India-Sri Lanka Relations

India- Sri Lanka Relations

India-Sri Lanka Relations

This article deals with ‘India-Sri Lanka Relations.’ This is part of our series on ‘International Relations’ which is an important pillar of the GS-2 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.


Brief History

  • The earliest mention of Sri Lanka dates back to the time of the Ramayana. Ravana, the king of Lanka, who held Sita captive in Lanka, was rescued by Ram with the help of Hanuman.
  • The native people of Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) were colonially under the British. In 1815, the population composition of Sri Lanka was 3 million Sinhalese Buddhists and 300,000 Tamil Hindus. 
  • From the 1830s onwards, the British started transporting indentured labour from India, especially from Tamil Nadu, to Ceylon to work on tea plantations. The Tamils who the British transported settled in the northern part of Ceylon.  


Areas of Cooperation 

1 . Geopolitical Importance

  • Sri Lanka’s location in the Indian Ocean region is strategically and geopolitically important not for India only but other powers as well. Sri Lanka has several highly strategic ports located among the busiest sea lanes of communication. 
  • Nowadays, Indo-pacific is emerging as the centre of interest for almost all the major powers. Hence the importance of Sri Lanka is increasing rapidly. 

2. Defence Cooperation

  • India has trained many Sri Lankan officials at the National Defence Academy and India Military Academy.
  • India and Sri-Lankan navy and coast guards constantly undertake intelligence sharing.
  • India and Sri Lankan armies conduct joint military exercises such as MITRA, SHAKTI, IN-SLN etc.

3. Tamil Factor

  • The Tamil factor has historically dominated the India-Sri Lanka relations.
  • Both countries can cooperate to solve the Tamil problem and implement the 13th Constitutional Amendment in letter and spirit. 

4. Trade & investment

  • India and Sri Lanka have already signed Free Trade Agreement (FTA) in 1998 & CEPA is on the cards. 
  • India has the  2nd largest FDI in Sri Lanka.  
  • India and Sri Lanka have signed a Currency Swap Agreement of $1 billion. 
  • India exports petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, two-wheelers and vegetables while imports rubber products, spices and electric wires. 
  • Indian firms operational in Sri Lanka include Tata, Jet Airways, Ashoka Leyland, Ceat, Apollo etc.
  • Indian Oil Corporation (IOC) plans to establish a six million ton per annum refinery in Sri Lanka. 

Issue regarding CEPA

  • India envisages services based cooperation in CEPA. However, Sri Lanka has had expressed some reservations. It hopes for more economic and technical cooperation than the increased movement of Indian professionals in Sri Lanka.
  • Sri Lanka fears that Indian firms may ultimately dominate the Lankan economic space and might eventually lead to the loss of jobs for the Sri Lankan native population.


5. Cultural

  • Buddhism is followed by the majority of Sinhalese. It was spread due to the efforts of Ashoka.
  • India is building  
    • Ramayana trail in Sri Lanka and
    • Buddhist circuit in India (Sinhalese are Buddhist). 
  • Rabindranath Tagore had influenced Sri Lankan national anthem – “Sri Lanka Matha” (we salute mother, Sri Lanka). 

6. Developmental Cooperation

  • Sri Lanka is one of the primary recipients of Indian development aid. For example, $167.4 million lines of credit to develop and upgrade the tsunami-damaged Colombo-Matara rail link.
  • India has built 43,000 houses for resettlement and rehabilitation of Tamils in Northern and Eastern Provinces with a grant of $ 350 million.

7. Multilateral Cooperation

Both are members of

  1. SAARC
  2. BIMSTEC
  3. South Asian Economic Union

Present issues faced by Sri-Lanka

Economic hardships

  • Sri Lanka is facing a balance of payment crisis due to various reasons, such as 
    1. Debt trap diplomacy of China
    2. Fall of tourism in the aftermath of the Covid-19 pandemic and Easter bomb blasts of 2019.
    3. Agriculture crisis due to overnight transition to organic farming.
    4. Increase in oil prices due to the Russia-Ukraine war.
  • Indian government helped Sri Lanka by providing credit lines, currency swaps and financial assistance. 

Security concerns

  • Sri Lanka witnessed the deadly terror attack (Easter attacks) in April 2019, killing more than 250 people.  

Majority sentiment

  • The Rajapaksas enjoy a robust political base among the majority population, the Sinhalese, for defeating the LTTE in 2009.
  • Riots against minority Muslim groups are also rising due to increasing Islamophobia in Sri-Lankan society. Such riots are led by Sinhala majoritarian groups such as the Bodu Bala Sena.

Issues between India and Sri-Lanka

Issue 1: Tamil Issue

India – Sri Lanka relations have generally been cordial, barring some tensions caused due to ethnic conflict between people of Indian origin – mainly Tamils- living in Sri Lanka & Sinhalese (ethnic majority constituting 70% of Sri-Lankan population). 


Ethnic Composition of Sri-Lanka

  • Sinhalese is the predominant community. They consist of 3/4th of the Sri Lankan population. They speak Sinhalese and follow Buddhism.
  • Tamils in Sri Lanka are predominantly Hindus. 
  • The Muslims, mainly of Tamil origin, speak both Tamil and Sinhala.
Composition of Sri Lankan Population
Composition of Sri Lankan Population

There are two types of Tamils in Sri Lanka

Ceylonese Tamils Tamils whose forefathers had gone to Sri Lanka centuries ago.
– Their population is estimated to be 2.5 million.
They are concentrated in Jaffna and the northern & eastern coast.
Indian Tamils Tamils whose forefathers were taken by Britishers as plantation workers.
– Their population is estimated to be ~ 1 million.
They are concentrated in the districts of Colombo, Kandy & Trincomalee in traditional tea garden areas.
Tamil Areas in Sri Lanka

Reason for Sinhalese Anti-Tamil feeling

  • The reason for this is colonial. Tamils were in the minority, but Britishers favoured Tamils over Sinhalese in all opportunities. Tamils were preferentially appointed to bureaucratic positions, which angered the Sinhalese majority.
  • When Britishers went back
    • Sinhalese majority started to capture all property and posts from Tamils.
    • The Tamil language lost the status of official language under the provisions of the Sinhalese Only Act.
    • Ceylon Citizenship Act was passed, making it virtually impossible for Indian Tamils to obtain citizenship. Over 700,000 Tamils (consisting of up to 11% of the country’s total population) were made stateless overnight. 
    • After that, the state back pogrom of Tamils started in which Tamils were massacred & their property was looted.
    • In retaliation, Tamils started a civil war under the leadership of LTTE headed by Prabhakaran.

