India-Japan Relations

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India-Japan Relations

This article deals with ‘India-Japan Relations.’ This is part of our series on ‘International Relations’, which is an important pillar of the GS-2 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Brief History

Till Independence

The relations between India and Japan can be traced back to the 6th century when Buddhism from India reached Japan.
The Japan- India Association was set up in 1903, post which the direct political exchanges began.
Rabindranath Tagore had a close relationship with Okakura Kakuza.
SC Bose sought Japan’s help in his fight against Britishers. Azad Hind Fauz was the brainchild of Japanese Major Fujiwara.
The sole dissenting voice of Judge Radha Binod Pal at the War Crimes Tribunal struck a deep chord among the Japanese public that continues to reverberate to this day.

Post Independence relations

The diplomatic relations between the two countries began with the signing of Japan’s Peace Treaty with India in 1952, thus starting the formal ties between the two countries.
India was one of the first countries to extend diplomatic ties, with the invitation to the Asian Games held in New Delhi in 1951. The relations were further strengthened by the mutual visits of Japanese Prime Minister Nobuke Kishi and Jawaharlal Nehru.

Cold War Period

The relations between the two countries suffered a setback during the cold war years, as Japan aligned with the United States while India chose to adhere to a Non-alignment policy.
Further, the relations were hampered when Japan took a neutral stand during the Sino-Indian border war of 1962.
Japan’s economic engagements with East and South-East Asian nations deepened during the 1970s and 1980s. Due to India’s domestic ferment and problems during the Cold War, Japan always perceived India as a chaotic and desperately poor nation, having no potential to be a partner in the near times.
During this period, nothing substantive came out till the fall of the USSR, barring Suzuki’s investment.

1990 – 1998

Two events had a marked impact on Indo-Japanese relations & these were
- Fall of USSR leading to end of the cold war.
- The process of liberalisation started in India.
- India began to improve its relations with the USA. It also led India to strengthen its ties with other allies of the USA.
Japanese Overseas Development Assistance (ODA) started to flow into India, which helped plug the economic development gaps.
In 1991, Japan was among the few countries that bailed India out of the Balance of Payment crisis.
In 1993, Narsimha Rao’s Look East policy started & played an essential role in shaping India’s ties with Japan.
Till 1998, bonhomie was seen in bilateral relations between India & Japan.

Pokharan II Nuclear Explosion & Japanese Reaction

In 1998, Nuclear tests were conducted during Atal Bihari Vajpayee’s regime.
After the test, Japan became a vocal critique of India at the regional and international levels. Japan even went on to cut its economic aid to India. It was natural for Japan to condemn such foreign policy behaviour as it had been the only nation in the world to have witnessed the horror of an atomic bomb attack. Along with that, as Japan enjoyed protection under the nuclear umbrella of the US, it perceived a new nuclear power as a threat to its security.
It marked the lowest point in Indo-Japanese bilateral relations. Japan pressurised India to roll back its nuclear program.

Beginning of New Era

PM Yoshiro Mori visited India in 2000 & signed a landmark treaty called ‘Global Partnership in 21st Century ‘. Subsequently, Japanese sanctions were lifted in 2001.
India is the only country with which Japan has Annual Summit Meetings alternating between Delhi & Tokyo.
2011: India and Japan signed CEPA (Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement).
2014: Prime Minister Shinzo Abe was the chief guest at India’s Republic Day parade.
2017: Shinzo Abe visited Ahmedabad, and he inaugurated the Shinkansen (Bullet Train) project funded by Japan. The railway operation will commence in 2023.
2020: Yoshihide Suga became the new Prime Minister of Japan (after Shinzo Abe voluntarily retired due to his health condition). Suga is expected to continue the policies of Shinzo Abe and maintain good relations with India.
2022: 70 years of the establishment of diplomatic relations between the two countries.

Different Aspects in Indo-Japan Relations

1 . Export -Import

Japanese brands such as Sony, Yamaha, Honda and Toyota have become household names in India.
Suzuki’s partnership with the Indian automobile company – Maruti is the largest Indian car manufacturer.
India and Japan signed CEPA in 2011. India feels the CEPA is an alliance between Japanese technology and the Indian labour force. Under the provisions of CEPA, 94% of tariffs were eliminated. As a result of CEPA, bilateral trade between the two countries increased to $17.6 billion (2018-19).
India exports petroleum products, iron ore, chemicals, fish, clothing and machinery to Japan while it imports electrical machinery, transport equipment, plastic materials and precision instruments.

2. Japanese FDI

Japan is the 4th largest investor in India. $28.16 billion in Japanese FDI has come to India between April 2000 and June 2018.
1800 Japanese companies are operating in India.
India established the “Japan Plus” office in the Ministry of Commerce and Industry in 2014 as a “one-stop” location for resolving problems Japanese companies face.

3. Largest Donor

Japan is the largest development assistance donor & 30% of the total ODA from Japan comes to India.
Some projects funded by Japan
- Delhi Metro
- Mumbai -Ahmadabad High-Speed Rail
- Western Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFC)
- Bangalore-Chennai Expressway
These loans are given at very favourable terms. E.g., Financial assistance for Mumbai-Ahmadabad Freight Corridor consists of a soft loan of ₹90,000 crores at an interest rate of 0.1% over 50 years. The re-payment of the loan is to begin after 15 years of receiving the loan.

4. Currency Swap Agreement

In 2019, India and Japan signed a $75 billion currency swap agreement. Hence, in an emergency, India can get $ 75 billion in dollars or yen at a pre-determined exchange rate and later return it at the same exchange rate.

5. Security Issues

Japan signed the Declaration on Security Cooperation with India in 2008, only the third country to have such a security relationship after the USA and Australia.
The rise of China serves as a significant reason for the realignment of partnerships in the region. Both India and Japan have unsettled territorial claims with China. E.g., conflict over Senkaku island(Japan vs China) and conflict over Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh (India vs China).
The National Security Strategy of Japan announced in 2013 has included India as a primary driver in maintaining the balance of power in Asia disturbed by a rising China.
Malabar Exercise: India, US & Japan conduct an annual naval exercise to ensure freedom of navigation. It is mainly aimed at China, emerging as the revisionist power in the Indo-Pacific region.
Quad: It is an informal strategic forum between India, Japan, USA and Australia. Also labelled as “Asian NATO”, it is the brainchild of Shinzo Abe and mainly aimed at containing the rise of China in the Indo-Pacific.
Japan is helping India build strategic infrastructure in North East and Andaman and Nicobar.
US-2 Amphibious Aircraft: India is planning to buy US-2 Amphibious Aircraft from Japan which can land both on land and water. This deal has strategic importance as this will be the first arms deal since World War 2, in which Japan will make an overseas military sale.

Important note: The reinterpretation of Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution allows Japan to boost strategic cooperation with India. The amended Article 9 (since September 2015) allows Japan to send military aid to friendly states that including India) if they come under attack from another state. This amendment has opened up new avenues of strategic diplomacy between India and Japan.

