bleaching. Gujarat benefits from water sources such as the Sabarmati and Khari rivers.
Proximity to Markets: Gujarat has a large domestic market for textiles, owing to its population and the presence of major industrial and commercial centres.
Port Facilities: Gujarat’s coastline is dotted with major ports like Kandla, Mundra, and Pipavav. These ports offer excellent connectivity for the export of textile products.
Government Support: The state government has been proactive in supporting the growth of the textile industry through favourable policies, incentives, and infrastructure development.
Reasons: Why Cotton and Textile Industry is located in Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu)?
Abundant Raw Material Supply: Tamil Nadu
has a consistent and substantial cotton supply. The region is known for
cultivating a specific variety of cotton known as “Cambodia
cotton,” which is highly sought after in the textile industry.
Energy Resources: Coimbatore is home to the
Pykara Hydel project, a significant source of hydroelectric power.
Water Resources: Access to ample water resources
is critical for various stages of textile production, including dyeing,
cleaning, and bleaching—Coimbatore benefits from the Noyyal River.
Market: Coimbatore has a massive demand due
to its proximity to large consumer markets in the southern states,
including Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.
Problem faced by Indian Cotton Textile Industry
Fierce International Competition: The industry faces fierce competition from countries like Bangladesh, Vietnam, and Ethiopia, which enjoy Duty-Free Access or have signed Free Trade Agreements with major markets such as the EU and USA. This advantage puts Indian textiles at a disadvantage in terms of pricing and market access.
Most Indian mills are small-scale operations, preventing them from achieving the economies of scale enjoyed by larger competitors.
Mechanization vs Job Dilemma: The Indian industry is caught in a dilemma regarding mechanization. While mechanization can enhance productivity, it also threatens traditional jobs. Balancing technological advancement with employment opportunities is a critical challenge.
Competition from synthetic textiles: The rise of synthetic textiles has further intensified the struggle for market share. Synthetic textiles often offer cost advantages and versatility.
Cotton Farmers under stress: Indian Cotton Farmers face immense stress due to various factors, including the monopolization of seeds by a few major corporations and the introduction of genetically modified crops like BT Cotton.
Location of Cotton and Textile Industry in the World
The
foundation of the cotton and textile industry lies in cotton cultivation.
Cotton is primarily grown in regions with favourable climatic and soil
conditions. Significant producers of cotton
include
United States: Cotton is grown in southern states like Texas and Mississippi
India: Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh
China: Northwest regions, particularly Xinjiang
Pakistan: Sindh and Punjab provinces contribute significantly to Pakistan’s cotton production
Brazil: Mato Grosso region
After
cotton is harvested, it goes through a series of processing stages. Major cotton processing centres are concentrated
in:
United States: Southern
states like North Carolina.
India: Textile Mills are concentrated in
Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu
China: Coastal regions like Shanghai,
Zhejiang, and Jiangsu
Pakistan: Karachi, Faisalabad, and
Lahore
Brazil: São Paulo and Santa Catarina
Analysis: Rise and Fall of Textile Industry in Manchester & Lancashire
The
textile industry in Manchester and Lancashire has a rich history that witnessed
remarkable growth during colonial times but declined significantly after World
War II.
Rise during Colonial Times
Favourable Climate: Manchester and Lancashire’s location was advantageous due to the moist Westerlies, providing high humidity levels and preventing threads from breaking during manufacturing.
Abundant Raw Materials: Cheap cotton was available from its colonies, such as India and Egypt.
Strategic Transportation: The proximity of Liverpool as a major port city facilitated the import of raw materials and the export of finished products.
Quality Water Sources: Streams from the Pennine hills provided soft water, ideal for dyeing and bleaching.
Abundant Energy: The availability of coal from Northern England and Wales served as a reliable source of energy.
Expansive Market: The demand for textiles in Europe And the massive market in British colonies provided a market for the finished product.
Decline after World War II
The
decline of the Textile industry after World War II can be attributed to the
following factors.
Loss of Colonies: Post-World
War II, the loss of colonies meant that the dirt-cheap raw
materials(cotton) from India and Egypt were no longer readily
available.
Competition from Other Nations: Emerging
players like Japan entered the global textile market with cheaper
production methods.
Reason: Cotton Industry in the USA
In the
USA, there are two important regions of the cotton and textile industry, which
can be attributed to several geographical factors.
New England Region
It is located in the northeast corner of the US and emerged as a hub for cotton-related activities.
Major factors of the concentration of cotton and textile industry include
Its proximity to major urban centres like Boston and New York
Easy access to ports for exporting cotton
The region attracted immigrant workers, adding to the labour force and diversity of skills.
The availability of coal from the Appalachian region ensured a stable energy supply, powering the cotton mills.
Cotton Belt in the South
The Cotton Belt, stretching
across states such as North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama,
Mississippi, and parts of Texas and California, constitutes the heartland
of cotton cultivation in the USA. This region boasts vast expanses of
fertile land, forming large cotton-growing areas.
Transformation
from Slave Labour to Mechanization: Historically, the cotton industry in the South
relied heavily on slave labour. However, over time, technological
advancements led to the mechanization of cotton production. Highly
efficient machines revolutionized the industry, making it less reliant on human
labour.
Hydroelectric
Power: Major
rivers in the cotton-producing regions have been harnessed for
hydroelectric power generation.
Reason: Cotton Industry in China
Various
factors contribute to the thriving cotton industry in China, with a major
concentration in the bustling city of Shanghai.
Favourable
Climate: Shanghai
is a port city with a humid climate. This humidity is crucial in the
cotton industry as threads are less likely to break during production.
Raw
Material: The
Yangtze-Kiang Delta, where Shanghai is located, is fertile ground for
cotton cultivation.
Transport: Shanghai benefits from its
status as a port city, offering easy access to international markets.
Additionally, the city is well-connected by rail and road networks,
facilitating the movement of raw materials and finished products.
Water and
Energy: The
Yangtze River not only serves as a transportation route but also provides
a source of water and energy. Access to water resources is crucial for
textile industries. Furthermore, the river can be harnessed for
hydroelectric power.
Labour: With a large population,
Shanghai has a pool of skilled workers who contribute to the manufacturing
process.
Market: Within 1000 nautical miles,
major markets like Kobe, Taiwan, South Korea, and Hong Kong are
accessible, facilitating international trade. Moreover, within China,
cities like Nantong, Wuhan, and Chongqing, connected via the Yangtze
River, create a robust domestic market.
Other centres in
China include Hwang-Ho Valley, Sichuan, Nanjing, Beijing,
etc.
This article deals with ‘National Register of Citizens– Indian Polity.’ This is part of our series on ‘Polity’ which is important pillar of GS-2 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here.
What is the National Register of Citizens (NRC)?