Side Topic – Sri Lanka vs LTTE: Timeline of Events

Post-1948 Sri Lanka got independence in 1948.
Sri Lanka was suspicious of India and aligned itself with the US in the 1970s and 1980s. 
Sri Lanka was continuously persecuting the Tamils and refused to grant citizenship to Tamils. 
Pre- 1976 Scholars and theorists allege that India used the Research & Analysis Wing (R&AW) to train Tamil rebels in Sri Lanka. The aim was to use Tamil insurgents to destabilize the anti-India regime while also ensuring that the Tamil rebels did not succeed in creating a separate state. 
The R&AW supported the Tamil Eelam Liberation Organization (TELO). But as the R&AW had gradually succeeded in destabilizing the Sri Lankan government, it slowly stopped supporting the rebels.
1976 Liberation of Tamil Tigers Eelam (LTTE), a separatist and insurgent militant force, was formed by V Prabhakaran. 
LTTE also began to seek support from Tamil political leaders in Tamil Nadu.
1976 – 2009 – Civil War continued.
Large scale violence and human rights violations were observed.
2009 The Lankan army killed Prabhakaran. 
LTTE-Sri Lanka Civil war ends.  More than 1 lakh died in the civil war 

To deal with the situation, various agreements were signed like

India- Sri Lanka Issue
  • Nehru – Kotelawala Agreement, 1953: Under the agreement, India agreed to the repatriation of Sri Lankan Tamils who want to accept Indian citizenship. But at the same time, India rejected the Sri Lankan demand of granting citizenship to all Tamils who failed to qualify for Sri Lankan citizenship.
  • Shastri – Sirimavo Agreement, 1964: It sought to solve the problem of 9 lakh 75 thousand stateless persons in Sri Lanka using the following formula:
    1. 3 lakh people to get Sri Lankan citizenship.
    2. 5 lakh 25 thousand to get Indian citizenship in a period spanning over 15 years.
    3. The remaining 1.50 lakh stateless person’s fate was to be decided later.
  • Rajiv – Jayewardene Agreement (Indo-Sri Lanka Accord), 1987 :
    1. Creation of an autonomous unit comprising northern and eastern provinces (Tamils are concentrated in this area).
    2. Emergency to be lifted from northern and eastern provinces.
    3. Grant of official language status to Tamil, Sinhalese and English.

But the agreement was vehemently opposed by both Tamil & Sinhalese extremists.


XIII Amendment

It was the direct outcome of the Accord of 1987, and its terms were as follows:-

  1. Divide entire Sri Lanka into provinces.
  2. Adoption of the Federal System and give more powers to states.
  3. Remove Sinhalese Only Language Act and give equal status to the Tamil language.
  4. Land and Police should be provincial subjects.

What was the rationale?

  • Use Federalism to give some power to Tamils and end the feeling of deprivation among Tamils. 

Present status

  • Division of states has happened, but the rest of the provisions haven’t been implemented.
  • Later, the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka declared this Accord unconstitutional, saying that Land and Police being Union subjects is the fundamental feature of the Sri Lankan Constitution. 

Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) posting in Sri Lanka was an utter failure

  • Crores of ₹ were spent on troops trying to restore order.
  • Hundreds of troops were killed in clashes with Tamils.
  • Even ethnic conflict wasn’t brought under control.
  • Operations of IPKF changed ethnic violence into civil war, which Sri Lanka was forced to continue even when Indian forces left in 1990 
  • It led to many political killings of both Indian and Sri Lankan leaders like Rajiv Gandhi (in 1991) and Premadasa (in 1993).

India’s rehabilitation measures for Sri Lankan Tamils

  • The construction of 43,000 houses for resettlement and rehabilitation of Tamils in Northern and Eastern Provinces. A $ 350 million grant to build houses is one of the significant grants by India in any country. 
  • India’s IRCON has constructed the train service at the north-western Sri Lankan town of Talaimannar – the closest point to India.  
  • Many Sri Lankan Tamils are still living as refugees in India.


Issue 2: Fishermen Issue

Introduction

Fishing has been happening in this region since the Sangam period without any problem.


Problem

  • Indian fishermen venture into Sri Lankan waters, and Sri-Lankan Navy either fires upon them or arrests them. It leads to large scale suffering upon the fisherman community.
  • The Indian fishermen saw a golden business opportunity during the LTTE era as the Sri Lankan government had disallowed the easy movement of Sri Lankan fishermen in waters owing to military operations. However, with the LTTE war over, since 2010, there has been a resurgence of Sri Lankan fishermen in the Palk Bay. They were trying to reclaim their legitimate lost base and, in the process, became engaged in conflict. 
  • Unscientific Fishing by Indian Fishermen :
    • Indian fishermen use grill & synthetic nets, which is terrible for the overall ecology. On the other hand, Sri-Lankan Fishermen use ordinary nets. 
    • Indian fishermen use Trawlers (and not boats) and venture into Lankan waters. These trawlers are the leading cause of overexploitation. 
  • Tamil Fishermen still argue that they have a sovereign right over Katchathevu Island and go near the island to catch fish. In the process, Sri Lankan Navy arrest them. 
  • Indian trawlers are not equipped with GPS, and as a result, they don’t know about the exact coordinates. 
  • Some scholars argue that Sri Lankan government wants to aggravate this issue because Indian Tamils are the most prominent sympathizers of Sri-Lankan Tamils and their cause.

Solution

  • Tamil Nadu fishermen are not allowed to venture into the coastal waters of Andhra. If Indian fishermen typically observe such territorial limitations, there is no reason why they should not do so with northern Sri Lanka. 
  • Establish Palk Bay Authority in which Fishermen of both sides should dialogue to arrive at a solution. 
  • Solve trawler issue as trawlers & synthetic nets are the main culprit. Government should offer a voluntary buy-back scheme for trawlers and a rehabilitation package.
  • Indian government should equip Indian boats with GPS. 
  • Government should generate other jobs to end the overdependence of coastal areas on fishing. 