Side Topic: Senkaku Island Issue

Senkaku Island dispute involves the issue of sovereignty over eight uninhabited islands and rocks in the East China Sea.
Japan and China have conflicting claims on these islands.
- These islands have been under Japan since 1895. After World War 2, the US took over these islands but returned them to Japan in 1972.
- China started to assert historical claims over Senkaku island in the 1970s.
Although uninhabited, these islands are important because
- Close to important shipping lanes
- EEZ offers rich fishing grounds
- They lie near potential oil and gas reserves.
- Control over these islands helps in maintaining military primacy in the Asia-Pacific region

6. Nuclear Agreement Signed

Japan and India have reached a broad agreement in 2015 on Civil Nuclear Cooperation. It will provide India access to the Japanese nuclear market and its technology.
Along with that, as most of the nuclear parts are made by Japan, India found it tough to order nuclear technology from the US, France, and Russia in the absence of a deal with Japan.

7. Indian diaspora

Indian merchants have been settling in Japan since 1870. But their number increased exponentially during World War I when Japanese goods were sought to fill the void of European goods.
In recent years, there has been a change in the composition of the Indian community with the arrival of a large number of professionals. These include
1. IT professionals & engineers working for Indian & Japanese firms
2. Professionals in management, finance, education, and S&T research
Nishikasai area in Tokyo is emerging as “mini-India”.

8. Multilateral Cooperation

India and Japan are members of the following multilateral organisations

G-4: Both India and Japan are demanding a permanent seat in UNSC.
G-20
Quad

9. Other Cooperations

India and Japan are jointly working on Asia-Africa Growth Corridor (AAGC) announced in 2017 to counter China’s Belt and Road Initiative.
India will supply rare earth metals to Japan for making defence and high tech electronics. At present, China is the biggest producer of rare earth.
Varanasi has been declared as Kyoto’s sister city.
India and Japan have started conducting the Annual Bilateral Space Dialogue to enhance bilateral cooperation in outer space.
Japan will train 30,000 Indian youth in the next ten years by setting up a Japan-India Institute for manufacturing.
ISRO and Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) are working on a joint lunar polar exploration (LUPEX) mission. In 2024, the mission aims to send a Lander and Rover to the Moon’s south pole.
India & Japan complement each other
1. Japan has an ageing population, while India has a young population.
2. They have surplus capital & we need capital.
3. India has resources; they have the technology.
4. India’s has prowess in services, and Japan has excellence in manufacturing.

Issues

Due to project delays and bureaucratic hurdles, Japanese firms do not find it easy to do business in India.
India has refused to join the recently concluded RCEP.
Rising Trade Imbalance: The higher minimum standards on everything in Japan acts as an entry barrier for Indian companies and products, reducing dynamism in investment.
Both had a diverging interest in economic issues like E-commerce rules and data localization (Osaka track).
At WTO and its Doha Round of Talk, both India and Japan are in the opposite camps.
Despite CEPA India-Japan trade, it has not produced the anticipated results.
No Concrete Achievement by Asia-Africa Growth Corridor (AAGC): Since the 2016 launch, AAGC has not been able to move beyond the vision statement or provide an alternative to Chinese OBOR.
Japan is concerned about its intellectual property in defence technology transfers.
India is part of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation as well as BRICS.

Indian Diaspora and Issues

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Indian Diaspora and Issues

This article deals with ‘Indian Diaspora and Issues – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘International Relations’ which is important pillar of GS-2 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

What is meant by Diaspora?

Indian Diaspora is a generic term to describe the people who
- migrated from territories that are currently within the borders of the Republic of India.
- It also refers to their descendants.
Diaspora is currently estimated to number over 26 million, composed of “NRIs” (Indian citizens not residing in India) and “PIOs” (Persons of Indian Origin who have acquired the citizenship of some other country).

Distribution

India has the second largest (first being China) Diaspora in the world.
The overseas Indian community estimated at over 26 million is spread across every major region in the world. The major concentration of Indian diaspora is in Middle East (11 Million) , U.S.A, U.K, Canada, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, and South Africa respectively.

Trends of Indian Diaspora

Overseas Indian community is the result of different waves of migration over hundreds of years driven by a variety of reasons-mercantilism, colonialism and globalization.

Changing nature

British times => Indentured Labour to Fiji, Kenya, West Indies, Mauritius etc
In the last three decades of the 20th century the character of migration began to change and a ‘new Diaspora’ led by
- High skilled professionals moving to the western world
- Semi-skilled contract workers moving to the Gulf, West and South East Asia emerged.

View of Various leaders towards Diaspora

JL Nehru	Although we want to maintain close relationship with Indian Diaspora but Diaspora should re-affirm their commitment to Country they are settled in and integrate themselves in that country
Present	Since 2002 (since formation of Singhavi Committee) , Indian government has started to view Diaspora as their important asset which can help in foreign policy and safeguarding Indian interests abroad.

Earlier Government viewed Diaspora as burdensome & refused to help them in various crisis

1964 Myanmar crisis when 3 lakh India businessmen expelled & their businesses nationalised
1972 : When 70,000 Indians faced persecution in Uganda by Idi Amin regime

Role of Indian Diaspora in development of country they are settled in

They have also contributed to the growth and development of the country of their residence. For example, Silicon Valley represents the success of Indians. 4 out of 10 startups in the region are Indian.
Becoming important part of Government and political establishments and helping in nation building .
- Canadian Government has 4 Ministers (including Defence Minister of Indian Origin)
- More than dozen MPs in UK are of Indian origin
- US representative to UN (Nikki Halley (Randhawa)) is of Indian Origin
- Portugual PM Dr Coasta is of Indian (Goa) origin (he was Chief Guest at 2017 Pravasi Bhartiya Divas held in Bangaluru)
- Leo Varadkar – Former Ireland PM

How they help India

They help Home Country ie India in various ways. Instances are

It is the source of large inflows of remittances, which has been helping balance the current account. According to the World Bank Indian diaspora sends highest amount of remittances back home (followed by China)
During Indo-US Nuclear Deal, US Indians played part in lobbying for India
Many Indians invest in philanthropic activities back in India especially in their AlmaMater
Mauritian President is generally of Indian Origin and always act as important ally in Indian Ocean. China has not been able to make deep inroads in Mauritius .
They are investing in Indian . States to which they belong try to woo them . Eg : Punjab organises Progressive Punjab Summit and Punjabi NRIs are given special invitation for doing investments
Help to re-develop after disasters . Eg :
- Kerala Diaspora helped Kerala during 2018 floods
- UAE government proposed to give ₹700 crore to Kerala recognising the contribution of Keralites in building UAE & their importance in country and economy

Remittances send by Indians

Remittances : World Bank Ranking

India	72 (billion $)
China	64
Philippines	30
Mexico	22
Nigeria	21

Major Issues

Dual Citizenship: Majority of Indian diaspora want to retain their Indian citizenship along with the citizenship of the country of their residence.

Customs and Immigration Official Issues : The commonest grievance of the Diaspora is the ill treatment, harassment and the demands for illegal gratification it encounters at the hands of our customs and immigration officials at the points of entry.

Threat to their employment (Nitaqat Law): It is aims to replacing a large section of overseas workers with locals in Saudi Arabia. Because of this, overseas workers from Kerala, TN etc. affected.

Threat to their security by IS: In view of the recent cases of violence in the Middle East, there has emerged a new threat the very security of oversees workers in the region. For example, the recent kidnapping of Indian workers by IS group.

