French Revolution (UPSC World History)

by

French Revolution (UPSC World History)

This article deals with ‘French Revolution (UPSC World History)’ . This is part of our series on ‘World History’ which is an important pillar of GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

In 1789, two significant global occurrences took place. 

  • Firstly, the United States implemented its new federal Constitution, marking a pivotal moment in its history. 
  • Secondly, a revolution erupted in France. The profound turmoil in France had repercussions beyond its borders, profoundly impacting the entire European continent.

Before the French Revolution, France had a political and social structure known as the Ancien Régime (Old Order). Louis XVI, a young monarch from the Bourbon dynasty, governed France while being married to Mary Antoinette, an Austrian princess. Society was divided into three main estates: the clergy (First Estate), the nobility (Second Estate), and the Third Estate, consisting of the rest of the population.

Societal Structure

  • In French society, there were three primary divisions or estates: the Clergy, representing the priestly class; the Nobility, consisting of the landed and aristocratic class; and the commoners, who constituted the unprivileged class.
  • Privileged classes, i.e. nobility & clergy, enjoyed exemption from taxes & had a monopoly of honours & emoluments.
  • 3rd Estate i.e. bourgeoisie, labourers & peasants bore whole burden of tax & excluded from places of authority 
French Revolution (UPSC World History)

Clergy (1st Estate) 

  • It consisted of less than 1% of the population but controlled 20% of the land.
  • The clergy were exempted from taxes. 
  • It wasn’t a homogeneous class and could be divided into Upper Clergy and Lower Clergy.
    1. Upper Clergy (bishops, abbots): Wealthy, from noble families, held comfortable positions but often neglected spiritual duties.
    2. Lower Clergy (parish priests): Did real spiritual work, lived in poverty, resented the upper clergy.

Nobility (2nd Estate) 

  • Comprised 2–4% of the population.
  • Controlled about 25% of land.
  • Also exempted from taxes.. 
  • The French Aristocracy wasn’t a single social unit but a series of differing groups.
    • Nobles of the Sword: Traditional aristocracy with hereditary titles.
    • Nobles of the Robe: Wealthy professionals who had purchased noble titles (mainly judges and administrators).
  • Over time, the difference between them faded. Many intermarried. Ironically, Nobles of the Robe were often richer than Nobles of the Sword.
  • With a centralized government, the Nobility didn’t perform any real governance function — they just enjoyed privileges without responsibilities, making the system increasingly intolerable.

Third Estate

  • It consisted of a vast population & was not a homogenous body. 
  • Paid all taxes but had no voice in governance.
  • It consisted of various sections. The important ones included 

🧑‍💼 Bourgeoisie (Upper Middle Class)

  • Educated and wealthy, consisting of businessmen, professionals, bankers, and lawyers.
  • Owned land and industries but were excluded from top positions due to noble birth rules.
  • Deeply frustrated by their social inferiority despite economic success.

🧑‍🔧 Artisans and Labourers

  • Worked in towns and cities.
  • Lived hand-to-mouth, often unemployed or underpaid.
  • Dependent on the bourgeoisie for work.

🚜 Peasants:

  • Worked on the land — often under feudal obligations like forced labour and dues.
  • Owned about 40% of the land, but were crushed under heavy taxation.
  • Still, they were more prosperous and aware than peasants in other European countries.

Political Structure of France

To understand why it happened, it is crucial to analyse the political structure of France in the 17th and 18th centuries, especially under the reigns of Louis XIV, Louis XV, and Louis XVI.

Louis XIV: The Absolute Monarch (1643–1715)

Louis XIV, known as the Sun King, ruled France for an unparalleled 72 years and is often considered the epitome of absolute monarchy in Europe.