Palk Strait has always been a bridge between India and Sri Lanka since time immemorial, leading to the exchange of ideas and knowledge. Let it be a bridge and not a barrier between Indian and Sri Lanka.


Issue 3: Katchatheevu Island Issue

  • Katchatheevu is a small island located about 10 miles northeast of Rameswaram. The fishermen used it to dry their nets and catch fish. It also has a Catholic shrine and has been declared a sacred area. It has been a part of Raja of Ramnand’s territory, who controlled it as the lead zamindar. After the abolition of the Zamindari system, Katchatheevu became a part of the Presidency of Madras. No maps of Sri Lanka showed it as its territory. However, seeing its strategic location, Sri Lanka started claiming it. The issue was discussed some times during the meeting between Indian and Sri Lankan leaders.
Katchatheevu Island Issue
  • However, in 1974 Indira Gandhi signed an agreement whereby Katchatheevu was given to Sri Lanka. But 1974 had a provision under which Indian fishermen had the right to dry their nets on the island. 
  • The United Nations Convention on the Law of Seas (UNCLOS) changed the situation under which all the rights of Indian fishermen were taken away. Since then, Indian fishermen have been facing issues with Lankan authorities.
  • In 1991, Tamil Nadu Assembly passed a resolution demanding the retrieval of Katchatheevu Island from Sri Lanka and making the fishing grounds around the island accessible to the Tamil fisherman.
  • In 2008, the AIDMK filed a petition in the Supreme Court (SC) asking that the SC declare the 1974 and 1976 agreements unconstitutional.  
  • In 2014, the Union Government informed the Madras High Court that Sri Lankan sovereignty over the Katchatheevu island is a settled matter, and Indian fisherman doesn’t enjoy any fishing rights in the Sri Lankan waters.


Issue 4: China Angle

  • Sri Lanka is an integral part of the Maritime Silk Road (MSR) and the most crucial pearl in the Pearl of String Theory. 
  • China has already invested $4 billion in Sri Lanka. 
  • The most crucial development in this regard is Hambantota Port was developed with Chinese loans. Later, Sri Lanka couldn’t service debt and was forced to give the port to China on lease for 99 years.

Issues

Chinese Debt Trap in Sri Lanka
Chinese Debt Trap in Sri Lanka
  • China is following Debt Trap Diplomacy in Sri Lanka.   
  • China is trying to change the ‘Balance of Power in the Indian Ocean’, impacting India’s position as a Net Security Provider in the Indian Ocean.
  • Chinese projects don’t allow the development of auxiliary industry materials like cement, steel, labour etc., is also imported from China. Hence, jobs are not created in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka has allowed China to build enclaves around the Colombo port, where Chinese people will reside. To authorize these enclaves, a separate statute has been passed by the Sri Lankan Parliament. 
  • Chinese projects are turning out to be White Elephants. ‘(epitomized by the Hambantota port, which was later given to China on a 99-year lease).
  • These projects impact Indian security as 
    1. Hambantota Port impacts the Indian position in the Indian ocean.
    2. Jaffna Hybrid Energy Project: A Chinese company was awarded the contract to install a hybrid renewable energy system about 50 km away from the Tamil Nadu coast.

What is India doing to counter this?

  • India is developing Trincomalee as Petroleum Hub and building infrastructure around it. 
  • India is developing Kakesuthai and Trincomalee as a port. 
  • India is developing the Eastern Terminal at Colombo port along with Japan (January 2021 update: Due to large scale demonstration by the trade unions against the privatization, the Sri Lankan government has cancelled this project).
  • India has decided to lease and manage the Mattala airport in Hambantota. (although, it is the emptiest airport in the world)
  • India has given a $300 million Line of Credit to upgrade Sri-Lankan Railways. 
  • Indo – Sri Lanka Nuclear Cooperation Agreement has been signed (the first such deal signed by Sri Lanka with any country). 
  • India has given aid of ₹ 5 billion in 2009 to reconstruct Tamil areas destroyed in the Civil War.

India can never match the Chinese in terms of Economic Muscle. India should also focus on ‘People to People Contact’ and use Buddhism and Buddhist Tourism Circuit to gain goodwill in Sri Lanka.


Issues with Indian Projects in Sri-Lanka

  • Delay in their completion and implementation. 
  • Many of these projects, like Mattala airport, are not seen as profitable for India. 
  • Indian ventures are seen as reactive to the increasing Chinese influence. 
  • Over-concentration of Indian development funding to Tamil areas. 

India-China Relations

India-China Relations

This article deals with ‘India-China Relations.’ This is part of our series on ‘International Relations’, which is an important pillar of the GS-2 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here


Brief History

Historical Ties

  • Sino-Indian friendship dates back to ancient times.  
  • Buddhism travelled from India to China. 
  • Chinese travellers like Fa Hien, Xuanzang etc., have travelled to India in the past.
  • Both India and China were part of the Silk Road Trade
  • Chinese inventions like paper making, sugar making etc., also travelled to India.

Initial Years

Both became independent at the same time 

  • But at the time of independence, India was Non-Aligned, whereas China under the leadership of Mao was Communist.
  • Nehru wanted good relations with China. Due to this reason, when the Chinese Army entered Tibet and took it over, India recognized Tibet as part of China. India gave up its rights over Tibet in 1954 (like the Right to station the army, control over post & telegraph etc.).

It removed the buffer of Tibet, which acted as a barrier between India and China. The British had always maintained Tibet as a buffer, and its annexation heightened Indian concerns. 

Vallabhbhai Patel favoured a more cautious approach and advocated for a military build-up and the creation of roads near the China border along with US cooperation to balance China. But unfortunately, he died in 1950, and India’s China policy came entirely into the hands of Nehru.


Panchsheel, 1954

India was disappointed in China’s Tibet policy. But, for the sake of friendship and as a confidence-building measure, they signed Panchsheel.