Evacuation from War Zones : Explained Below

Side Topic : Evacuation of Indians

Various Evacuations done by Government till now

2016	Sankat Mochan	From South Sudan (Civil War going on in South Sudan)
2015	Raahat	Yemen (Civil War between Government and Houthi Rebels )
2011	Op Safe Home Coming	Libya (Civil War after Arab Spring)
2006	Sukoon	Lebanon
1990	——-	From Kuwait (Airlift movie made on this)

Do we need Evacuation Policy / Doctrine

India has conducted more than 30 evacuation operations across Africa, Asia, and Europe, including its largest-ever civilian airlift of 110,000 people from the Persian Gulf in 1990. However , India does not have a comprehensive evacuation policy to evacuate Indian stranded in conflict zone.

Why We need Evacuation Policy

US, UK, and the NATO have institutionalised Non-Combatant Evacuation operations (NEO) doctrine. Among the developing countries, Brazil too has institutionalised a standard operating procedure (SOP).
India has more than 25 million strong Diaspora and in that 11 million Indians are in West Asia which is becoming unstable with growth of ISIS
Fast Reaction : Whenever such situation arives, Government and Officials can take steps at earliest to save Life of Indians.
Will establish clear chain of command and in case of failure , responsibility can be properly expressed

How to make and what it can include

Take lessons from India’s previous Evacuation Operations and best practices along with Evacuation Plans of US, UK, NATO etc
India’s diplomatic cadre must be given specific training to operate in hostile environments.
Assign a greater role to its armed forces, in particular by strengthening the Navy and Air Force’s capacity to operate in tandem with civilian authorities.
Government must establish a permanent civil reserve air fleet that pools aircraft from all Indian airlines based on pre-established requisition and reimbursement process.
Invest in new technologies to better monitor the diaspora’s profile and mobility

Steps Taken

India setup Dr LM Singhavi Committee (High Level Committee on Indian Diaspora) in 2002 which gave various recommendations. (Almost all steps taken by the Government are based on this report like starting Pravasi Bhartiya Divas , giving more importance to Diaspora etc

For giving special focus to the issues pertaining to the Indian diaspora, the government set up a dedicated Ministry of oversees Indian affairs in 2004. It provides all round services to the diaspora. (Again merged with External Ministry. Retrograde step)

Government has started, since 2003, the organization of Pravasi Bhartiya Diwas, to mark the contribution of the overseas Indian community to the development of India.

The government has launched various social security schemes for Indian diaspora living abroad, like
- Pravasi Bhartiya Bima Yojana, 2006

Skilling for Foreign Jobs
- Swarnapravas Yojana : focuses on skill development of Indians who want to go abroad in select sectors that face skill shortages in the international labor market, and increase their employability
- Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana : PKVY has exclusive program to train Indians seeking jobs abroad which train them in suitable skill sets

Various online platforms for Diaspora
- MADAD App : To help NRIs in distress relating to work permit, visa , employer issue
- E-Migrate Portal : Recruiting Agents have to register here

Schemes to know about India and their roots
- Know India Programme was launched as a three-week Orientation programme for diaspora youth (aged 18 to 30) conducted with a view to promote awareness on different facets of life in India and the progress made by the country in various fields (latest such program conducted in Dec 2017) .
- Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs is running a scheme known as “Tracing the Roots” to facilitate PIOs in tracing their roots in India.

Oversees Citizenship of India Scheme (OCI): The Scheme provides for benefits comparable to citizens in certain fields, like in economic and education fields etc. PIO Card was merged with OCI Scheme as well

State level initiatives : States like Punjab with huge diaspora have started NRI police stations and NRI Sabha to deal with cases and issues of NRIs.

What more can be done

To ensure that Diaspora members feel welcomed on their arrival in India and also recall warmly their visits, a friendlier reception at their point of entry; easier procedures for immigration and customs clearances that are marked by courteous service are essential
To address the problems of our overseas blue-collar workers, following should be implemented at the earliest possible.
- Establishing a welfare fund for repatriated overseas workers in distress;
- Monitoring and supervision of both the employment contracts, and conditions of our overseas workers by our Missions;
- Launching compulsory insurance schemes covering the risks faced by our overseas workers;

Diaspora can make a significant contribution to the growth of tourism in India. PIOs make frequent visits to their home state or their relatives. There should be greater focus on promoting tourism among 2nd generation PIOs.
Parliamentary Standing Committee on the Indian Diaspora could be constituted.This Committee could also act as a focal point for interaction with Parliamentarians of Indian Origin in other countries. Such exchanges are essential in order to bring about greater understanding and amity between them.

Giving Voting Rights to Indians living abroad . Procedure through which it can be done like e-ballot or on Indian Consular office etc can be debated

DNA Fingerprinting

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DNA Fingerprinting

This article deals with ‘DNA Fingerprinting – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

DNA Finger Printing / DNA Profiling

DNA profiling, or DNA fingerprinting, is a forensic method used to identify a person using a unique signature found in their DNA.
Alec Jeffreys first developed DNA fingerprinting technique in 1985.
It uses the fact that the DNA of a person is unique.
The Short Tandem Repeat (STM) Technique is the most commonly used technique, which involves identifying differences in some specific regions in DNA sequence. However, there are 23 pairs of human chromosomes with 1.5 million pairs of genes. But 99.9% of the DNA base sequences are the same (called Bulk Genomic DNA). The remaining 0.1% DNA sequence differs from one individual to another and is present as a small stretch of repeated sequences called Short Tandem Repeats (STM).

Technique

It involves following steps

Uses of DNA Fingerprinting

Forensic analysis: It can be used in the identification of a (1) person involved in criminal activities, (2) for settling paternity or maternity disputes, and (3) in determining relationships for immigration purposes.
Pedigree analysis: It can be used for inheritance pattern of genes through generations and for detecting inherited diseases such as Cystic Fibrosis, Haemophilia, Huntington’s Disease, Sickle Cell Anaemia etc.
Personal Identification: DNA fingerprints can be used as a genetic bar code to identify individuals.
Anthropological studies: It is useful in determining the origin and migration of human populations and genetic diversities.
DNA Barcoding: A technique for specifying the organisms’ species using a short sequence of DNA situated in the genome is termed DNA bar-coding. The barcode DNA sequences are too short in respect to the complete genome and hence cheaper.

DNA Fingerprinting in India

Pioneering work was done by Lalji Singh at the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB), Hyderabad
Other centres are :
1. Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (Hyderabad)
2. Centre for DNA Fingerprinting & Diagnostics (Hyderabad)
3. Central Forensic Science Laboratory, Kolkata
4. National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resource (NBPGR), New Delhi
5. National Institute of Plant and Genetic Research (NIPGR), New Delhi

DNA Technologies (Use & Regulation) Bill, 2019

Introduction

There are a large number of

Missing persons
Unclaimed dead bodies

DNA fingerprinting can help the government in this regard.

Moreover, DNA is accepted as evidence under Evidence Act. Hence, it can help in increasing the conviction rate.

Issues with DNA Fingerprinting in India

Lack of regulation
Privacy issue
Lack of DNA labs and experts.
Unscientific forensic data collection techniques used by police.

Working

Use of DNA Data: DNA testing is allowed only regarding matters listed in the schedule to the Bill (such as paternity suits).