On the eve of Independence, the Indian government felt the need to identify Indian Citizens. Hence, the National Register of Citizens was conducted in 1951 in respect of each village, showing the houses and holdings of each person in a serial order. Based on the National Register of Citizens, the Citizenship of each person was confirmed.
This Register was used to be kept in the office of the District Collector and Sub Divisional Officer. But in 1960, on the orders of the Home Ministry, all data was given to the Police and was never updated after that.
The issue in Assam: Due to the large-scale migration of Bangladeshis in Assam, the need was felt to recognize the Indian Citizens.
Assamese vs Outsiders
The
issue of Outsiders coming into Assam dates back in history.
Assamese used to resent the settlement of outsiders (Bengali and Bihari labourers) brought by Britishers to work in Tea Plantations.
After Independence, Assam saw a large-scale arrival of Bengalis.
During the persecution of Bengali Muslims in Bangladesh at the end of the 1960s, more than 10 lakh people came to Assam to take shelter. After the formation of Bangladesh, most of them went back, but some stayed.
Even after 1971, Bangladeshis kept on settling in Assam.
All
this created fear in the indigenous population of Assam. They started to fear
demographic change, converting them into a minority and heavy stress on the
limited resources of Assam.
Assam Accord
1978: Powerful agitation under the All Assam Students Union (AASU) started, which demanded that before conducting elections, the problem of illegal migrants should be solved. They demanded the removal of those who arrived after 1961 from Assam.
1985: Assam Accord between Rajiv Gandhi
Government and AASU
Those who arrived between 1951 and 1961 will be given full Citizenship and the right to vote.
Those who have arrived after 1971 will be sent back
Those who arrived between 1961 and 1971 were given Citizenship, but the right to vote wasn’t given
A Special Package was given for the development of Assam
Oil Refinery, Paper Mills and Technical institutions would be opened in Assam
But due
to politics, little happened over the decades. Finally, in 2014, the Supreme
Court asked the state government to update the 1951 NRC in a timebound manner
and conduct the exercise under its supervision.
NRC updating process in Assam
NRC updating involves
the procedure of adding the names of individuals (or their descendants) whose
names are found in either of the following lists.
Any of the Assam’s Electoral Rolls up to March 24 1971, or
National Register of Citizen of 1951, or
Any of the admissible documents stipulated, such as land or tenancy records, citizenship certificate, permanent residential certificate, etc.
In August 2019, the updated and final National Register of Citizens, which validates bonafide Indian citizens of Assam, was released with over 19 lakh applicants who had failed to make it to the list (and many were Hindus).
Hence, this process
has the danger of exclusion and inclusion errors, and a large number of
legitimate Indian citizens could end up being denied their rights. Along with
that, Illegal migrants out of NRC will be sent back to Bangladesh. However,
India does not have any deportation treaty with Bangladesh. Moreover, there are
apprehensions that a large number of stateless people can be created in India,
thus impacting the overall image of people.
Assam Accord vs Citizenship Amendment Act
There are inherent differences between the Assam Accord and the Citizenship Amendment Act, as the Amendment provides citizenship rights to Hindu migrants who have arrived post-1971.
This article deals with ‘Citizenship – Indian Polity.’ This is part of our series on ‘Polity’ which is important pillar of GS-2 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here.
Introduction
Some
Fundamental Rights belong to citizens alone, such as
Only (Indian) citizens can hold certain offices, such as
The President of India
The Vice-President of India
The Judges of the Supreme Court
The Judges of the High Court
The Governor of a State
The Attorney General of India
The Advocate General of the State
Only citizens can vote in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assembly elections.
Only citizens of India can become MLA and MP
However, apart from enjoying these exclusive rights, the citizens must also fulfil certain duties towards the Indian State (called the Fundamental Duties), e.g., paying taxes, respecting the national anthem and national anthem, defending the country, etc.
Different
countries follow different principles for granting Citizenship of a country.
These include
Right of the Soil/Jus Soli: If a person was born in the territory (within the borders) of that country
Right of Blood/Jus Sangunis: If one or both of his parents are citizens of that country.
By Marriage: If a person is married to a person who is a citizen of that country.
Naturalization: If a person obtains Citizenship by passing through the legal process of naturalization.
Presently,
India follows the principle of the Right of Blood (with some caveats) and
Naturalization for its Citizenship. However, the process has changed since
independence. Initially, everyone born in the Indian territory was granted
Citizenship, i.e. India followed the right of the land principle. But it was
changed through the Citizenship (Amendment) Act of 1986 when the condition was
added that a person born in India could become a citizen only if one of the
parents was an Indian citizen.
Note: In India, anybody who is a citizen of India, whether by birth or naturalized, can become President, but only a citizen by birth can become President in the USA.
Constitutional Provisions
Article 5 to 11 of Part II deals
with Citizenship. It only
identifies persons who will become citizens on January 26, 1950 and leaves it
to Parliament to make laws relating to other matters of Citizenship.
Consequently, the Parliament of India enacted the Citizenship Act 1955, which
has been amended many times, subsequently in 1957, 1960, 1985, 1986, 1992,
2003, 2005, 2015 and 2019.
Citizenship Act, 1955
The Parliament of India made this Act following the constitutional provisions.
It provides 5 ways of acquiring Indian Citizenship
1. By Birth
A person born in
India
2. By Descent
A person born
outside India will be considered a Citizen of India by descent if
3. By Registration
The
registration process is applicable for those who have some Indian connection.
The person should fulfil the following conditions.
Person
of Indian Origin who is ordinarily residing in India for 7 years ( i.e., 12months immediately before
making the application and 6 years in the aggregate in the 8 years
preceding the 12 months)
A person married to an Indian
citizen & ordinarily residing here for 7 years.
Minor children or children of
the full capacity of persons who are Indian citizens
A person registered as OCI
(Overseas Citizen of India) for 5 years and residing for ONE YEAR in India
before making the application.
Individuals falling
into the groups mentioned above must take an oath of allegiance before being
officially recognized as Indian citizens.
4. By Naturalisation
Indian
Citizenship, through the process of naturalization, can be acquired by a
foreigner (not an illegal migrant), and he/she must follow all the conditions
given below:-
Must not be a citizen of the
country where Indian citizens are barred from becoming citizens.
Must renounce previous
Citizenship.
A person must be ordinarily
resident of India for 12 years (i.e., twelvemonths immediately before
making an application and Eleven years in the aggregate in the twelve
years preceding the twelve months).
Must have knowledge of at
least one language specified in Schedule 8.
Such a person should intend to
reside in India or continue to work for the Government of India.
Further, the Government of India may waive all or
any of the above conditions for naturalization if, in its opinion, the person
has rendered distinguished services in the field of science, art, philosophy,
world peace, literature, or human progress.