Five principles of Panchsheel were also incorporated in the agreement of 1954. These were

  1. Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity & sovereignty; 
  2. Mutual non‐aggression; 
  3. Mutual non‐interference in each other’s internal affairs; 
  4. Equality and mutual benefit;  
  5. Peaceful co‐existence

Prelude to the 1962 War

  • During the 1950s, when China began to consolidate its position in Tibet, the US, through its CIA, covertly supported Tibetans. The CIA’s support of arms and equipment convinced Mao that the India-US was collectively conspiring against China. In March 1959, there was a massive Tibetan uprising known as Lhasa Uprising. China crushed the uprising brutally. After the Lhasa Uprising of 1959, Dalai Lama came to take refuge in India. It made China suspicious of India. 
  • The global situation changed as well.  Khrushchev came to power in USSR, and he was a reformist, unlike Stalin. Khrushchev was not liked by Mao & China started to fear both USA & USSR. 
  • India had considerable influence in Africa, with Nehru constantly pitching for aggressive non-violent and non-revolutionary policies. According to Mao, this created a misleading effect on African leaders, who were being influenced to fight for freedom in a non-violent way. He advocated that revolution was the only way ahead.
  • This period also saw the tense situation of the Cuban Missile crisis in which the USA and USSR reached at the brink of nuclear war. China decided to exploit this situation. 

War of 1962

Reasons of War

  • Case of Tibet: Chinese felt that India supported the uprising in Tibet.
  • China is an ambitious country & both India & China wanted to be leaders of the Afro-Asian world.
  • Undefined borders between China & India: China refused to accept the Macmohan Line & India declined to accept Aksai Chin as part of China.
  • For MaoNehru was a bourgeois leader, and he viewed Nehru and his policies with suspicion. 

Impact on Sino – Indian Relations

  • There was a freeze in Sino-Indian relations till 1988. There was a situation of permanent hostility.
  • The emergence of an alliance between China & Pakistan.  
  • It pushed India to the side of the USSR.
  • Massive militarization & nuclearization was seen in India.

Confrontation in 1986-87 and Rajiv Gandhi’s visit in 1988

  • In 1986-87, both armies came to near conflict in Sumdorung Chu in the eastern sector.
  • After that, PM Rajiv Gandhi visited China, which marked the new beginning in Indo-China relations and a Joint communiqué to restore friendly ties & work towards a mutually acceptable solution to border disputes. 
  • Deng Xiaoping era, too, had dropped the revolutionary spirit of Mao and favoured a market-oriented economy. It played an essential role in the new Sino-Indian rapprochement.

Fall of USSR and Indo-China Relations

  • In 1989, when USSR began to disintegrate, there were protests in China that challenged the CCP rule in China. These were brutally crushed, resulting in the suppression and massacre of the mobs at Tiananmen Square. Moreover, the fall of communism, the Berlin Wall and the independence of the satellite states of the Soviet Union made the survival of CCP uncertain. The CCP, out of its need for survival, initiated a good neighbourhood policy to build up relations with India. 
  • As the Cold War ended, India lost the power backup of the USSR, and as the Gulf War progressed, it created a financial crisis in India as it choked its remittances from the region. India and China began to develop proximity and mutual understanding for their survival. China wanted India not to internationalize the Beijing massacre, while India conveyed to China that it would support the Chinese ideology of opposing any western interference in internal affairs.

Xi Jinping Era

  • The present era is the Xi Jinping Era, marked by the concentration of power in the hands of Xi by demolishing the old leaders and placing the loyals in the politburo.
  • Big country diplomacy: Xi regime has shed the earlier strategy of remaining low key and now started to follow Big Country Diplomacy. It has achieved this via large scale investments in infrastructure projects in other countries, developments of 5G technology, up-gradation of the military etc.
  • Wolf Warrior Diplomacy: The shift in Chinese foreign policy from conservative, passive and low-key to assertive, passive and high-profile. The term is based on a 2015 Chinese movie titled ‘Wolf Warrior’, which involves a group of Chinese soldiers who go out of China and carry out offensive attacks in enemy countries. The examples include the aggressive attitude wrt border issues (against India, Japan, Vietnam, Philippines etc.) and aggressive counter of the anti-China narrative post-COVID-19. 

Recent visits and developments

2003 Atal Bihari Vajpayee’s visit marked an improvement in the post-1998 nuclear-test freeze in relations.
2014 President Xi Jinping visits India .
2015 Modi paid a visit to China .
2016 President Xi Jinping Visit to India in BRICS Summit (Goa) .
2017 Doklam issue started.
2018 – Wuhan Summit: Informal Summit between Modi and Xi Jinping to normalize relations post-Doklam crisis. 
Modi visited China to participate in SCO Summit.
2020 Galwan Crisis resulted in a bloody stand-off between Indian and Chinese armies.
2021 China adopted a new land border law that allows  Beijing to safeguard its territorial integrity on its 22,000-km long land border with 14 countries, including India. It states that the People’s Liberation Army will be deployed to prevent encroachment. It could formalize Chinese encroachment on Indian territory. It concerns India because India shares log disputed border with China.  

Under the policy, China is also building border defence villages across the LAC between India and China.

Issue 1: Territorial Disputes

India-China Relations

There are three sectors where boundaries are disputed by India & China.

Western Sector – Aksai Chin in J&K: Held by China & demanded by India. 
– Shaksgam Valley: Given by Pakistan to China (from Pakistani occupied Kashmir).
Middle Sector It lies on Himachal & Uttaranchal Border .
Middle sector is relatively peaceful, unlike the Western and Eastern sectors.
Eastern Sector It relates to disputed McMahon line .
China demands almost the whole of Arunachal Pradesh.
China questions Indian sovereignty over Sikkim.

Since boundaries are not clearly demarcated. Hence, a lot of incursions take place.


1. Aksai Chin Issue

  • The territorial dispute over Aksai Chin can be traced back to the failure of the British Empire to demarcate a legal border between its Indian colony and China. 
  • Two borders between India and China were proposed during the British Raj – 
    1. Johnson Line: It shows Aksai Chin under Indian control.
    2. Macartney-MacDonald Line: It places Aksai Chin under Chinese control. 

Conflicted Claims

Indian Claim Johnson Line  is correct Aksai Chin is part of J&K
China Claim Macartney-MacDonald Line  is correct Aksai Chin is part of Xinjiang

During the war of 1962, China took control of Aksai Chin. 

Note: Main reason for annexing Aksai Chin was to build a road connecting Xinjiang Region and Tibet to strengthen its hold over Tibet. The only way to build a motorable road was to pass through Aksai Chin. Till the war of 1962, the Chinese were ready to accept Arunachal Pradesh and other disputed regions as part of India, provided India accepted Aksai Chin as part of China. Chinese always felt that the Indian claim on Aksai Chin was to undermine the Chinese influence in Tibet as historically India had never occupied, nor was of any strategic importance to India.