Permission for the use of DNA Data: While preparing a DNA profile,
- Authorities must obtain consent for collection if the offence carries a punishment of up to 7 years.
- If the offence carries more than seven years of imprisonment or death, consent is not required.

Two new bodies will be created
- DNA Regulatory Board: To supervise and regulate DNA Data Banks and DNA Laboratories.
- DNA Data Bank (National & State): Data Banks will store DNA profiles received from DNA laboratories.

Protection of information:
- Board is required to ensure that all information relating to DNA profiles with the Data Banks, laboratories and other persons are kept confidential
- DNA data can only be used for identification of the person (and not for extracting any other information (like Health Vulnerabilities to be used by Insurance companies))

Option for deletion of data – There is also provision for defined instances for deletion of profiles and destruction of DNA profiles (like if the charge-sheeted person whose DNA samples has been stored in DNA Data Bank has been acquitted by Court).

Penalties: Any violation would attract imprisonment up to three years and a fine of up to 1 lakhs.

Issues

Privacy Issues

In the absence of any Data Protection Act, DNA information stored in Data Bank can be vulnerable.
Along with that, leakage of data can reveal intrusive information like a person’s allergies or vulnerability to diseases. This information can be misused by various organizations such as (health) insurance agencies.

Technology

Critics say that DNA Matching tech is not entirely foolproof. There are chances, even if very low, of erroneous results.
Problems of cross-contaminating samples, mislabelling samples, misrepresenting test results and intentionally planting DNA.

Unscientific investigation

In India, instead of forensic investigators and scientists, an untrained constable goes to the crime scene first, who does not know how to collect evidence scientifically and, in the process, destroys vital DNA evidence.

Lack of DNA examiners

According to international practice, one DNA examiner can take 100 cases per year. As of now, there are 40,000 unclaimed dead bodies each year & 400 examiners are required. But India has a total of 35-40 examiners.

No improvement in conviction rates

Over the last 25 years, most countries have adopted a DNA fingerprinting law and have developed databases for criminal investigation, disaster identification and forensic science. However, DNA tests have not improved conviction rates in countries where it is already being followed.

Pros

Is already happening, better to do it in a regulated way

Experts say that apprehensions of data misuse & privacy are more in case of the absence of regulation.

Privacy

Minimal information is proposed to be stored (just 13 sets of numbers out of billions ). This can tell nothing about an individual except to act as a unique identifier
Moreover, DNA will be collected from very limited persons in conflict with the law.

Utility

Time has come to use forensic evidence in corroboration with eyewitness evidence.

Designer Baby

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Last Updated: June 2023 (Designer Baby)

Designer Baby

This article deals with ‘Designer Baby – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology’, an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles on Science and Technology, you can click here.

Introduction

Baby whose genetic makeup has been altered using genetic engineering techniques (like CRISPR Cas9) to ensure the presence, absence or enhancement of certain traits.
These traits include
1. Appearance (like height, skin colour, eyes etc.)
2. Disease resistance
3. Intelligence
Bio-information of physical characteristics is encoded in the genetic material. With the ability to alter this information, scientists try to control some of these features.

Discussion: Should it be allowed?

Pros of allowing this technology

It reduces the risk of genetic diseases. Thus, it prevents the next generation of the family from getting characteristic diseases.
It has the potential to increase the human life span by up to 30 years.
Designer babies have a greater probability of success in life.
Development in the field will help in a better understanding of genetics.

Cons of allowing this technology

It will create a social gap as the designer babies will have better looks, intelligence etc. and thus more chances of success.
The genetic engineering technology used is not 100% safe yet.
It has the possibility of damaging the gene pool.
It is not an inclusive technology as it is expensive, and only the rich can afford it.

Updates

2019: A Chinese scientist claimed that he made the world’s first “genetically-edited” babies in whom a gene linked to HIV was removed using the CRISPR technique.

Side Topic: Euthenics

Euthenics is the science of improving the well-being of humans by improving the external factor of their environment.

In contrast to Eugenics which is a capitalist ideology, Euthenics belongs to socialist ideology. It emphasises that instead of changing the genes, governments should provide a better environment for the people to develop.

Gene Therapy

by admin

Last Updated: May 2023 (Gene Therapy)

Gene Therapy

This article deals with ‘Gene Therapy – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology’, which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles on Science and Technology, you can click here.

Introduction

Gene Therapy means using gene manipulating techniques to treat diseases by replacing the defective gene with a healthy gene or boosting the body’s immunity.
It is an extremely useful tool for numerous diseases, like severe combined immune deficiencies, haemophilia, Parkinson’s disease, cancer, etc.

Types of Gene Therapy

Gene Therapy can be of two types

Somatic Cell Gene Therapy

It involves Gene Therapy in normal cells.

It has two categories:

Ex-Vivo: Cells are taken from an individual, modified genetically outside the body and then transplanted into the same person’s body or some other person.
In-Vivo: Genetic modification is done inside the body using a gene delivery system.

Germ Cell Gene Therapy

Germ Cell Gene Therapy is carried out in Germline Cells (sperm or egg).
Next-generation will not be affected by a genetic disorder.

Techniques

Same techniques which we used in Gene Editing, like CRISPR Cas9. (Gene Therapy is one of the applications of Gene Editing only).

Some real examples

#1. Yescarta

Yescarta is Gene Therapy developed by Novartis to treat blood cancer (Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia).

#2. Zolgensma

Gene Therapy developed by Novartis to treat Muscular Atrophy.
It is extremely expensive, costing over 15 crore.

Benefits of Developing Gene Therapy for India

In India, around seven crore people suffer from genetic diseases such as Thalassemia, Sickle Cell Anaemia etc. These can be cured using Gene Therapy.
Economic benefits: It is a growing market with a potential market of $250 billion. India can earn huge revenue and strengthen its position as a destination for medical tourism by developing expertise.

Problems with Gene Therapy

The efficacy of Gene Therapy is still questioned.

Short-lived nature of gene therapy as a result of which patients have to undergo multiple rounds of gene therapy.

Immune response: The immune system has evolved to attack the invader whenever a foreign object is introduced into human tissues. Hence, when foreign DNA is introduced into the body for gene therapy, the immune system attacks it and reduces the efficacy of the gene therapy.

Side effects of virus delivery tools: Viruses are used as vectors in most gene therapies. This virus can cause various problems for the patient undergoing gene therapy like toxicity, immunity and inflammatory responses, gene control, etc.

Grey areas in treatment: The treatment of human diseases through gene therapy for solely medical purposes is argued to be correct. However, enhancing human reproductive cells or altering/improving an average person by gene manipulation are controversial areas as they may turn humanity into a commodity.

Equal Access to treatment: Gene therapy at present has a high cost. Hence, there are inclusivity issues associated with gene therapy.

Genetic Engineering

by admin

Last Updated: June 2023 (Genetic Engineering)

Genetic Engineering

This article deals with ‘Genetic Engineering – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

The term ‘Genetic Engineering’ was coined in 1951 by Jack Williamson.
It is the process of direct human manipulation of the organism’s genome.
It involves introducing the foreign DNA into the organism of interest to add one or more traits that aren’t found naturally in the organism.
The organism thus produced is known as GMO or Transgenic organism.