5. By Incorporation of Territory
If foreign territory becomes part of India in future. In that case, the Government of India may specify the residents of the territory to be citizens of India by orders notified in the Official Gazette.
E.g., When Pondicherry was acquired by India & the Government of India issued the Citizenship (Pondicherry) Order, 1962, under the Indian Citizenship Act,1955.
Loss of Citizenship
The Citizenship Act 1955 prescribes three ways for it
1. Renunciation
A citizen of full capacity can make a declaration renouncing his Citizenship.
It must be noted that when a person renounces his Citizenship, their minor children cease to be citizens of India. But such children may make a declaration one year after attaining the age of 18 years that they wish to resume Indian Citizenship.
2. Termination
When a citizen voluntarily accepts Citizenship of another country.
However, the provision of termination doesn’t apply when India is engaged in any war.
3. Deprivation
Compulsory
termination of Indian Citizenship by the government when
Citizenship is obtained by fraud.
Citizen has shown disloyalty towards the constitution.
Citizen has unlawfully traded with the enemy country during the war.
Citizens within 5 years after registration or naturalization have been imprisoned for two years in any country.
The citizen has been ordinarily out of the country for 7 years.
Single Citizenship
In India, there is single Citizenship, i.e. all the persons are citizens of India, and there is no citizenship of state (unlike the USA)
All the citizens owe allegiance to India and not to any particular state.
Side Topic: Concept of Dual Citizenship
Dual Citizenship means a
person can be a citizen of two or more countries simultaneously. Dual
citizens have two passports and can live, travel and work in both
countries, i.e. their native and the naturalized country.
Some countries do allow dual
Citizenship. However, the Indian constitution doesn’t allow Dual
Citizenship.
Overseas Citizen of India (OCI)
Initially, India did not allow any rights to people of Indian origin who are residents of other countries. However, the High-Level Committee on Indian Diaspora, under the Chairmanship of LM Singhvi, recommended the Person of Indian Origin Card (PIO) Scheme and Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI) for establishing a constructive relationship with the Indian diaspora. Subsequently, the Indian Parliament amended the Citizenship Act in 2002 and provided two special statuses, i.e. Person of Indian Origin Card (PIO) Scheme and Overseas Citizenship of India. These schemes were later merged into “Overseas Citizen of India Cardholder.”
Overseas Citizen of India (OCI) is a person who, or any of their ancestors, were Indian nationals and presently holding another country’s Citizenship and passport (other than Pakistan and Bangladesh).
Benefits available for OCI
Facilitate visa-free travel to India.
Rights of residency in India.
Rights regarding participation in business and educational activities in the country
However, such persons shall not have the following rights as given to Citizens of India, which include
Right to equality of
opportunity in matters of public employment
Eligibility for election as
President of India, Vice President of India, Member of the Lok Sabha,
Member of Rajya Sabha, Member of State Legislative Assemblies or Councils
Eligibility for appointment as
a Supreme Court Judge and High Court Judge
This article deals with the ‘Sugar Industry (in India and World).’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you canclick here.
Introduction
India is the world’s second-largest sugarcane producer, and sugarcane stands as its most crucial cash crop. In addition to yielding sugar, jaggery, and khandsari, it furnishes molasses for the alcoholic beverage sector and bagasse for the paper manufacturing industry.
Locational factors
1. Raw material
The sucrose content in sugarcane starts to decrease as time passes after harvesting, making it imperative for the sugar to be extracted within 24 hours to achieve better recovery. As a result, the ideal location for sugar mills would be close to the sugarcane fields to minimize transportation time and maximize sucrose content preservation.
2. Weight loss
The weight loss of sugarcane during processing is significant, with sugar accounting for around 10% of the total bulky sugarcane. This high weight loss further underscores the importance of situating sugar mills near the source of raw material, as it reduces transportation costs and logistical challenges associated with moving large quantities of sugarcane over long distances.
Sugar Mill & Sugar Refinery : 2 Separate Location Principles
Sugar Mill
The core unit of the
Sugar Industry is the sugar mill, a facility where sugarcane undergoes a series
of processes to yield various forms of sugar products.
Input
Sugarcane
Process
Sugar juice + boiling
=brown sugar
output
Raw Coarse Brown Sugar,
Bagasse and Molasses
LocationPrinciple
Regarding the
location of sugar mills, they are strategically placed in close proximity to
sugar-farming areas to minimize the transportation costs of raw sugarcane.
This proximity ensures freshly harvested sugarcane can be quickly transported
to the mill for processing, minimizing transportation time and maximizing
sucrose content preservation. E.g. in Uttar Pradesh, Maharahstra, South
Gujarat.
Sugar Refinery
Sugar Refinery
transforms the raw coarse brown sugar obtained from sugar mills into refined
sugars of various grades, including brown and white sugars.
Input
Raw Coarse Brown
Sugar (from sugar mill)
Process
Raw Sugar is
refined
output
Brown and White
sugars of various grades.
LocationPrinciple
Sugar refineries
are strategically located near their target markets. By situating the
refineries close to major urban centres or food processing industries, the
sugar industry can effectively supply its products to various sectors of the
economy, including food and beverage production, confectionery, and other
consumer goods.
Cuba is the Sugar Bowl of the world. WHY?
The following factors
contribute to Cuba’s remarkable success in the sugar industry.
Climate
Cuba’s high temperatures and the prevalence of the northeast trade winds create an ideal environment for sugarcane cultivation.
Soil
The fertile calcareous soil in Cuba allows sugarcane crops to thrive and ensures that multiple harvests can be obtained within a year.
Capital
The influx of American capital following the Spanish-American War in the late 19th century facilitated modernization, technological advancements, and increased efficiency in sugar production.
Market
Cuba has a strategic geographic location due to its proximity to the United States and its relatively short distance from northwest Europe.
Labour
Slave labour was used to cultivate sugarcane, resulting in significant production.
Government policy
Before the rise of Fidel Castro, the main market for Cuba’s sugar exports was the United States.
After the Cuban Revolution, the focus shifted towards other markets, such as the Soviet Union, and the country experimented with cooperative and collective models of sugar production.
USA is a major producer of sugar?
Sugar
production is primarily concentrated in two distinct regions: Louisiana and
Hawaii.
Louisiana
Subtropical climate is conducive to sugarcane cultivation.
Earlier, cheap labour was available. Later, they invested in automated harvesting machines and precision agriculture techniques.
Hawaii
Hawaii’s islands’ volcanic
soils are suitable for sugarcane cultivation.
Historically, Hawaii’s sugar
industry relied heavily on immigrant labour, including Japanese, Chinese,
Filipino, and Portuguese workers. Later, they invested in Mechanized
methods like combine harvesters and automated irrigation systems.