2. Tibet Issue

  • Tibet’s political system was based on the Buddhist faith. Dalai Lama was also the political head of the country. 
  • Tibet’s political connections with China varied from time to time. But Dalai Lama, both the spiritual and political head of the Tibetans, never owed any allegiance to the Chinese emperor like the rulers of Korea and Vietnam did.
  • 1914 Shimla Agreement: Under the provisions of the Agreement 
    • Inner Tibet was placed under China.
    • Outer Tibet was placed under Dalai Lama. 
    • Agreement also demarcated a line between Tibet & North East India known as Macmahon Line. 
    • India was given certain rights in Tibet, like free entry in Tibet, the right to station troops & maintain communication etc.
  • But, China disputed this line as an imperial line drawn by the Britishers.    
  • China insists that Tibet has been a part of China since the 12th century Yuan Dynasty and has branded the military operation to invade Tibet in 1950 as an exercise of peaceful liberation. On the other hand, Tibetans hold that Tibet was independent before the 1950 Chinese operation. In the Yuan Dynasty period, China and Tibet had established a priest-patron relation which in no way implies that Tibet became a vassal of China.  
  • In 1959, Lhasa Uprising started in Tibet. The Chinese Army crushed it, and as a result, Dalai Lama took refuge in India. It worsened the Sino-India relations leading to the War of 1962.
  • India continues to officially support that Tibet was a part of China as recognized in 1954 but, ironically, still supports the Tibetan government in exile in India as Tibet can give India the required leverage against China.

Latest Issues

  • China is increasing the number of Han Chinese in the region to change the demography of the Tibetan area. Soon, the Han Chinese will become the majority while Tibetans will be reduced to a minority in Tibet, diluting the overall cause of Tibetan autonomy.
  • China’s massive military build-up and infrastructure development in Tibet.
  • Plans to divert or dam rivers (e.g., Zangmu, Dagu etc., on the Brahmaputra) that rise in Tibet and flow into India. 
  • China’s ‘Gold Rush’ in Tibet: China’s has started mineral mining to extract precious metals, rare earth etc.
  • Geoengineering Experiments: Recently, there have been reports of China’s geoengineering experiments to “trigger natural disasters such as floods, droughts and tornadoes to weaken” an enemy in the event of a war. 

Side Topic: Why is Tibet so important for China?

  • Buffer between powers across Himalayas i.e. India and China.
  • Source of water as it is house to large number of glaciers. Major rivers like Brahmaputra and Satluj originates in Tibet.
  • Tibet is resource rich and China has planed to extract minerals such as gold and rare earth metals from the region.

Galwan Issue

  • Chinese soldiers crossed the LAC around the Galwan River valley during May 2020. 
  • It was followed by killing at least 20 Indian soldiers in a clash with Chinese forces. It was the first such clash in the border area in at least 45 years.
Galwan Clash

Reasons for Galwan confrontation

  • India is developing large scale infrastructure along LAC like Daulat Beg Oldie Road, which has challenged the Chinese superiority in the region.
  • Response to Doklam Crisis (dealt below).
  • Reorganization of Jammu and Kashmir: China had earlier also protested against the formation of the new Union Territory of Ladakh and accused India of transforming the status quo unilaterally.
  • The global backlash against China for spreading and mishandling of COVID-19
  • Signs of new Chinese aggressiveness and part of ‘Wolf Warrior Diplomacy‘. 
  • The Chinese response to India’s participation in Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) and challenge to Chinese position in Indo-Pacific region. 

Doklam Issue

  • Doklam (Donglang in Chinese) plateau is disputed between Bhutan (not India) and China.
  • Town named Yadong in Chumbi Valley (in China) is connected to Lhasa with an all-weather road. China was building a road connecting Yadong to the Doklam Plateau, which facilitated the fast mobilization of Chinese troops to Doklam in case of war. Indian troops intervened to block Chinese soldiers since the area was disputed.   
Doklam Crisis

Importance of Doklam

  • India can’t allow this because that will bring Chinese troops within striking distance of the Chicken’s Neck or Siliguri Corridor.
  • Sikkim is one of the few sectors where India has a strategic advantage vis-a-vis China. Doka La, the Indian Post in Sikkim, has the advantage of height wrt Chinese forces in Chumbi Valley. China wants to build a base in Doklam to nullify the Indian advantage.
  • India serves as a virtual security guarantor of Bhutan. If India abdicates its responsibilities towards Bhutan, India’s image as a counterforce to balance China will suffer.

Side Topic: Salami Slicing Policy

  • The term ‘Salami Slicing Policy’ was coined by Hungarian Matyaas Rakosi in 1940s.
  • Salami Slicing means a strategy of carrying out small actions in a covert manner that eventually accumulates into a larger action.
  • Using this strategy, China initiates territorial claims by staking claims to territory. Then, it carries out intensive propaganda at all platforms (domestic and international) to claim the territory. The propaganda by China is so intense that it positions the territory in concern as a ‘dispute’. Then China uses all it’s diplomatic and military might to resolve the dispute by avoiding a forceful intervention.

Side Topic: Stapled Visas

  • Stapled Visa is a visa where the country’s stamps are not placed directly on the passport, but pages are stapled to it. When the visitor leaves the country, his visa and entry and exit stamps are torn out, leaving no record on his passport.
  • In the case of China, Indian citizens from Jammu and Kashmir and Arunachal Pradesh are given Stapled Visas. 
  • The reason given by the Chinese Foreign Ministry is that since J&K and Arunachal Pradesh are contested territories, so they can’t directly stamp the passport of a person’s belonging to that region. Stamping a passport would imply recognition of the status quo


Issue 2: India-China Economic Issues

China has become India’s largest trading partner. But India has a huge trade deficit with China of 77 Billion $, contributing to India’s 25% trade deficit with the whole world. 

India-China Trade Issues

Why is  India  Important to  China?

India is essential for Chinese growth because it provides China with 

  • Access to a billion-plus market for its products.
  • Avenue for the investment of surplus Chinese capital. 
  • Alternative market due to to the western markets.