Timeline

1960	Restriction Enzyme was discovered, which could slice the organism’s DNA strand at a particular point.
1973	Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer made the first Genetically Modified Bacteria by successfully removing a particular gene from a bacterium and placing it in another bacterium using the enzyme mentioned above. The organism thus formed is known as a Genetically Modified Organism (GMO).
1974	Genetically modified Mice was made.
1982	Insulin-producing Bacteria was commercialized.
1982	The antibiotic-resistant tobacco plant, which was the first genetically modified crop, was produced.
1994	Genetically modified food has been sold since 1994.

Method of Genetic Engineering

Genome is relatively resistant to change. To deter any changes from being inadvertently made to DNA, cells have inherent mechanisms to proofread and repair their genetic code. Remarkably, researchers have taken advantage of the cell’s DNA repair mechanisms to achieve genome editing.
To accomplish this, scientists can use
- Artificially engineered enzymes called nucleases act as molecular scissors and are used to crack open DNA strands.
- Once the break is introduced in DNA, the cell will detect the problem & quickly activate repair machinery.
- DNA sequence designed to be inserted is also sent along with a nuclease, such that when a cut is made in the DNA, the cell’s own repair mechanism can use the DNA sequence supplied to replace an existing DNA sequence.
This method allows scientists to change the genetic makeup of cells directly.

Type of Genetically Modified Organisms

Genetic material can be inserted from the same species as well as other species. Accordingly, they are known as Transgenic and Cisgenic GMOs.

Transgenic	Genetic material from the other species is added to the host.
Cisgenic	Genetic material from the same species or one that can be naturally bred with is added to the host.

Applications of Genetic Engineering

1 . Human Medicine

Insulin: Insulin is obtained from genetically engineered E. Coli, which is pure and cheaper than earlier sources, i.e. pancreas of abattoir animals. It was the first-ever genetically engineered biopharma product released on the market. (Note: Insulin controls the glucose levels in the body, and its deficiency results in diabetes.)
Recombinant Vaccines: These are new generations of vaccines. They are pure and have lesser side effects compared to conventional vaccines.
Edible Vaccines: An edible vaccine is derived through the genetically engineered expression of an antigenic protein by an edible plant. They have the advantage over animal-derived vaccines such as easy bulk production and stability at room temperature.
Recombinant Blood Clotting Factor VIII: This helps in curing the patients who have haemophilia. In haemophilia person’s body produces a lesser amount of factor VIII, which helps the body in blood coagulation.

2. Genetically Modified Crops

Genetic Engineering is used to produce GM crops with desirable characteristics such as
1. Pest, virus & drought-resistant varieties such as BT Cotton (having pesticidal properties that are non-toxic to mammals) & virus-resistant GM papaya grown in Hawaii.
2. Weed Control: Scientists have integrated a recombinant gene in the crops that cause resistance to the herbicide glyphosate and simplifies weed control by glyphosate application.
3. Slow ripening
4. Better nutritional value like Golden Rice (with biofortified Vitamin A (Beta Carotene).

3. Improved animal breeds

Like transgenic fish was made to grow rapidly by insertion of the growth hormone gene.

4. Enhancement genetic engineering/ Eugenic / Designer Babies

It involves the insertion of a gene to enhance the specific character like growth hormone or intelligence etc., for enhanced growth or intelligence than ordinary children.

5. Gene Therapy

Using gene manipulating techniques to treat genetic diseases by replacing defective genes with healthy genes or bolstering the body’s immunity.

6. Gene Doping

The misuse of gene editing in which athletes resort to gene editing to increase their physical stamina. According to WADA (World Anti-Doping Agency), Gene Doping is a hazard to a sport’s integrity and athlete’s health.

Concerns with Genetic Engineering

1. Gene delivery tools

Genes are inserted into the body using vectors which are usually viruses.
Viruses can produce other problems like
- Toxicity
- Immune response
- Inflammatory response
- Gene control and targeting issues

2. High costs

The whole process is quite expensive and hence not inclusive. It will create the division in society between haves and have-nots.

3. Ethical Dilemma

Principal concerns include morality, eugenics helping the fittest to survive, ongoing clinical debates about informed consent, religious debate, the possible rise of clones, designer babies, and possibly super-humans.

4. Informed consent

In the case of germline therapy, it is impossible to obtain informed consent as the patients affected by the editing are the embryo and future generations.

5. Limited knowledge of the functions of the genes

Scientists know functions of limited genes, and worst is in some cases, scientists don’t know whether a particular gene is performing more than one function

6. Others

It might lead to designer babies & the commodification of children.
It can be used in biological warfare.
Recreation of extinct species can lead to disasters.
If a wrong DNA segment is inserted and if it gets expressed, it can cause new diseases in human beings.

Side Topic: Gene Knock Out

A gene ‘knock out’ is a genetically engineered organism that carries one or more genes in its chromosomes that have been made inoperative.

CRISPR-Cas9

Currently, four families of engineered nucleases (Molecular Scissor) are used:

Mega nucleases
Zinc finger nucleases
Transcription Activator like Effector based Nucleases (TALENs)
CRISPR- Cas System (Most advanced & important)

CRISPR/Cas9 System of Germline Editing

CRISPR Cas 9 technology works like a cut-and-paste mechanism on DNA strands. The DNA strand identifies the specific location of the genetic codes that need to be changed or “edited” and then, using the Cas9 protein, which acts like a pair of scissors, that location is cut off from the strand. Once the DNA strand is broken, it has a natural tendency to repair itself. During the auto-repair process, Scientists intervene by supplying the desired sequence of genetic codes that binds with the broken DNA strand.
Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 2020 was awarded for discovering the CRISPR Cas9 scissor.
It is a revolutionary technique for Gene Editing with very high efficacy
- CRISPR: It is the mechanism that Bacteria uses to protect themselves from viruses. In this system, DNA is plucked out of Virus and inserted in little bits into the bacterium’s chromosome. In this way, Bacteria records the viruses it has been exposed to so that cells are protected from those viruses in the future.
- Cas 9 is a cutting enzyme.

Stage 1

Guide RNA is shepherded with Cas 9 System

RNA is used to guide Cas 9 to the targeted position.
Cas 9 is used to make a cut.

Stage 2

Cas 9 locks onto DNA & unzips it (both strands are divided).

Stage 3

Cas 9 snips the DNA, creating a break in both strands.

Stage 4

The DNA will repair itself using an inbuilt repaid mechanism using a piece of single-stranded DNA injected into the cell that binds itself with the broken DNA strand.

Why it is revolutionary

It is cheaper (than already existing gene-editing technology).
It has very high efficacy.

Uses and Problems now

Its applications are immense, and it has made the designer baby a reality. Since it will have a wide range of ethical and social implications, inventors Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier have called for Moratorium until proper consensus on its use is made.