  • Absolute Monarchy at its Peak: Louis centralised power by diminishing the influence of the nobility and concentrating authority in the monarchy. He famously declared, “L’État, c’est moi” (“I am the state”).
  • Lavish Lifestyle and Extravagance: His reign was characterised by grandiose projects such as the construction of the Palace of Versailles, which became a symbol of royal opulence.
  • Costly Wars and Financial Strain: Louis engaged France in numerous expensive wars (e.g., the War of Spanish Succession), draining the royal treasury.
  • Tax Burden on Commoners: To finance his ambitions, he imposed heavy taxes mainly on the peasantry and bourgeoisie, as the nobility and clergy were largely exempt.

This centralisation of power and extravagant spending placed immense pressure on France’s economy, laying the groundwork for future unrest.

Louis XV: The Declining Monarch (1715–1774)

Louis XV inherited the throne at the age of five and ruled during a period of shifting political dynamics.

  • Rise of the Parlement: The Parlement of Paris, originally a royal advisory court, gained the power to approve or reject royal decrees, especially taxation policies.
  • Nobility Regains Power: Unlike Louis XIV’s suppression of the nobles, Louis XV’s reign saw the aristocracy regaining influence and opposing royal authority.
  • Taxation Conflicts: Attempts to impose new taxes were consistently blocked by the Parlement and nobility, who resisted paying taxes themselves.
  • René de Maupeou’s Reforms: In a bid to bypass opposition, Louis XV appointed Maupeou as Chancellor, who tried to curb the Parlement’s power by replacing its members with loyalists. However, this reform was reversed after Louis XV’s death, and the Parlement regained influence.

The weakening of royal authority, combined with noble resistance, weakened the monarchy’s capacity to govern effectively and finance the state.

Louis XVI: The Last King of the Old Regime (1774–1792)

Louis XVI ascended the throne amid escalating economic turmoil and social tensions.

  • Financial Crisis: France’s national debt had skyrocketed due to previous wars and the extravagant spending of his predecessors.
  • Support for American Revolution: Louis XVI’s decision to support the American colonies against Britain further drained the treasury, exacerbating fiscal instability.
  • Weak Leadership: Despite his intentions to reform, Louis XVI was indecisive and heavily influenced by court factions that resisted change.
  • Influence of Marie Antoinette: The Queen, daughter of Austrian Empress Maria Theresa, was unpopular due to her foreign origins, lavish spending, and perceived interference in politics, which added to the monarchy’s unpopularity.

Ultimately, Louis XVI’s inability to address the structural problems of taxation, noble privileges, and financial insolvency led to the collapse of the Ancien Régime and triggered the French Revolution.

Causes of the French Revolution

Cause: Inequality of taxes

  • Exemption of Privileged Classes: Under the Ancien Régime, French society was divided into three estates. The clergy and nobility—the privileged classes—enjoyed exemptions from most taxes. This left the Third Estate—peasants, urban workers, and the middle class—to bear the heavy tax burden. This glaring inequality fueled resentment and deepened social divides.
  • Oppressive Tax Collection Methods: Tax collection was often outsourced to Tax Farmers, private individuals who paid the state for the right to collect taxes and exploited the people ruthlessly, worsening public discontent.

Cause:  Absolutism

Louis XIV’s reign marked the height of absolute monarchy, centralising power and eliminating institutions like the Parlement, which previously checked royal authority. His famous statement, “I am the state,” symbolized this concentration of power. However, his successors were weak and indulgent, allowing corrupt courtiers to dominate governance. Arbitrary tools like letters de cachet—which allowed imprisonment without trial—exemplified the monarchy’s oppressive power, increasing popular frustration and desire for change.

Cause: Intellectual Revolt

The Enlightenment challenged the old order through ideas of liberty, equality, and reason:

  • Montesquieu advocated the separation of powers and criticised absolute monarchy in The Spirit of Laws.
  • Voltaire attacked the Church’s power and superstition, promoting reason and tolerance, though he favored enlightened despotism over democracy.
  • Rousseau introduced the Social Contract theory, emphasising popular sovereignty and the right to revolt against unjust rulers. His ideas inspired later revolutionary movements despite some risk of authoritarian misuse.
  • The Encyclopaedists, led by Denis Diderot, published the Encyclopedia. It proved to be a mine of information and a manifesto of radicalism with expert criticism of current institutions, society and government
  • Physiocrats promoted free trade and a single land tax, influencing early revolutionary economic thought.