Issues

  • Huge Deficit: India has a huge trade deficit of $ 63 Billion with China. 
  • Currency Manipulator  China keeps the Yuan undervalued to promote Chinese exports. 
  • Non-Tariff Barriers: Indian Farm sector, agro-processing industry and Pharmaceutical Sector face Non-Tariff barriers from China. 
  • Security implications
    • Chinese Mobiles can be used for surveillance.
    • Significant Chinese investment in Power Sector results in the transfer of the blueprint of Indian Power Grids in Chinese hands.
    • India’s excessive dependence (up to 80%) on China for Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (API).
    • 5G security issue, especially with Huawei due to its alleged links with CCP.
  • There are large scale Chinese investments in Indian startups. Chinese companies indulged in the hostile takeover of Indian companies during Covid pandemic.
  • Negative impact on Indian Industrial Growth: The import of Chinese goods is not good for the development of Indian industries. The dumping of cheap Chinese goods negatively impacts the MSME sector as they cannot compete with cheap Chinese products. 

How to address?

  • Foreign Trade Policy 2015 recommended concentrating on things like Buddhist tourism & the entertainment sector.
  • India should effectively implement Make in India and Assemble in India. 
  • Increase trade competitiveness of Indian goods.
  • Use Anti Dumping Duties. 
  • Promote Chinese investment in Indian manufacturing, SEZ, NIMZ etc., so that Chinese Companies make products in India. 
  • Implement Katoch Committee report (to address the API issue). 

Recent steps taken by India to address this

  • Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme to boost domestic manufacturing under AtmaNirbhar Bharat.
  • The Indian government has banned more than 100 Chinese apps, including Tiktok. Ban is a big blow for Chinese companies as India was one of the most significant user bases of these companies.
  • The government introduced changes in FDI rules which mandate “prior approval” from the Centre for foreign investments from countries “that share border with India”.
  • India has invoked stringent quality control norms to curb poor-quality Chinese imports.
  • Chinese companies have been barred from taking part in road projects.

Issue 3: Chinese foray into the Indian neighbourhood

For the past few years, Chinese influence on India’s Neighbouring countries has increased. This has mainly been because of China’s Belt and Road initiative and its Financial investments. Thus, growing Chinese influence in the region could pose a challenge for India.


Examples to corroborate this

1. Pakistan

  • China is working on China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), which passes through the Indian territory under Pakistan’s occupation. Chinese presence is there on Gwadar port. 

2. Bangladesh

  • China is financing 25 energy projects in Bangladesh and has extended its support to build Bangladesh’s Second Nuclear power plant. 
  • Bangabandhu-1, which is the first communication satellite of Bangladesh, was negotiated and financed through the help of the Chinese government.
  • China’s trade with Bangladesh is now about twice that of India.

3. Sri Lanka

  • China has leased Hambantota port for 99 years and donated a frigate to the Sri Lankan Navy.

4. Maldives

  • China owns around 70% of the Maldives’ debt.
  • The Maldives has also signed China’s Belt and Road Initiative.
  • The Maldives has changed laws to lease out several prime islands to China.

5. Myanmar

  • China is building Kyaukpyuport in Myanmar.

6. Nepal

  • Nepal has signed an agreement to become a part of the Belt and Road Initiative.
  • Nepal is raising the issue of Kalapani at the behest of China.
  • Nepal uses Chinese cards and is building infrastructure to connect Nepal with China via Tibet.

Issue 4: India vs China – Defence Comparison

Sector China India
Defense budget >140 billion USD (4 times India) ~38 billion USD
Troops 2.3 million (23 Lakh) 1.3 million (13 Lakh)
Submarines 56( 5 nuke powered) 14(1 nuke powered)
Warships 75 (1 aircraft carrier under trial) >30 (2 aircraft carriers)
Fighter jets >1600 >550
Battle tanks >7000 >3000
Missiles Large arsenal
ICBM (intercontinental ballistic missiles)
SLBM (submarine launched)
Limited arsenal
No ICBM
Agni-V has range of 5000 kms

China is becoming an enormous naval power, corroborated by the Chinese navy’s having the largest number of personnel. Along with that, China is producing the largest number of ships. Moreover, China already commissioned the first indigenous Aircraft Carrier in 2018.


Military Reforms done by China

  • People’s Liberation Army (PLA) will be cut by 3 lakh personnel as PLA want to focus on the modernisation of the army. 
  • The first Oversea Chinese Military Base in Indian Ocean Region has become operational in Djibouti.
  • All armed forces were brought under a joint operational military command in 2020 (on the lines of the US Army).  

Issue 5:  String of Pearls

String of Pearls

  • The theory was given by the Pentagon.
  • The theory says that China is trying to increase its naval presence in the Indian Ocean & counter India by surrounding it. It is developing a string of ports around India for this purpose. These pearls include 
Kyaukpyu  Myanmar
Chittagong Bangladesh
Hambantota Srilanka
Marao Atoll Maldives
Gwadar Pakistan
Djibouti China’s first overseas military base
String of Pearls

Impact on India

  • China can use it to impose an embargo on India in case of war (note: 90% Indian Trade passes through the Indian Ocean).
  • It disturbs the balance of power heavily in favour of China.
  • It marks the entry of extraterritorial power in the Indian Ocean, countering the Indian position of ‘Net Security Provider in the Indian Ocean’. 

Steps taken by India

India is taking following steps in the neighbourhood to counter China

Srilanka India is developing Kakesuthai & Triconmale port. 
Andaman & Nicobar Islands These islands can act as an iron choke to a string of pearls as
1. Most Chinese oil & trade flows through Malacca, and Andaman & Nicobar islands overlook Malacca Strait.
2. India has also established a naval air station in Andaman & Nicobar called Baaz.
Myanmar India has stepped up its engagement with Myanmar and made significant investments to counter Chinese encroachment.
Seychelles India is trying to counter it with soft diplomacy and investments.  
Iran India is developing Chabahar port in Iran.
  • Apart from that, India is trying to contain China through the following ways:- 
    1. Formation of Quad consisting of India, USA, Japan and Australia to contain China. 
    2. Making alliances with Vietnam ( Vietnam too had issues with China in the South China sea ) 
    3. Making a strategic partnership with Mongolia.
    4. India has made strategic ties with Japan. 
    1. Malabar practice with US & Japan .  
  • Military Modernization: Agni, Sukhoi, Nuclear submarines, Aircraft Carrier-Vikramaditya are not meant for Pakistan but to fight against a powerful nation like China.
  • India has leased Guardian drones and bought P-8I from the USA for surveillance in the sea
  • India is building roads and infrastructure on the North-Eastern border for faster mobilization of troops. 