Cure to diseases: CRISPR Cas-9 technology is used to treat many incurable diseases. It includes the cure for Sickle Cell Anaemia, diabetes, inherited eye diseases, and various types of cancers.
Controlling number of mosquitos: Scientists have used the CRISPR technique to produce sterile male mosquitos of species that are responsible for spreading diseases such as malaria, dengue, zika etc.
Some scientists call for bringing extinct species back to life using this technology, like the Oxford Universities project on reviving Mammoth.
Designer Babies: Bioethicists fear abuse of gene editing by the private sector, preying on a parent’s desire to create a perfect child. In 2018, a Chinese researcher disclosed that he had altered the genes of a human embryo to prevent the infection of HIV. It was the first documented case of creating a ‘designer baby’, and it caused widespread concern in the scientific community.
Issue of Informed Consent: Bioethicists have also raised the concern that it is impossible to obtain up-to-date consent for germline therapy because the patients affected by the edits are the embryo and future generations.
Inclusivity Issue: Only wealthy people will be able to afford this technology, increasing existing disparities and creating another class of haves and have-nots.

Lord Ripon

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Lord Ripon (1880-1884)

This article deals with ‘ Lord Ripon – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

He was a liberal to the core & earlier acted as Secretary of State during 1866-68. In 1880, when liberal party came to power in England under the leadership of Gladstone (who was the chief devotee of liberalism in Europe), he handpicked Ripon for job as Governor General of India. Ripon’s whole political outlook was very anti-thesis of his predecessor.

When he reached India, India was in political, social & economic fermentation. Lytton’s policies had driven discontent among masses & India was bordering on revolution. Ripon tried to heal those wounds by taking good steps beneficial for Indians.

Repeal of Vernacular Press Act

Act was repealed & Vernacular newspapers were allowed equal freedom with rest of Indian press. This wise action of Ripon tried to undo wrongs done by Lytton .

First Factory Act,1881

To improve the condition of factory labourers
Sought to regulate & improve the condition of labour in Indian factories . The Act was applicable in case of factories employing 100 or more labourers.
Prohibited employment of children below age of 7 + limited working hours for children below age of 12
Although limited in scope , opened new phase of industrial history in India .

Indian nationalists opposed this because it was aimed to nullify the advantage of Indian industrialists and British plantations were out of its ambit .

Financial decentralisation

Continued the policy of financial devolution inaugurated under Lord Mayo. Source of revenue were divided into three classes viz Imperial, Provincial & Divided

Imperial Heads	Revenue from Customs, Posts & Telegraphs , Railways, Opium, Salt, Mint, Military Receipt , Land Revenue etc
Provincial	Revenue from Jails, Medical Services, Printing, Roads , general Administration etc These were insufficient for provincial requirements , hence grant of fixed percentage of land revenue which otherwise was an imperial subject was given to Provinces
Divided	Income from Excise, Stamps , Forests , Registration etc was divided in equal proportion among the Central & Provincial Governments

Resolution on Local Self Government

Most noble work was Government’s resolution on Local Self Government which had following provisions

Local Boards were to be developed throughout the country .
- In Rural Areas, Governor General desired the smallest Administrative Unit to be- sub division , taluka or Tehsil .
- In Towns , the Municipal Committees & City bodies were to form local board .
Local Bodies were to be charged with definite duties & entrusted with suitable sources of Revenue. Ripon desired the Provincial Government should apply in case of local bodies the same principle of Financial Decentralisation which Lord Mayo has directed towards them
Chairman of these local board shouldn’t be Officials but elected by Local Bodies themselves

In pursuance of above resolution, Local Self Government Acts were passed in various provinces during 1883-85 which included Madras, Punjab & Bengal .

But why were they giving such responsibilities to Indians?

Answer is financial pressures & search for more Indian collaborators. ‘Systems of nomination, representation and election were all means of enlisting Indians to work for imperial ends’. The financial and political aspects were neatly combined in the development of local self-government. The process really began under the Conservative Mayo and not the Liberal Ripon. The major motive was to tackle financial difficulties by shifting charges for local requirements on to new local taxes.

Resolution on Land Policy

He disfavoured proposal to establish Permanent Settlement Model of Bengal throughout India
He sought to modify the Permanent settlement of Bengal by giving farmers assurance of permanence & security and committing governments not to enhance taxes except in case of price rise. He couldn’t succeed because Zamindars of Bengal opposed the measure & peasants of Bengal didn’t support it for they feared that Anglo-Indian bureaucracy would be worst than zamindars.

Educational Reforms

Refer Hunter Commission (Constituted under his Governor Generalship )

All the recommendations of Hunter Commission were applied by him

Ilbert Bill Controversy

CP Ilbert – Law member of Council introduced Ilbert bill in 1883
It proposed to give Indian Magistrates & Session Judges the power to try European offenders in mofussil(small towns) as it was already happening in Presidency Towns
White Mutiny followed . Bill was bitterly opposed by not just non official Europeans but British press too. Ripon ultimately have to succumb to the pressure & withdraw the bill.

Amended Bill was passed in 1884 , which provided the European British subjects, when brought to trial before District Magistrate or Sessions Judge , whether European or Indian were to have a right to claim trial by a jury of 12 at least 7 of whom must be European or Americans. If in the mofussil district , no jury could be formed , magistrate was to transfer the case to such other court such as High Court directly.

Ilbert bill was the last straw that politically conscious educated Indians could take , as it made them painfully aware of their subordinate position in imperial power structure

Note – The Ilbert Bill storm was the most extreme but by no means isolated expression of white racism. In 1878, for instance, the appointment of Muthusamy Iyer as High Court judge in Madras was opposed by the Madras Mail (organ of white businessmen) on the ground that ‘native officials should not draw the same rate of pay as Europeans in similar circumstances’. The uproar led directly to the foundation of the famous nationalist journal Hindu.

Rendition of Mysore

Lord Bentinck annexed state of Mysore in 1831 on charge of misgovernance. Later it came to knowledge that reports of misgovernance were grossly exaggerated.
Ripon decided to correct the injustice done & restored the administration of the state to adopted son of the deposed Raja who died in 1866.

He resigned in summer of 1884 because Gladstone willingly sanctioned the occupation of Egypt . A contingent of Indian troops was sent to Egypt & the burden of the imperial war fell on Indian Exchequer . Ripon launched a strong protest against this gross injustice & felt that his mission to India had failed. He resigned before term of his Viceroyalty was over.

Lord Lytton

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Lord Lytton(1876-80)

This article deals with ‘ Lord Lytton – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

He was the nominee of Conservative Government of Benjamin Disraeli & was appointed with special eye to Central Asian developments. Lytton was a diplomat by profession & had served the British Foreign Office in many capacities. He was a reputed poet ,novelist & an essayist known in the literary world as Owen Meredith. Till 1876, Lytton had no experience of administration nor any acquaintance with Indian affairs.

Lytton & Free Trade

Free trade had become passion with ruling circles in England till this time because it suited the interests of industrially advanced nation.
Lancashire Cotton manufacturers were jealous of new cotton mills coming up in Bombay and wanted to destroy them . They attacked the levies on export of goods to India. They termed this as protective measure against the Laissez Fairre .
British Government passed the Act & notified Indian Government to repeal duties when financial conditions permit. Notwithstanding the poor financial condition of India caused by Famine , Lytton abolished import duties on 29 items including sugar , sheetings etc (even against the wishes of his council)

Financial Reforms

Policy of financial devolution begun under Lord Mayo continued.
Provincial governments were given the control of the expenditure upon all ordinary provincial services including land revenue, excise , stamps, law & justice , general administration etc. For discharge of newly transferred services the provincial governments were not given any increase in their fixed grants but handed over some specified sources of revenue from respective provinces.