Other Producers: Mauritius and Fiji
Soil and Climate
Soil is favourable for sugarcane cultivation
Wet Climate favours sugarcane plantations.
Labour
Indentured labourers played a crucial role in establishing and sustaining the sugar industry in these island nations.
Sugar Industry in India
In India, the
sugar industry holds significant prominence as it leads the world in the
production of both sugarcane and cane sugar.
Besides,
khandasari and gur or jaggery are also prepared from sugarcane.
This industry
directly employs 4 lakh persons.
Development
of the industry on modern lines dates back to 1903 when a sugar mill was
started in Bihar. Subsequently, sugar mills were started in other parts of
Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. In 1950-51, 139 factories were in operation. The
number of sugar factories rose to 662 in 2010-11.
Concentration of Sugar Mills in India
The sugar industry in India is geographically diverse, with various
regions contributing significantly to its production.
Maharashtra
Maharashtra
stands out as the largest sugar producer, accounting for over one-third of
the country’s total output.
The sugar
industry in Maharashtra is concentrated in the following regions
Western Maharashtra’s river valleys
Sangli,
Solapur and Satara
Ahmadnagar,
Pune and Nasik
Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
is the second-largest sugar producer in India.
The sugar
industry in Maharashtra is concentrated in the following regions
Western UP and Terai region
Meerut,
Moradabad and Muzaffarnagar
Sitapur,
Gorakhpur and Saharanpur
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu’s
presence in the sugar industry is notable, with Coimbatore and
Tiruchirapalli as key centres of production.
Karnataka
In Karnataka,
Chitradurga and Shimoga are instrumental in contributing to the state’s
sugar output.
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra
Pradesh’s sugar industry is prominent around cities like Hyderabad and
Nizamabad.
Sugar Mills are concentrated in Maharashtra?
The concentration of sugar mills in Maharashtra,
India, can be attributed to a combination of various favourable factors
Favourable Climate
The warm
climate supports better yield, and Maharashtra benefits from the abundant
sunlight and warmth.
The
proximity to the ocean further enhances the sugarcane growth, as the
minimal temperature fluctuations between day and night increase sugar
yield and sugar content within the cane.
Soil: Lava
soil in the region enhances fertility and water retention capabilities.
This soil characteristic proves beneficial for sugarcane growth.
Energy: Mills
use bagasse as fuel ( and is not a deciding factor in the case of the
Sugar industry)
Transport: The
transport infrastructure, specifically the presence of Mumbai Port, plays
a crucial role in facilitating exports.
Labour: The
transport infrastructure, specifically the presence of Mumbai Port, plays
a crucial role in facilitating exports.
Sugar Mills are concentrated in UP?
The sugar industry in India has a significant concentration of
sugar mills in the state of Uttar Pradesh (UP). Various factors have influenced
this geographical concentration.
Soil Composition: The
presence of potash and lime in the soil of Uttar Pradesh provides a
favourable environment for sugarcane growth.
Abundant Water Resources: The state of Uttar
Pradesh is blessed with major rivers like the Ganga and Yamuna, along with
their numerous tributaries.
Energy Efficiency: Sugar mills in Uttar Pradesh
have adopted an eco-friendly approach by utilizing bagasse, a by-product
of sugarcane processing, as a renewable energy source.
Well-Connected Transportation Network: The
dense road network in Uttar Pradesh and its flat terrain facilitate easy
sugarcane transportation from farms to mills.
Seasonal and Migratory Labour: The
availability of seasonal and migratory labour in Uttar Pradesh helps
maintain lower production costs.
Large Domestic Market: With its substantial
population, Uttar Pradesh boasts a large domestic market that exhibits a
consistent demand for various sugar products like gur, khandsari, and
sugar itself.
Government Intervention: Regulatory measures,
subsidies, and price support mechanisms impact the industry’s economic
dynamics and stability
Sugar Industry: North vs South
When
comparing the sugar industries in North and South India, it’s intriguing to
note that despite the favourable climatic
conditions for sugarcane growth in the southern regions due to the absence of
extreme heat, frost, and the moderating influence of the sea, the northern part
of the country has a greater concentration of sugar industry. This
phenomenon can be attributed to historical, economic, and agricultural factors.
Historical Factors: During
the British colonial period, the northern regions of India were known for
cultivating indigo, a plant used for producing natural dyes. However, with
the advent of synthetic dyes, the demand for natural indigo diminished,
leading many farmers in the North to seek alternative crops. Sugarcane
emerged as a viable substitute due to its potential for sugar
production.
Other Options Available: Despite the
climatic advantages in the South, farmers in those regions have better
options for cultivating cash crops. Cash crops like cotton, tobacco, and
coconut are well-suited to the southern climate and soil conditions.
In
the North, the historical presence of sugar mills and the availability of
infrastructure might have facilitated the growth of the sugar industry.
Problems Faced by the Sugar Industry in India
Problem with
State Advised Price (SAP): Due to political considerations, SAP is kept high,
making sugarcane the most attractive crop to grow (due to this, it is
grown even in drought-prone regions like Maharashtra). As a result, sugar
mills are forced to pay high prices, culminating in high arrears to
farmers.
Low Yield of
Sugarcane: Per
hectare, sugarcane productivity is low in India compared to global
standards. For instance, productivity in India is 64.5 tons/hectare
compared to Java – 90 tons/hectare & Hawaii – 120 tons/hectare.
Mismatch
between Sugar and sugarcane prices: The government tries to keep sugar prices low (to get
the votes of consumers) but sugarcane prices high (to get the votes of
farmers). As a result, sugar mills suffer losses.
Over-Regulation:
The sugar industry is an
over-regulated industry. Every sugar mill is allocated a command area,
and the mill is bound to purchase sugarcane grown in that area. Sugarcane
farmers can sell their sugarcane only in designated mills.
State governments fix the
quotas for different end uses of molasses and restrict their movement
outside the state.
Some states have even
restricted the selling of power generated from bagasse outside the
state.
Old and
obsolete machinery:
Most of the machinery used in Indian mills, particularly in UP and Bihar,
is old and obsolete, being 50-60 years old
This article deals with the ‘Copper Industry in India and World.’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you canclick here.
Introduction
Copper is essential for the electric industry.
Due to the increase in demand, new mining & smelting techniques have developed.
Uses of Copper
Stages of Copper Refining
First stage, i.e. Concentration: In this process, we get blister copper using
the froth floatation method, which is 2.5% of the original quantity.
Hence, concentration is done near the mine.
Second Stage:
Blister Copper is 99% pure but can’t be used as such. Refining of Blister Copper is done
using electrolysis. In this process, weight loss is just 1%.
Hence, electricity is the deciding factor in this stage.