Issue 6: One Belt One Road  (OBOR) INITIATIVE

OBOR  consists  of  following  elements.

1 . Silk  Road  Economic  Belt  (SREB)

  • The Eurasian land corridor from the Pacific coast to the Baltic Sea.

2. Maritime  Silk  Road  (MSR)

  • It aims to develop ports across the Indian Ocean. 

3. Digital Silk Road (Latest addition)

  • It is the virtual dimension of OBOR.
  • It is about 
    • strengthening internet infrastructure,  
    • lowering barriers to e-commerce, 
    • developing common technology standards, 
    • promoting cyber security 
    • promoting Chinese 5G technology 
  • China is deploying its nationally developed platforms based on Artificial Intelligence, Big Data, Cloud Computing, Quantum Computing to pursue these goals. E.g.: 
    • Huawei is constructing PEACE (Pakistan – East Africa Cable Express) to connect Pakistan to Kenya via Djibouti.
    • Alibaba’s massive investment in e-commerce.
    • Promoting Beidou in contrast to GPS.
One Belt One Road  (OBOR)
  • Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) is the largest infrastructure project under which China invested in over 2600 projects in 100 countries. Analysts believe the OBOR initiative will impact  4.4 billion people and generate $ 2.5 trillion in 10 years. 
  • It will involve 
    • Building physical infrastructure (highways, railways, ports in coastal nations, fibre-optic lines) 
    • Establish free trade zones (by coordinating customs, quality supervision, e-commerce etc.) 
    • Increasing cultural exchange etc.

Reasons  behind  OBOR  Initiative

1. Restructuring Economy

  1. In 2008, due to Great Depression, there was a decrease in demand for Chinese products abroad. Hence, China changed its economy to an ‘Internal Consumption Led Economy’. But, now there is an issue of overcapacity in the infra sector, and China wants to address this by exporting infra projects.
  2. Rising labour costs: China is shifting production to underdeveloped western regions.

2. Strategic Reasons

  • China is decreasing its dependence on Malacca Strait (80% of Chinese energy and exports pass through it) and addressing the Malacca Dilemma.

3. Using Vast  Forex  Reserves

  • China has forex reserves exceeding $ 3 Trillion. China wants to put this large surplus reserves in building railways, highways, industrial parks along the Silk Road Economic Belt.

4. Diversifying Trade Routes

  • China wants to diversify its trade routes as excessive dependence on a single route is a  strategic vulnerability. 

5. Development of Under-developed areas

  • China’s economic development was primarily concentrated in its eastern coastal provinces. OBOR will provide outlets to its underdeveloped southern and western provinces and markets and coasts. Development of regions like Xingjian will help in containing Uighur militancy as well.

Should India  Join Or Not ?

OBOR  has  specific  risks  and  opportunities

Arguments in favour of joining

India should join this initiative because of the innumerable benefits

1. Economic

  • Road to Central Asia: It will enhance  India’s  connectivity  with  (1) Central  Asia  through  China, (2) Russia and (3) Eurasia.  
  • Connectivity to North East: It will increase connectivity of North East India with South East Asia and China. It will also give a push to tourism in the North East. 
  • Decreasing Trade Deficit with China: Chinese experts say that India’s participation in the Silk Road project will ease the trade deficit.

2. Political

  • Better economic relations improve political relocations and mutual trust.  

3. Strategic

  • It will help in balancing Pakistan and China relations.   

4. Other

  • India may also face some difficult choices in the road ahead because as a co-founder of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and as a member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, it will be asked to support many of the projects under the B&RI. 
  • It will lead to the revival of ‘continentalism’ & old ties.
  • With OBOR & other initiatives, China is making new world economic order. Not being part of it may isolate India from New Economic Order.

Arguments that India shouldn’t join

  • Sovereignty Issues: CPEC (part of OBOR) passes through POK.    
  • It is ‘opaque’ in nature as OBOR may be nothing but an economic disguise for the ‘string of pearls’.
  • It is detrimental to India’s geopolitical interests in the Indian Ocean Region. It challenges India’s stature as a ‘security provider’ in the region. 
  • OBOR promotes  Chinese neo-colonialism as loans are being used as a debt trap. E.g.
    • Seen in Hambantota (where China took over the port for 99 years in case of loan default)
    • Malaysia halted projects   
    • Myanmar also wants the port built by China to scale down. 
    • Even in Pakistan, voices are raised against CPEC (termed it as next East India Company) 
  • A  stronger China is a strategic risk for India. India has 4078 km of the disputed border with China, and China claims a large portion of Indian territory (nearly 80,000 sq. km).
  • Due to this, relations with the USA may get hampered.  
  • Environmental and Social Risks: Due to insufficient ecological feasibility studies and other risks, its compliance with environmental and labour standards is poor. 

Indian Answer to OBOR

  • India has started the ‘Cotton Route‘ to strengthen economic ties between countries in the Indian Ocean rim. 
  • It has also launched Project Mausam and Spice Route, apparently responding to China’s Belt and Road initiative.          
    • Project Mausam aims to re-establish India’s ancient maritime routes in the Indian Ocean. 
    • Spice Route aims to revive old links between 31 countries in Asia and Europe with India, especially Kerala. 
  • India & Japan have developed an Asia Africa Growth Corridor (AAGC) to counter China’s OBOR. 
  • India is also developing a large number of standalone projects which can be joined under one OBOR like project at a later stage (China too used this strategy). These projects include 
    • Chabahar Port project and the International North-South Transportation Corridor  
    • Bangladesh-Bhutan-India-Nepal Motor Vehicles Agreement (BBIN MVA). 

Issue 7: China – Pakistan Axis and CPEC

China & Pakistan describe their friendship as ‘higher than mountains, deeper than oceans, sweeter than honey.’


Areas of Cooperation between China and Pakistan

  • NSG Membership: China opposed India’s admission into the Nuclear Suppliers Group, demanding India’s parity with Pakistan.
  • Infrastructure investment: via China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC).
  • Terrorism: China has been shielding various Pakistan-based terrorists from being listed as a ‘Global Terrorist’ by the UN.   
  • Military cooperation: China’s military cooperation with Pakistan, especially after CPEC, involves 
    • Bolstering the Pakistani navy. E.g., planned acquisition of eight submarines.
    • China will provide Pakistan’s four advanced naval warships of Type-054 Class (1 has already been delivered in August 2020).
  • Chinese relations with Pakistan also give China the chance to make easy inroads into the Islamic world and help keep China’s Xingjian extremism under check. 