Famine (1876-78)

Severe Famine hit Bombay, Madras,Mysore, Hyderabad & some parts of Central India and Punjab. Population of 5.8 Crore was affected & according to Romesh Dutt ,50 Lakh perished in single year
Government made half hearted efforts to help the famine stricken. The Government famine machinery was inadequate
In 1878, Famine Commission was established under Richard Strachey which disfavoured grant of gratuitous help & wanted able bodied persons to be provided employment on wages sufficient to maintain health . He recommended construction of Railway & Irrigation works for this. ( this laid foundation of famine policy as well)

Royal Titles Act, 1876 & Grand Darbar of 1877

British Parliament passed Royal Titles Act investing Queen Victoria with title of Kaiser-i-Hind or Queen Empress of India . Grand Darbar was held in Delhi on 1Jan 1877 to announce people & Princes of India the assumption of the Title.
Unfortunately, Darbar held at a time when several parts of the country were in grip of Famine. Lytton spent millions on pomp but neglected people to die in hunger. This drove a current of national humiliation among people of India.
Calcutta Journal adversely commented , ” Nero was fiddling when Rome was burning”
But Darbar proved to be blessing in disguise
Although it reduced the Princes from position of allies to that of feudatories
- - - But subconsciously & against the intentions of the author of Bill raised status of Indian subjects of the Queen to that of Citizen of the British Empire encouraging persons like SN Banerjee to organise an association of Indians to raise their grievances.

(Side Note – Second Durbar was held by Edward VII in 1903 & Third Durbar at time of George V in 1911. Every time , Ruler changed, this Durbar was held)

Vernacular Press Act, 1878

Unpopular Policies of Lytton filled people with discontent & native vernacular press was ridiculing him.
He came up with Vernacular Press Act to cut short the wings of Vernacular Press
By this act
- - - Magistrates of the Districts were empowered , without prior permission of the government, to call upon a printer and publisher of any kind to enter into a bond , undertaking not to publish anything which might arouse the feelings of the disaffection against the government
    - Magistrate was also authorised to deposit a security , which could be confiscated if printer violated the bond
    - If printer violated again , his press could be seized
Worst feature of this Act was it discriminated between Native Vernacular Press & loyal Anglo-Indian press & was nicknamed as Gagging Act
It was specially targeted at Amrita Bazaar Patrika which turned English overnight to remain out of the ambit of the act.

Arms Act, 1878

This made it a Criminal Offence to keep or traffic in arms without licence. Penalty was fine or imprisonment of 3 years or both .
But worst feature was it kept Anglo-Indians , Europeans & some categories of govt officials out of its ambit . Hence it was a racial Act

Statutory Civil Service

Charter Act of 1853 had declared all offices in India were open to merit irrespective of nationality & colour and Charter Act of 1853 provided for holding of a competitive examination in London for recruitment to higher services . Act was passed in 1870 saying that 1/5th recruits to Covenant Service should be Indians even without competitive examination but it took for government 10 years to frame rules
Indians couldn’t enter ICS because difficulties facing aspirants were great. From 1862 to 75 only 40 Indians appeared for ICS & only 10 were successful.
Lytton proposed the straightforward course of closing Covenanted Civil Service to Indians & instead create ‘a close native service’ to meet the provisions of the Act of 1870 . Home Authorities didn’t favour this because of its discriminatory nature .
Lytton then proposed plan for Statutory Civil Services (SCS) in 1878-79 (according to Act of 1870) . According to rules of 1879 , the Govt of India could employ some Indians of good family & social standing in SCS on recommendation of Provincial Government subject to confirmation & number of such appointments not to exceed 1/6th of total appointments . (However , SCS didn’t become popular with Indians & discarded later)
Since Secretary of State didn’t accept proposal to discard Covenant Civil Services to Indians altogether, hence he made calculated move to discourage Indians from competing by reducing max age from 21 years to 19 years .

Throughout India this was seen as a coloured legislation & it was difficult for Indians to digest this humiliation

2nd Afghan War

Provoked senseless war against Afghans with view to establish a scientific frontier towards North West
Adventure proved to be failure

Estimate of Lord Lytton

Lytton was no doubt a man of ideas but he must be judged as a failure as a ruler of India. Experts point out the name of Lytton & Curzon as two viceroys who did more harm than good to India & to England’s position in India than any other men that can be named.
Lytton’s unpopular & repressive policy drove discontent among the masses . The unrest became widespread & was becoming dangerous. His policies prepared the soil for creation of nationalism in India .

Lord Canning

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Lord Canning

This article deals with ‘ Lord Canning – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

Events during Lord Canning’s tenure

Break out of Revolt of 1857
Government of India Act ,1858
Indian Council Act, 1861
Indian Civil Services Act , 1861
Indigo Agitation of Bengal, 1859-60 (in revolts)
Enactment of Indian Penal Code (IPC) 1860

Also known as clemency Canning => Although mass killings happened at his time , he tried to present a picture to world that all is well

Queen Victoria’s Proclamation (1/11/1858)

Announced at Grand Durbar in Allahabad . This proclamation declared the future policy of British in India

Queen had assumed the Government of India under this
Declared we desire no extension of our present territories & we shall respect rights , dignity & honour of native Princes
Our subjects of whatever race or creed , be freely & impartially admitted to offices in our services
Our clemency shall be extended to all offenders except those who have been directly involved in killing of British subjects
All treaties & engagements with native Princes by or under authority of East India Company are to be accepted & will be scrupulously maintained
Principle of justice and religious tolerance would be guiding policy of Queens rule
Armies of East India Company will cease to exist and incorporated to British army
Indian sepoys were enlisted as regular recruits in British army & hence Indians participated in world wars in next century

Government of India Act, 1858

Origin

Since in Charter Act of 1853, Company’s rule wasn’t extended for another 20 years, it gave British government to intervene in the matters . Whigs & Tories joined hands to end Company’s rule over India .
John Stuart Mill prepared a dignified and weighty petition which was presented by the Company against the Government decision to both the Houses of Parliament. But no petition could any longer stem the tide of mounting criticism against the Company’s administration.

Provisions

It’s provisions called for liquidation of Company
India was directly to be governed in the name of the Crown
Company’s rule , Board of Control , Court of Directors were abolished
Crown was to govern India directly through Secretary of State for India and his council consisting of 15 members. Secretary of State had powers of both Board of Control and Court of Directors
Crown had the power to appoint Governor General and Governors of the Presidencies

Secretary of State

The Secretary of State was to sit in Parliament. He was a cabinet minister of England
The Act created an India Council of 15 members. It was to advise the Secretary of State who could overrule its decisions.
Secretary of State was given the power of sending and receiving secret messages and despatches from the Governor General without the necessity of communicating them to the India Council.
First Secretary of India was Lord Stanley, who was before this President of Board of Control .