Location Factors of Copper Industry
Availability of Copper Deposits: Regions with abundant copper ore reserves have a competitive advantage. For example,
Malanjkhand copper deposit in Madhya Pradesh is one of India’s largest copper deposits, leading to the establishment of the Malanjkhand Copper Project.
Khetri Copper Complex in Rajasthan is strategically located near the Khetri mines, a major copper ore source.
Power Supply: Reliable and affordable power supply is essential for copper smelting and refining processes. Areas with access to sufficient electricity, preferably with a stable grid, are preferred.
Infrastructure and Transportation: Adequate infrastructure, including transportation networks, is crucial for the copper industry. The Tuticorin Port in Tamil Nadu is an important hub for copper imports and exports, providing a favourable location for copper-related industries in the region.
Skilled Labor Force: A skilled labour force with expertise in mining, metallurgy, engineering, and related fields is crucial for the copper industry.
Government Policies and Incentives: Favorable government policies, like tax incentives, subsidies etc., can attract copper industries to specific locations.
Market Access: Proximity to domestic and international markets is important for copper industries.
Global Copper Industry
1. Chile
Chile is the world’s largest copper producer, accounting for a significant portion of the global copper supply. The country’s vast copper deposits are mainly located in the Atacama Desert.
2. Zaire and Zambia
Zaire and Zambia, both African nations, possessed significant copper ore reserves and established refineries to process the raw material into valuable copper products. In an effort to exert more control over their natural resources and economic sectors, the governments of Zaire and Zambia chose to nationalize these refineries.
However, the nationalization of the copper refineries did not go as planned, and the refineries began to face financial struggles, turning into loss-making ventures due to mismanagement, lack of expertise, and changing market dynamics.
3. China
China is a significant player in both copper production and consumption. Major copper-producing provinces in China include Jiangxi, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang.
4. Australia
Australia has substantial copper resources and availability of cheap electricity.
5. Indonesia
Indonesia is a major copper producer, with its Grasberg mine being one of the world’s largest copper and gold mines.
6. USA
The Copper industry was concentrated around the states of Utah, Montana, and Arizona (UMA). These states are known for their historical significance in copper mining and refining.
However, the landscape of the industry in the UMA region started to shift due to factors such as rising costs of electricity, legal requirements to curb sulfur dioxide emissions necessitating expensive upgrades and Foreign competitors offering increased competition.
7. Canada
Canada has copper production primarily in provinces such as British Columbia and Ontario.
8. Russia
Russia’s copper operations are concentrated in regions like the Ural Mountains and Siberia.
9. Mexico
Mexico’s copper production is centred in areas like Sonora and Zacatecas.
Main Copper producing units in India
1. Khetri, Rajasthan
Khetri, in the Jhunjhunu district of Rajasthan, is one of India’s largest copper mining and smelting complexes.
It is operated by Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL) and houses one of the oldest copper mines in the country.
2. Korba, Chattisgarh
Korba unit is operated by BALCO.
It gets its ore from Amarkantak and electricity from Korba thermal plant.
3. Dahej, Gujarat
HINDALCO (a company of the Aditya Birla Group) has its Copper Division in Dahej (in Bharuch district of Gujarat).
4. Balaghat, Madhya Pradesh
The Malanjkhand Copper Project, located in Balaghat, is one of the largest open-pit copper mines in India.
It is operated by Hindustan Copper Limited.
5. Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Bhubaneswar, the capital city of Odisha, is home to the Indian Copper Complex (ICC) smelter and refinery operated by Hindustan Copper Limited.
6. Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu
Tuticorin in Tamil Nadu houses Sterlite
Copper Smelter,
which is one of the largest copper smelters in India.
However, the smelter has been
non-operational since 2018 due to environmental concerns.
This article deals with ‘Evolution of Indian States & UTs – Indian Polity.’ This is part of our series on ‘Polity’ which is important pillar of GS-2 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here.
During British times
During
British colonial rule, the states and territories in India were characterized
by a complex administrative structure consisting of two main categories:
Provinces and Princely States.
Provinces: These were governed directly by British Officials.
Princely States: These were ruled by the local hereditary rulers (Maharajas, Nawabs, or Rajas), who acknowledged the suzerainty of the British Crown through treaties or agreements but maintained a significant degree of autonomy over their internal affairs.
At the time of Independence
When India became independent on August 15, 1947, the Britishers dissolved their existing treaties with more than 600 Princely States. They were allowed to either accede to India or Pakistan or declare Independence. Most Princely States (except 3) joined India voluntarily or through armed intervention.
Three notable
exceptions stood out among these princely states: Junagadh, Hyderabad, and
Jammu & Kashmir. These states posed unique challenges to the newly formed
Indian Union and required distinct approaches for their integration.
Junahgarh
The
issue of Junagadh’s accession was resolved through a Referendum.
Hyderabad
The
integration of Hyderabad was achieved through a military intervention known
as “Operation Polo” or the
“Police Action.”
Jammu &
Kashmir
The
State of Jammu & Kashmir’s accession to India is a complex and
contentious chapter in Indian history. The Maharaja of Kashmir, Hari Singh,
signed the Instrument of Accession,
aligning the State with India. This led to a series of events, including
tribal incursions and conflict with Pakistan, ultimately resulting in the
establishment of the Line of Control.
In 1950, India’s administrative framework underwent a comprehensive reorganization, leading to a four-fold classification of states:
Part A
– These included the nine Governor’s Provinces of British India—Assam, Bihar, Bombay, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Orissa, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. – These states were placed under the governance of a Governor.
Part B
– These included nine former Princely States or groups of Princely States with Legislative Assemblies—Jammu & Kashmir, Hyderabad, Madhya Bharat, Patiala and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU), Mysore, Rajasthan, Travancore-Cochin, Saurashtra, and Vindhya Pradesh. – These states were under the governance of Rajpramukh, often a Royal Prince.
Part C
– This category included Commissioner’s Provinces and certain Princely States, totaling ten—Ajmer, Bhopal, Bilaspur, Cooch-Behar, Coorg, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Kutch, Manipur, and Tripura. – These states were placed under the jurisdiction of a Chief Commissioner.
Part D
– Part D State included Andaman and Nicobar Islands. – A Lieutenant Governor administered it.
Linguistic Provinces Commission/Dhar Commission of 1948
Boundaries of Indian provinces
were drawn haphazardly, and no heed was paid to linguistic and cultural
cohesion. Hence, there was a constant demand for the linguistic
reorganization of states.
In the wake of such demands, a
Linguistic Provinces Commission, also known as the Dhar Commission, under
the Chairmanship of SK Dhar, was constituted by the Constituent Assembly
in 1948 to look into the reorganization of states in India.
In the course of its
deliberations, the Dhar Commission conducted a meticulous examination of
the prevailing dynamics, consulting a broad spectrum of stakeholders,
intellectuals, and experts across the nation.