These thinkers exposed the flaws of the old regime and inspired widespread demands for reform

Their writings exposed the evils of the old regime and aroused the passion of people by instilling new ideas and doctrines in them. Philosophers dismantled the old French structure in the minds of the French people long before the Structures were actually brought down. 

Cause: Role of Salons

  • Salons were the elegant drawing rooms of the wealthy urban elite where philosophers and guests gathered and often engaged in academic and intellectual conversations centred on new ideas. 
  • Salons were crucial in spreading Enlightenment ideas. They became hubs for reform-minded deputies like Mirabeau and Robespierre, who later led revolutionary efforts.

Cause: Condition of Finances 

  • When Louis XVI became king, France was near bankruptcy, with a deficit of 20%. Wars and royal extravagance worsened finances. Tax reforms were necessary, but the privileged estates resisted giving up exemptions, while the Third Estate was already overburdened. This deadlock threatened the state’s survival.

Cause: Economic Crisis 

  • France faced rising prices and inflation due to population growth, increased credit, and limited production. The Franco-British Trade Treaty (1786) exposed French workers to competition from cheaper British imports. Poor harvests in 1787-88 caused widespread hunger and social unrest, driving desperate rural populations to cities and escalating tensions.

Cause: Role of the American Revolution

  • The success of the American Revolution inspired French revolutionaries with ideals of liberty and republicanism. French officers, such as the Marquis de Lafayette, brought back revolutionary zeal.
  • At the same time, France’s financial and military support for the American Revolution deepened its debt crisis, accelerating unrest at home.

Immediate Cause

Louis XVI’s attempts at tax reform faced fierce opposition from privileged classes. Mounting debt from wars, especially the American Revolution, forced him to call the Estates-General in 1789. This assembly became the platform for the Third Estate to voice grievances, transforming into the National Assembly and sparking the French Revolution.

Events of French Revolution

The French Revolution wasn’t a single event but a series of dramatic political, social, and economic developments that completely transformed France and had ripple effects across Europe.

The Beginning: Aristocratic Revolution (1787–89)

  • The revolution started with the aristocracy, not the commoners.
  • In the mid-1780s, France was on the verge of bankruptcy. The monarchy tried to reform taxation and end aristocratic privileges. But the nobility resisted, demanding the convening of the Estates-General (a representative assembly), which hadn’t met since 1614.
  • This marked the first phase of the Revolution, often called the Aristocratic Revolution.

Estates General and ,the Rise of the Third Estate (May-June 1789)

  • Estates-General was convened in May 1789 at Versailles.
  • Representation of the 3 Estates were as follows:
    • First Estate (Clergy) – 300
    • Second Estate (Nobility) – 300
    • Third Estate (Commoners – Bourgeoisie, Lawyers, etc.) – 600
  • Core Issue: Main question here was on voting.
    • Traditional Method: One vote per Estate → Favoured Nobility & Clergy.
    • Third Estate demanded: One vote per head (which would give them majority).
  • Result: Stalemate. On 17 June 1789, the Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly, claiming to represent the nation.

Tennis Court Oath (20 June 1789)

  • King under pressure from court sought to oppose revolutionary proceedings of 3rd Estate & closed the hall in order to prevent session of National Assembly . Members rushed to neighbouring tennis court & took oath not to separate till constitution of realm had been definitely established. Mirabeau, a nobleman, and Abbé Sieyès, a member of the clergy, led this act of protest.