Centralisation of administration

Right of appointment to important offices was with the Crown and Secretary of State

Governor General & Viceroy of India

Governor General was now to be called Viceroy and Governor General of India
Governor General would have an Executive council whose members were to act as heads of different departments and as his official advisors
Council discussed all matter and voted for majority but Viceroy had the veto power

Indian Council Act, 1861

Need

Act of 1858 exclusively introduced changes in the Home Government but so far as India was concerned, it didn’t touch the administrative setup in India. There was a strong feeling that sweeping changes in the Constitution of India were called for after the crisis of 1857.
There was demand of establishing closer contacts with Indian public opinion .
Charter Act , 1833 centralised the legislation process with Legislative Council (at Centre) had alone the power to legislate for whole of country. It was in the nature of things ill fitted to do its job on account of its ignorance of conditions prevailing in different parts of vast country.
After the Charter Act, 1853 , Legislative Council became sort of Parliament on small scale & tried to act as independent legislature sometimes stopping the supplies & didn’t work according to wishes of Home Government. This provision demanded a correction.

Provisions

Act added to Viceroy’s Executive Council a 5th member who was to be ‘a gentleman of legal profession , a jurist rather than a technical lawyer’
Act empowered the Governor General to make rules for more convenient transaction of business in the council . This power was used by Lord Canning to introduce the portfolio system in the Government .
For the purpose of legislation, the Viceroy’s Executive Council was expanded by addition of not less than 6 & not more than 12 ADDITIONAL members , who would be nominated by Governor General & would hold office for 2 years.
Restored power to legislate ie making and amending laws to presidencies of Madras & Bombay. But to become act assent of Governor General was necessary . In certain matters like Currency, Posts & Telegraphs, naval & military matters , prior approval of GG was made obligatory
Governor General can issue ordinance in emergency which were to remain in force not more than 6 months.

Observations

Although the legislative powers were given to Presidencies as well but there was no demarcation of jurisdiction of Central & Local Legislatures as in federal constitutions.
The Legislative Council couldn’t be called True Legislature either in composition or in functions .
The Act of 1861 in no way established representative government in India on the model prevalent in England or England’s White Colonies .

Stem Cells

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Stem Cells

This article deals with ‘Stem Cells – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology, which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

What are Stem cells?

The stem cells are the class of undifferentiated cells that have the ability to differentiate into specialized cell types.

Stem cells should be:

Undifferentiated cells having the ability to divide & differentiate themselves into specialized cells
It has the capability of self-renewal, i.e. reproducing itself

Type of Stem Cells

1. Embryonic Stem Cells

They are derived from the embryo.
- Humans reproduce sexually, i.e. need sperm and eggs.
- The sperm fuses with the egg to form a fused product called Zygote. This cell divides itself to form different organs like eyes, heart, lungs etc., i.e. one cell is capable of producing an organism.
- Hence, embryonic cells have the ability to differentiate themselves into different specialized cells.
They are Totipotent, i.e. can become any specialized cell & organ.

2. Non-embryonic /Somatic/ Adult Stem Cells

Adult Stem Cells exist throughout the body after embryonic development. They are found inside the different tissues such as the brain, bone marrow, blood, blood vessels, Skeletal muscles, skin & liver.
They remain in a quiescent or non-living state for years until activated by disease or tissue injury.
They can divide or self-renew indefinitely, enabling them to generate a range of cell types from the originating organ or even regenerate the entire organ.
Generally, adult stem cells are limited in their ability to differentiate based on their tissue of origin.
Adult stem cells are rare in mature tissues. Hence isolating these cells from adult tissue is challenging, and methods to expand their numbers in cell culture have not yet been worked out.

3. Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs)

Adult cells that have been genetically reprogrammed to an embryonic stem cell-like state.

The potency of Stem Cells

Stem cells are categorized on the basis of their potential to differentiate into other types of cells.
Embryonic stem cells are the most potent since they can become all types of cells in the body.

1. Totipotent

Totipotent cells can differentiate into all cell types.
Examples: Zygote formed at egg fertilization, and the first few cells from the division of the Zygote

2. Pluripotent

Pluripotent Stem Cells are the stem cells that can differentiate into almost all cell types.
Examples include cells from the beginning stages of the embryo.

3. Multipotent

Multipotent Stem Cells can differentiate into a closely related family of cells.
Examples include hematopoietic (adult) stem cells that can become red and white blood cells or platelets.

4. Unipotent

Unipotent stem cells have the ability to produce cells of their own type only. But they have the property of self-renewal required to be labelled a stem cell.
Examples include (adult) muscle/Somatic stem cells.

Controversy regarding Embryonic Stem Cells

Stem cells are generally derived from embryos, as adult stem cells are difficult to extract. But human rights advocates view this as equivalent to murdering a child.
It was also against the conservative Christian beliefs and was vehemently opposed, especially in the USA. Republican governments were totally against this as they favoured promoting Christian ethics.

Converting ordinary cells to Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells – Gurdon & Yamanaka

A single cell in the form of a Zygote formed after fertilization of egg and sperm differentiates to specialist cells like heart cells, liver cells, skin cells etc. Earlier, it was thought that this natural process was irreversible.
But Gurdon and Yamanaka identified the genes to make any cell pluripotent and also showed that cells can be programmed to any specific cell like Bone Marrow or heart cell.
It solved the issue of killing embryos to get Stem Cells.

Gist: Problems in using Stem Cells

Ethical concerns: Ethical dilemmas in using stem cells involve the destruction of human embryos to obtain stem cells. In the USA, Christian values against the destruction of embryos stymied the research in stem cells.
Efficacy of Stem Cell Therapy: iPSCs don’t have 100% efficacy, and in many cases, reprogrammed cells can result in cancerous cells by rapid division
Inclusivity issue: Stem Cell therapy is costly, and the poor can’t afford it. Hence, it is not inclusive.

What are the applications of Stem cells?

Stem Cells can cure several illnesses
1. Parkinson’s disease [A degenerative disorder caused by cell death in the brain – became prevalent in developed nations due to an increase in life expectancy]
2. Alzheimer
3. Cancer
4. Spinal Cord Injury
5. Treatment of Autism
6. Blood-related diseases (like Sickle Cell Anaemia)
7. Diabetes
8. Heart and Arterial Related diseases
Regenerative Medicine: Stem cells can be used in organ transplants. A full-fledged organ can be produced using Stem Cells. Since it is made from cells of a person’s body, the rejection rate of such organs is almost nil.
Research: It helps to understand the basic biology of how living things work.
Treatment of HIV: Scientists have shown that Stem cells can be used to treat HIV, which is considered a miracle in medicine. In 2022, a women in the US was treated of HIV using Stem Cell Transplant.

Stem Cell Therapy Status in India

Western Countries have strict regulations and restrictions on the use of Stem Cells, but no such regulation was earlier present in India. Due to a lack of regulations and cheap treatment, many terminally ill patients were coming to India for treatment.

In 2018, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare proposed to amend the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940, to bring Stem Cell and Stem Cell-based products under legal regulation. Under the amendments, Stem Cells and substantially altered products will be treated as drugs. Therefore, they will have to seek the regulator’s approval (Drug Controller General of India) before being marketed.

Various ICMR Guidelines
1. ICMR’s National Guideline for Stem Cell Research in 2017.
2. Stem Cell Use Ethical Guidelines by ICMR

MoUs
1. Indo– Japan Stem Cell Research Collaboration
2. India – UK Stem Cell Research
3. Research Centre: DBT Centre in Bangalore is dedicated to Stem Cell Research (In-STEM).