In its report, the Commission
recommended that the reorganization of states should be based on
administrative convenience rather than on a linguistic basis.
But thestance on prioritizing
administrative convenience sparked intense debates and discussions
throughout the nation. Proponents of linguistic states expressed concerns
about the potential dilution of cultural identity and argued that
administrative efficiency should not overshadow the emotional and
historical bonds that language shared among communities.
JVP Commission of 1949
Indian National Congress, in
its Jaipur Session, set up a high-level committee consisting of Jawaharlal
Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramiah (JVP Committee) to consider the
recommendation of the Dhar Commission.
It concluded that language
couldn’t be considered the basis for State Reorganisation, and utmost
caution should be observed in proceeding with the linguistic
reorganization of States.
But it resulted in strong
agitations. The commission’s recommendations particularly impacted the
Telegu-speaking regions of Madras. Tragically, the agitation took a grave
turn when Poti Sriramulu, a prominent Congress leader, embarked on a
hunger strike demanding the creation of a separate Andhra state. His
sacrifice and subsequent death due to the fast further exacerbated
tensions, resulting in violent riots and disturbances. The government,
under pressure, carved out Andhra Pradesh from Madras by separating the 16
Telugu-speaking districts of Madras State.
This move, although addressing
the immediate concerns of the agitating masses, set a precedent and
emboldened other linguistic groups across the country to demand similar
reorganization based on linguistic affinity.
State Reorganization Commission or Fazl Ali Commission of 1953
The creation of Andhra sparked
agitations all over the Union of India, where the various linguistic and
religious regions demanded separate statehoods. Hence, Jawaharlal Nehru
appointed the States Reorganization Commission (1953), under the
chairmanship of Fazl Ali and consisting of KM Panikkar
and HN Kunzru, to
resolve the issue.
Recommendations of the Fazl
Ali Commission or State Reorganization Commission
Language as the Basis for
Reorganization: The commission was to accept language as the
fundamental criterion for the reorganization of states.
Rejecting ‘One Language, One State’: While
the commission endorsed the principle of linguistic states, it rejected
the notion of a strict ‘one language, one state’ policy.
Comprehensive Considerations:
Financial, economic and administrative considerations, as well as
planning & welfare of people, should also be considered in state
reorganization.
Abolishing Four-Fold Classification: 4 fold
classification of states should be abolished, and 16 states & 3
centrally administrative territories should be created instead.
Subsequently, the
State Reorganisation Act of 1956 was passed, leading to the 7th Amendment,
which resulted in 14 states & 6 UTs.
Formation of States
The
reorganization of existing state boundaries since the consolidation of the
Indian Union in 1950 can be broadly classified under 3 phases.
Phase 1: Linguistic Reorganization (Till 1960)
Andhra Pradesh
1953
Andhra Pradesh was
established by separating 16 Telugu-speaking districts from Madras State,
fulfilling the linguistic aspirations of the Telugu-speaking population.
Kerala
1956
The State
Reorganisation Act of 1956 led to the creation of Kerala by combining the
princely states of Travancore and Cochin, thus consolidating all
Malayalam-speaking regions.
Karnataka
1956
Karnataka emerged
as a state predominantly for Kannada speakers, encompassing areas of the
Erstwhile princely state of Mysore.
Gujarat and Bombay
1960
The state of Bombay
was divided to form the states of Gujarat and Maharashtra, responding to
linguistic and cultural identities.
Phase 2
Nagaland
1962
Nagaland was
created by separating it from Assam, recognizing the unique identity and
aspirations of the Naga people.
Punjab and Haryana
1966
The division of
Punjab resulted in the creation of Haryana as a separate state, with
Chandigarh serving as a union territory shared by both states.
Himachal Pradesh
1970
Himachal Pradesh
attained statehood, transitioning from a Union Territory.
Meghalaya, Manipur
and Tripura
1971
These were first
made ‘autonomous states’ within the State of Assam by the 22nd Constitutional
Amendment. Later they were made full-fledged states in 1971.
Sikkim
1974
Sikkim was
originally ruled by the Chogyal dynasty and a Protectorate of India. But in
1974, Sikkim was given the status of an Associate State through the 35th
Constitutional Amendment. Subsequently, in 1975, the rule of Chogyals was
abolished, and Sikkim was incorporated into India as a full-fledged state.
Mizoram
1986
Mizoram was
established as a separate state, recognizing the unique identity of its
people.
Arunachal Pradesh
1986
The North-East
Frontier Agency (NEFA) was reorganized and granted full statehood as
Arunachal Pradesh.
Goa
1987
Goa was separated
from the Union-Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu and was made a full-fledged
State of Goa. The remaining regions, i.e. Daman and Diu, remained as Union
Territories.
Phase 3: 2000s to Present
From
2000s, the basis of the demanding state has changed from linguistic principles
to ethnicity, backwardness, administrative convenience etc. For example, the
State of Uttarakhand was created based on administrative convenience,
Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand based on tribal ethnicity and Telangana based on
backwardness.
Chhattisgarh, Uttaranchal and
Jharkhand
2000
These states were
carved out of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar, respectively,
addressing regional imbalances and tribal aspirations.
Telangana
2 June 2014
Formed through the
Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act of 2014, Telangana emerged as a separate
state, addressing issues of backwardness and regional disparities.
Ongoing Demands: Aspirations and Challenges
Despite
the substantial reorganization, several demands for new states persist based on
different criteria:
Gorkhaland (West Bengal): Ethnic considerations underlie the demand for Gorkhaland.
Kamtapur (Assam): The Koch Rajbangsi community seeks a separate Kamtapur state.
Bodoland (Assam): The Bodo people aspire for a separate Bodoland state.
Vidarbha (Maharashtra): Calls for Vidarbha statehood are grounded in developmental and regional concerns.
Saurashtra (Gujarat): The demand for a Saurashtra state reflects regional identity and underdevelopment.
Fourfold Division of Uttar Pradesh (Harit Pradesh, Awadh Pradesh, Purvanchal, Bundelkhand): Administrative convenience and developmental factors underpin demands for dividing Uttar Pradesh.
This article deals with the ‘Aluminium Industry in India and World.’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you canclick here.
Introduction
Aluminium is abundant in the earth’s crust, but a significant concentration in one place is needed for mining.
Useful Properties of Aluminium
The
following properties of Aluminium make it a valuable metal.
Elasticity: Aluminium
exhibits impressive elasticity, allowing it to be bent and deformed
without easily breaking. This property is vital in applications where
materials must withstand varying stresses and strains.
Conductivity of Electricity and Heat: Aluminium
boasts excellent electrical conductivity, allowing it to transmit electric
current efficiently. Hence, it is preferred for heat sinks, radiators, and
cookware.
Modulability: Aluminium can be easily modulated
into a wide range of shapes.