The Storming of the Bastille (14 July 1789)

  1. King Louis XVI, under pressure from Courtiers, brought troops to Paris. Public anger was already high due to bread shortages and high prices.
  2. On 14 July, a Parisian mob stormed the Bastille prison, seen as a symbol of royal tyranny. This marked the start of the French Revolution.
  3. This was followed by assuming control of city where new form of Municipal Government was established  and National Guard(city militia) was organised to maintain order in city with Lafayette as commander

Peasant Revolution (Summer 1789)

  • It also had its impact on countryside .
  • Peasant also rose. Anti Aristocratic feelings were high & peasants started to attack houses of the nobles and burnt the records containing feudal dues owed by Peasants. 

King taken Prisoner (5 Oct 1789 )

  • There was shortage of bread aka Terror of famine→ suspicion was that royalty was hoarding grain.
  • 7,000 women marched to Versailles, demanded bread, and forced the royal family to shift to Paris.
  • King Louis XVI became a virtual prisoner at the Tuileries Palace – closer to the people, under surveillance.

Constitution of 1791 – Start of Constitutional Monarchy

The National Assembly was converted to Constituent Assembly and they prepared the Constitution with following major provisions

  • A Legislative Assembly (LA) of 745 members (2-year term, elected with property-based suffrage).
  • King as executive head, but no power to make laws.
  • France divided into 83 departments of equal size.
  • Church lands nationalised, and Assignats (paper currency) issued against them.
  • Drastic actions taken against the Church like (i) Abolition of tithes, (ii) nationalisation of church property and (iii) old Dioceses were abolished & Bishops and Priests were to be elected by popular vote & paid by state.

War against Austria and Prussia

  • Monarchies in Europe (esp. Austria & Prussia) feared spread of revolution. They feared that the rise of common people might bring to an end the rule of monarchs and so they sent their troops to France to contain the revolution.
  • Meanwhile the National Assembly declared war against Austria and Prussia. 

Attempted Escape by the King

  • In June 1791, King Louis XVI made a secret attempt to flee Paris and join foreign monarchies (Austria and Prussia), who were gathering counter-revolutionary armies on France’s border. His escape plan, however, failed. He was captured by local militia and brought back to Paris. This incident eroded public trust and further radicalized the revolution.

Formation of Clubs

  • Constitution didn’t satisfy the poor – as there was no universal suffrage.
  • Political clubs emerged as forums of debate and agitation. Most important among them were
    • Jacobin Club – They were most radical. Their members were small traders, artisans, and wage earners.
      • Called themselves Sans-Culottes (without knee-breeches).
      • Leaders: Robespierre, Danton, Marat.
    • Cordeliers Club – more populist; also led by Danton.

Girondins and Jacobins

Within the powerful Jacobin Club — the most influential political club of the time — differences started emerging.

Girondins (a.k.a. Brissotins)

  • Named after leader Jacques Pierre Brissot, the Girondins were a moderate faction within the Jacobin Club.
  • They represented the propertied middle class, mainly from provincial France.
  • Believed war against Austria and Prussia would strengthen the revolution and unite the country against a common external enemy.
  • Argued that war would expose royalist conspiracies and bring down counter-revolutionaries.

Jacobins (Radicals)

  • Led by Maximilien Robespierre and Georges Danton.
  • Represented the urban poor and radical elements of Paris.
  • Opposed the idea of war with foreign powers.
  • Robespierre warned that a war might strengthen the monarchy, allow foreign intervention, and open the gates for counter-revolution.

This Girondin-Jacobin divide marks an important turning point in the French Revolution. It highlights the internal ideological conflicts and the shifting power dynamics among revolutionary leaders, which would later culminate in the Reign of Terror under Robespierre.

Fall of Monarchy & National Convention (1792)

  • War went badly. Public anger turned towards monarchy.
  • On 10 August 1792, Jacobin supporters stormed the Tuileries, killed royal guards an imprisoned Louis XVI.
  • A new body – National Convention – was elected by universal male suffrage. It abolished monarchy on 21 September 1792, declared First French Republic.