CPEC

  • CPEC is a 3200 km route consisting of highways, railways, and pipelines that will connect Gwadar port to Xinjiang in China.  
China-Pakistan Economic Corridor      (CPEC)

Importance of CPEC for Pakistan

  • China is investing   $62 billion in CPEC. 
  • It will create over 7 lakh direct jobs in Pakistan. 
  • China will also invest heavily in Power Sector. It will help Pakistan as the country is desperately short of power.  
  • It will relieve the USA pressure on Pakistan.  

Voices against CPEC in Pakistan

  • Debt Trap: Voices are being raised regarding the ability of the pandemic hit economy to pay back debt.
  • CPEC is marred by corruption shown by the incident of Lt Gen Asim Bajwa, the head of CPEC Authority, who was found to possess disproportionate assets.

Indian Concerns

  • Sovereignty Issues: CPEC passes through the disputed Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir (POK). 
  • Security Implications in Indian Ocean Region: Chinese access to Gwadar port impacts the Indian position as a net security provider in the Indian Ocean.
  • Energy Security of India: Gwadar Port overseas Hormuz Strait and China can blockade Indian oil supplies in conflict. 
  • Heavy Infra building in Pakistani-occupied Kashmir (PoK) will help faster mobilisation of Pakistani troops in case of any future war.
  • The threat of a ‘Two front war‘: It can lead to a situation when India has to a face ‘Two Front War’ in case of future confrontation of India with either of these countries. 

Potential Benefits which can accrue from CPEC to India

  • One of the arms of CPEC can be expanded to the Indian states of Punjab and Jammu & Kashmir without any significant infrastructure costs.  
  • India can get overland access to Afghanistan and Central Asia.

Issue 8: South China Sea Issue

China’s Aggressive claims  in  the  South  China  Sea

Dispute

  • China claims vast regions of the South China Sea through the Nine-Dash line theory.
  • While other nations like Vietnam, the Philippines, Indonesia etc., lay claim on them based on UNCLOS. E.g.: 
    • Paracel Island (conflict between China vs Vietnam) 
    • Spratly Island 
    • Paratas Island etc. 
Nine-Dash line theory

Earlier, the Philippines has approached the International Court of Arbitration to settle this issue. The court declared the claims of China to be illegal. But China declined to accept the judgement.

Interest of China

  • Seabeds of the South China Sea have reserves of oil and natural gas.
  • It is essential for the fisheries and food security of China and South Asian countries.
  • It is important to control the South China Sea through which half of the world shipments pass.
  • The control of this area helps maintain the Chinese hegemony in the region & oust US influence from the neighbourhood.

Indian Stand

  • India has taken a neutral stand that countries involved should negotiate and resolve it peacefully.  
  • India has also emphasized freedom of navigation for all South China Sea littoral countries.

Importance of the South China Sea and its littoral states for India

  • Around 55 % of India’s trade with the Asia pacific passes through the South China Sea. 
  • With its presence in the South China Sea, India can pressure China to counterbalance China in South Asia & Indian Ocean Region (IOR). 
  • To secure the energy supplies (India ships oil from Sakhalin to Mangalore through this region). 
  • India’s ONGC Videsh Ltd has invested in areas China claims to be disputed (like Oil Block 127 & 128 of Vietnam). 
  • Vietnam, with which China has issues, is India’s strategic partner.

Issue 9: River Issues

India and China constitute 17% and 20% of the world population, respectively. But as far as water resources are concerned, China has 7% of the world’s water resources while India has only 4% of the world’s water resources. Hence, water is a precious resource for both India and China.


North-South Water Diversion Plan

  • Problem with China: Although southern parts of China have water, Northern parts have an acute water shortage. Ideas have been given for a long time to use Tibetan water resources to meet the thirst of the north. It leads to the North-South Water Diversion plan.
  • This project is worth $33 billion. With this project, China intends to divert the water of Brahmaputra towards its Northern water-deficit region. 

Dams on the Brahmaputra

  • Under the Chinese North-South Water Diversion Plan, the plan is to build four dams – Dagu, Jeixu, Zangmu & Jiacha on the Brahmaputra.

Problems which India can face

  • India and China don’t have any river water-sharing agreements. 
  • Impact on the sediment flow: The sediments offer immense ecosystem services for the downstream economies of India’s N-E states and Bangladesh.  
  • Potential use as political leverage in border disputes: Apprehension of China using water in conflict events to create flooding downstream. 
  • Any significant diversion of water could impact hydroelectric projects downstream, especially Lower Siang and Upper Siang Project in Arunachal Pradesh.
  • Environmental Impact: Several concerns emerge, such as increased pollution in the river (Siang- Brahmaputra’s main artery recently turned blackish grey as it entered India), the potential impact on climate change, a threat to biodiversity in the region and altering the monsoonal patterns of the area.   
  • Increased disaster vulnerability: Artificially controlling and consequent sudden release of water flow increases the probability of floods, especially in lower riparian areas of India and Bangladesh.  
  • Chinese record on shared waters is not good. Earlier, it virtually stopped the Irtysh river from going into Kazakhstan. 

Way forward

India and China should sign a treaty on the model of the Indus Water Treaty with China.


Areas of Convergence

  • Multilateral Forums : Both India and China have shown their belief in upholding of the United Nations charter and its non-interference policy, Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), World Trade Organization (WTO)- where both fight for G7 countries, East Asian Summit.
  • Climate Change : Upto some extent both the nations have shown their seriousness on environment related issues. In the BASIC (Brazil, South Africa, India and China) minister’s meet, the ministers from these nations advocated for the different capabilities and differing responsibilities of individual countries in addressing climate change.
  • Economic: On several platforms, both the nations have called for support to multilateralism, and appreciate the central role of the U.N. in international affairs.
  • Wuhan Spirit : peaceful, stable and balanced relations between India and China will be a positive factor for stability amidst current global uncertainties
  • People to People Contact : People-to-people exchanges are thriving.
    • Practising yoga,
    • Bollywood movies ,
    • ‘Sister-state relationship’ between Tamil Nadu and Fujian Province.