Corrosion Resistance: Upon exposure to air, Aluminium
forms a thin oxide layer that protects it from further oxidation,
extending its lifespan and reducing maintenance requirements.
Recyclability: Aluminium’s recyclability is
noteworthy, as it can be recycled repeatedly without losing its
fundamental properties.
Lightweight: The low density of Aluminium
contributes to its lightweight nature, making it an ideal choice for
applications where weight reduction is crucial, such as in the aerospace
and automotive industries.
Non-Toxicity: Aluminium is considered safe for
various applications due to its non-toxic nature, making it suitable for
contact with food and beverages. This characteristic has led to its
prevalent use in food packaging and kitchen utensils.
Process of obtaining Aluminium
Location Factors Influencing Aluminium Industry
Manufacturing
one metric ton of Aluminium requires around 6 metric tonnes of Bauxite and
power consumption of 18,573 kilowatt-hours of electricity.
Bauxite Availability: The availability of Bauxite, the primary raw material for producing Aluminium, plays a crucial role in determining the location of Aluminium industries. Countries like Guinea, Australia, and Brazil, which possess significant bauxite reserves, enjoy a competitive edge in Aluminium production. They can obtain Bauxite at a lower cost compared to countries that need to import it, giving them an advantage in the Aluminium manufacturing sector.
Cheap Electricity: Alumina to Aluminium conversion is done using electrolysis. Aluminium smelters require large amounts of energy, often supplied by hydroelectric power plants near the smelter. Therefore, Aluminium plants are usually located near water sources and dams that can generate electricity.
Global Aluminium Industry
The availability of cheap electricity has influenced the location of the Aluminium industry. This factor has played a significant role in determining the locations of main Aluminium refining centres worldwide.
During the 1970s, countries like Japan, the USA, and Western Europe were prominent players in the Aluminium industry. However, as the cost of electricity increased in these areas, they faced challenges in maintaining their competitive edge. This shift in competitiveness prompted the relocation of Aluminium production facilities to other regions that offered more cost-effective electricity options.
Presently, major Aluminium refining countries include Australia, Canada, Brazil, China, and Russia. These countries have been able to maintain their competitiveness due to their relatively low electricity costs.
Main Producers Include
1. Canada and Norway
Canada and Norway are prime examples of countries that lack domestic bauxite resources but have a strong Aluminium industry presence.
The availability of cheap electricity, primarily from hydroelectric resources, has enabled these nations to attract Aluminium refining companies.
2. Japan
Japan, once a leader in Aluminium production, faced a decline due to rising electricity prices. Consequently, many companies shifted their operations to countries like Australia and Indonesia, which offer abundant bauxite reserves and comparatively lower electricity costs.
3. Australia
Australia stands out
due to its significant deposits of bauxite and diverse electricity generation
sources.
Queensland & Victoria: In regions like Queensland and Victoria, coal-based thermal power plants contribute to the availability of cheap electricity
Tasmania: Tasmania benefits from its ample hydroelectric resources.
4. USA
The United States, with its vast geography, has seen Aluminium production centres in various regions.
Eastern USA: The eastern part of the USA, encompassing states like Arkansas, Georgia, and Alabama, has historically been associated with Aluminium production.
Western USA: Western states like Arizona, Utah, and New Mexico have also hosted Aluminium refineries.
However, environmental considerations and taxes have impacted the growth of the Aluminium industry in the USA.
5. Iceland
Iceland has emerged as an attractive destination for Aluminium companies due to its abundant supply of low-cost and renewable energy sources. The country’s geothermal and hydroelectric energy has lured Aluminium manufacturers seeking energy-efficient and sustainable operations.
Main Aluminium producing units in India
The Aluminium smelting sector holds the second most significant position in India’s metallurgical landscape, trailing only behind the iron and steel industry. Its contribution is pivotal to the comprehensive growth of the nation’s industrial sector.
Aluminium Industry in India
Both private and public sector enterprises are present in Aluminium production
1. Private Sector
1. HINDALCO
HINDALCO, owned by the Aditya Birla Group, is a prominent player in the Indian Aluminium industry. The company operates two major plants in Renukoot (Uttar Pradesh) and Hirakud (Odisha).
a. Renukoot Plant, Uttar Pradesh (UP)
Bauxite
Lohardaga-Pakhar
region in Jharkhand
Electricity
Rihand Dam on the
Rihand River
Skilled Labour
Comprehensive
residential township and medical facilities are present to ensure a conducive
working environment.
Transportation
Well
connected via rail and road
b. Hirakud Plant, Odisha
Bauxite
Kalahandi-Koraput
region in Odisha
Electricity
Captive coal blocks
at Talabira
Transportation
Well
connected via rail and road
2. Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs)
1. National Aluminium Company (NALCO)
NALCO is a leading PSU in the Indian aluminium industry, with its primary facility located in Koraput, Odisha.
The company capitalizes on the abundant bauxite reserves in Odisha.
NALCO’s operations are supported by a coal-based captive power plant, ensuring a steady energy supply for its Aluminium production processes.
2. Madras Aluminium Company (MALCO)
MALCO is situated in Salem, Tamil
Nadu.
The Shevaroy
Hills in Tamil Nadu provide the necessary Bauxite.
The company utilizes hydroelectricity
from the Mettur Dam to
power its Aluminium production operations.
3. Bharat Aluminium Company (BALCO )
BALCO, located in Korba, Chhattisgarh.
The Korba region is rich in Aluminium reserves.
BALCO relies on a coal-based captive power plant for its energy needs.
4. Others
Indian Aluminium Company (INDAL): In Alupuram, Kerala
This article deals with ‘Union and its Territory – Indian Polity.’ This is part of our series on ‘Polity’ which is important pillar of GS-2 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here
Introduction
Under
International Law as laid down under the Montevideo convention, to be recognized as STATE some basic components are
required like
Permanent
Population
Defined Territory
Government
Capacity to enter into
relations with other states
Hence, TERRITORY plays a significant role in making a recognized state.
Territory serves as a cornerstone in the establishment of statehood due to its multifaceted implications. A defined territory not only provides a physical space where a population resides and governance takes place but also serves as the spatial jurisdiction within which the State exercises its authority. This territorial demarcation delineates the scope of a state’s legal, political, and economic activities while also acting as a symbol of its sovereignty and distinct identity on the global stage.
(E.g., Kurds have a Permanent Population, even a
somewhat independent government, and they enter into relations with other
powers like the US, but they don’t have a defined Territory which is
internationally recognized by other states; hence, although
Kurds are a nation but not State).
Constitutional Provisions
Articles 1 to 4 of Part 1 deal with Union and its Territory.