September Massacres

  • After the overthrow of the monarchy, the people believed that political prisoners in the jails were planning to join a plot of the counterrevolutionaries. So the mob descended on the prisons and summarily executed those they believed to be royalists. Commencing on 2 September 1792, at Abbaye prison in Paris, it continued in the next four days in other prisons of the city.  In all about 1,200 prisoners were killed in what came to be known as the September Massacres.
  • The September Massacres were publicised abroad as proof o the horrors of revolution. The Girondins blamed their more radical enemies, especially Marat, Danton and Robespierre.

Trial & Execution of the King

  • The war with Austria and Prussia — initiated under the influence of the Girondins — marked a decisive phase in the French Revolution. On 20 September 1792, the French revolutionary army successfully stopped the foreign invasion at the Battle of Valmy. This military success boosted revolutionary confidence. Seizing the moment, the newly elected National Convention took a historic step – On 21 September 1792, it abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic.
  • But the revolutionaries were not done yet. King Louis XVI, already discredited due to his attempted escape and secret correspondence with foreign powers, was now put on trial.
    • He was charged with treason for seeking foreign help against his own countrymen.
    • Found guilty, he was executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793.
    • His wife, Marie Antoinette, faced the same fate soon after.

Reign of Terror (1793–94) – Rule of Jacobins

  • France faced extreme crisis with hunger, protests, and counter-revolutionary uprisings (e.g., Vendee and Lyons).
  • The Convention used military force against agitating citizens instead of addressing demands like price controls and grain supply.
  • Robespierre and the Jacobins took control, starting a dictatorial regime known as the Reign of Terror.
  • Thousands, including Girondin leaders and Danton, were executed by guillotine.
  • Radical reforms were introduced:
    • Abolition of slavery in all French colonies (4 Feb 1794)
    • Wage ceilings, rationing of food like bread and meat
    • Price controls on agricultural goods
    • Use of “citizen” instead of titles like Sir/Madam
    • Churches were turned into military barracks
  • Robespierre’s extreme measures alienated even his supporters.
  • He was arrested and executed in 1794, ending the Reign of Terror.
  • Power shifted to moderate leaders (Thermidorians), who rolled back radical reforms.

Weak Rule of the Directory (1795–1799)

  • A new Constitution of 1795 established the Directory: a 5-member executive with a bicameral legislature.
  • However, it was marked by:
    • Corruption and inefficiency
    • Lack of public support
    • Economic problems (inflation, food shortages)
    • Frequent uprisings (Royalists on one side, radicals on the other)
  • The Directory relied heavily on the military to suppress revolts, leading to growing power of generals—especially Napoleon.

Military Successes of Napoleon

  • Napoleon emerged as a national hero through his military campaigns:
    • Suppressed Royalist uprising in Paris (1795)
    • Won major victories in Italy (1796–97) against Austria
    • Gained fame for his daring Egyptian expedition (though militarily mixed, politically it added to his image)
  • Amid political chaos and lack of strong leadership, people longed for order. Napoleon was seen as a man of action, stability, and national pride. He also gained support from both moderates (who wanted peace) and radicals (who liked his revolutionary ideals).

Coup of 18 Brumaire (9 November 1799)

  • By 1799, the Directory had lost all credibility. It was seen as corrupt, inefficient, and incapable of solving France’s problems—be it the economic crisis, war fatigue, or political instability.
  • Napoleon Bonaparte, already a celebrated military general, returned from Egypt and gained support from influential politicians like Emmanuel Sieyès (one of the original revolutionaries) and Roger Ducos.
  • With the backing of the French army, Napoleon staged a bloodless coup on 18 Brumaire, Year VIII (9 November 1799 in the revolutionary calendar). He stormed the Council of Five Hundred, dissolved the legislature, and forced members to resign at gunpoint.
  • The Directory was abolished, and a new government called the Consulate was formed. It had three consuls, but real power was concentrated in the hands of Napoleon, who became First Consul. Though France remained a republic on paper, Napoleon now ruled as a dictator in all but name.

Leave a Comment