Article 1
Analysis of Article 1(1)
Article 1(1) states that
India, that is, Bharat, shall be a Union of States. Hence, the official
name of
India is ‘India that is Bharat‘. The nomenclature of “India that is
Bharat” underscores the country’s rich cultural heritage and
historical continuity. It serves as a bridge between the modern and
ancient, acknowledging the deep-rooted historical legacy while embracing
the contemporary identity.
India is a Union of States and
not a Federation of States because
India is not the result of an
agreement among different states.
No state can secede from the
Union.
States can’t change the
boundaries on their own free will.
It should also be noted that
the term ‘Union’ was preferred over ‘Centre’ because
States are neither the
agencies of the Union nor derive their powers from it. Both the entities,
i.e. the Union and the States, are the creation of the Constitution, and
both derive their respective authority from the Constitution.
The Constitution clearly
demarcated the Legislative and Executive powers between Union and States.
The relationship between
Union and States is not of subordination but cooperation.
Point
to note
India
Indestructible Union of destructible state
USA
Indestructible Union of indestructible states
Canada
Destructible
Union of destructible states
Analysis of Article 1(2)
Article 1(2) of the Indian
Constitution states that the states and territories thereof shall be as
specified in the First Schedule.
Hence, Schedule 1 of the
Indian Constitution contains the name of states and Union Territories
along with their territorial extent.
Analysis of Article 1(2)
Article
1(2) of the Indian Constitution delineates the expansive and dynamic concept of
the territorial boundaries of India. This provision lays down the comprehensive
composition of the territory of India, highlighting the multi-faceted nature of
its geographical and political entity.
The
Territory of India consists of
Territory of
States: The
first component encapsulates the territories of the different states that
collectively form the Indian Union.
Union
Territories: The
second aspect encompasses the Union Territories (UTs), regions directly
administered by the central government.
Territories
that the Government of India may acquire at any time: The third facet
introduces a dynamic and potentially evolving aspect of India’s territory.
It emphasizes that the territorial scope of India is not static, as the
Government of India has the authority to acquire additional territories at
any time.
Hence,
the Territory of India is greater than the Union of India. While the Union of
India comprises only those states that are members of the federal structure and
share powers with the central government, the Territory of India extends beyond
this federal composition. It encompasses not only states but also union
territories and, importantly, leaves room for potential future territorial
acquisitions.
Article 2
Article 2 of the Indian
Constitution empowers Parliament to admit new States into the Union
and the power to establish new States on such terms & conditions as it
thinks fit.
This article is meant
for the newly acquired area, which wasn’t part of India earlier. Parliament
exercised this power to admit the French enclaves of Pondicherry,
Karaikal, and others, as well as the Portuguese enclave of Goa, into the
Indian Union.
Significant Supreme Court
Judgements in this regard include
In N. Masthan
Sahib v. Chief Commissioner of Pondicherry, the Supreme Court held that mere having
administrative control over the Territory of Pondicherry didn’t mean the
territory had been transferred to India. For the legal transfer of
territory, ratifying the cession between France and India is
necessary.
Similarly, later in SR Bhansali
v. Union of India,
it was held that mere physical control of territory by force of arms
didn’t amount to ‘acquisition’ and the territory conquered in the
Indo-Pakistan War of 1971 had not become a part of the Territory of
India.
Hence, ratification by both sovereigns is an essential condition
for the acquisition of territory.
Article 3
Procedure
Bill can be introduced in any house with the prior recommendation of the President.
Before recommending the bill, President would send it to the concerned state legislature to seek its opinion within the time limit.
If State doesn’t respond within time, it can be extended or introduced in Parliament without the State’s recommendation.
Parliament is not bound to act on the recommendation of the State Legislature (ruled by the Supreme Court in Babulal Parate v. the State of Bombay).
The bill needs to be passed by the Parliament with a simple majority.
Recent development happened in
2017 when the above provision was challenged in Andhra Pradesh Bifurcation. In the case of
the creation of the State of Telangana, the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Bill,
2013 was decisively rejected by the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly and
Council. But the same did not deter the Government from going ahead with the
passage of the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 (Telangana) in the
Parliament. Hence, the petition demanded to declare bifurcation to be
Unconstitutional. The petition claimed that the
The Centre had introduced the
bill when the Andhra Pradesh State Legislature rejected it. They contended
that the bifurcation violated the basic provisions of federalism.
There should be a
“federal index” for State formation. The Union can’t have
roughshod over the federal structure.
A full verdict is awaited. It is hoped that the Supreme Court will clarify the procedure to be followed in case of such bifurcations.
There
are instances where the State Legislatures have passed a resolution for
creating new states. But constitutionally, states cannot initiate the creation
process of states. The motion passed by Uttar Pradesh Assembly in 2011 to
divide the State into 4 parts – Poorvanchal, Paschim Pradesh, Awadh Pradesh,
and Bundelkhand had only suggestive value but no material significance in
Constitutional terms.
Article 4
Laws made under Article 2 & Article 3 are not Amendments to Constitution under Article 368 and hence can be passed by a simple majority. The ordinary legislative procedure can pass such laws through a simple majority.
Supreme Court rulings on the important questions
Do the power to diminish the area of the State also constitute the power to cede territory to a foreign country?
The matter arose in the Berubari
Union Case of 1960 when India ceded the Berubari Union region in West Bengal
to Pakistan (under the Nehru-Noon Agreement of 1958).
The Supreme Court
said Parliament doesn’t have the power to diminish area by
ceding its territory to another country under Article 3 as its implementation would
reduce the total area of India. Consequently, amending Article 1 and
pertinent sections of the Constitution’s First Schedule becomes necessary,
requiring a Constitutional Amendment as per Article 368.
Consequently, the 9th
Constitutional Amendment was enacted in 1960 to transfer Berubari to
Pakistan.
In 2015, when India ceded 111
Land Enclaves to Bangladesh, the 100th Constitutional Amendment Act was
passed. It amended the First Schedule of the Constitution.
In the 1970s, India ceded
Katchatheevu Island to Sri Lanka after signing a bilateral treaty. The
decision was against the Berubari Judgement as Indian territory can be
ceded to any foreign country through a constitutional amendment. Hence,
Tamil groups challenged this action in the Supreme Court of India, and the
case is still pending before the Supreme Court.
How to settle boundary disputes?
In the Ram Kishore
case / Berubari II Case, the Supreme Court held that cessation of the territory is
different from the settlement of the boundary.
Settlement of boundary
disputes & the implementation of the International Tribunal’s Award is
within the executive powers of the Government. It doesn’t require any
amendment and can be done by executive order.
Leasing of Territory
In Sukumar Sengupta v. Union of India, Supreme Court held that where territory was leased to another State (in this case, it was leased to Bangladesh), it wasn’t necessary to Amend the Constitution. There was no cessation and abandonment of the Sovereignty of India over the territory.