Reforms in India – UPSC GS3 Notes

by

Last Updated: June 2025 (Reforms in India – UPSC GS3 Notes )

Land Reforms in India

This article deals with ‘Reforms in India – UPSC GS3 Notes | Economic Justice Explained.’ This is part of our series on ‘Economics’, which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction: Why Land Matters

Imagine a village where one rich landlord owns most of the farmland, and dozens of poor farmers work on his land. These farmers grow food, work hard from dawn to dusk, yet remain hungry themselves. They have no rights, no land, no say.

Reforms in India – UPSC GS3 Notes | Economic Justice Explained

Now imagine the same village after reform: the landlord owns only a limited area, and the rest is given to the farmers who work the land. They are no longer tenants, but owners. They are not just laborers, but decision-makers.

This is the promise of land reforms – to make agriculture fair, productive, and dignified.

What Are Land Reforms?

In simple terms, land reforms refer to changes in laws and policies to improve the ownership and usage of agricultural land.

They address the institutional factors affecting agriculture:

  • Who owns the land?
  • How is land distributed?
  • Are farmers secure on the land they till?

According to Nobel Laureate Gunnar Myrdal, land reforms are even more important than technological improvements in ensuring agricultural progress in India.

Objectives of Land Reforms

Agricultural Development

  • A tenant who has no ownership has no incentive to invest in land improvement.
  • Ownership ensures motivation to boost productivity.

Social Justice

  • Zamindari abolition ended forced labour (begari).
  • Land ceilings gave land to landless farmers.
  • Tenancy reforms ensured fair rent and security from evictions.

Economic Development

  • Abolishing middlemen brought the state in direct contact with cultivators.
  • Increased equity meant more balanced rural development.

Improved Standard of Living

  • Better production + better rights = better lives for millions of rural Indians.

Major Steps in Indian Land Reforms

Zamindari Abolition

  • Removed intermediaries (zamindars) between state and farmers.
  • Motto: “Land to the tiller”.
  • Implemented in almost all states during the 1950s–70s.

Tenancy Reforms

  • Protected tenants from arbitrary eviction.
  • Fixed ceilings on rents (usually around 25-33% of produce).
  • In many cases, allowed tenants to become landowners.

Land Ceiling Acts

  • Fixed the maximum landholding for a family (e.g., 10-18 acres).
  • Surplus land redistributed to landless farmers.
  • Faced challenges like benami (fake name) ownership and loopholes.

Consolidation of Land Holdings

  • Clubbed fragmented land parcels into one for each farmer.
  • Encouraged mechanization and efficient farming.

Cooperative Farming

  • Encouraged pooling of land, resources, and profits.
  • Mostly unsuccessful due to lack of trust and local leadership.

Updating Land Records

  • Essential to determine ownership and redistribute land.
  • National Land Records Modernization Programme (2008) digitized records, integrated maps and made data public-friendly.

Forest Rights Act, 2006

  • Gave ‘pattas’ (land titles) to tribal families cultivating forest land for 75+ years.

We will look into these steps in detail in separate articles.

Conclusion

Land reforms in India were a bold step towards creating a fair and productive rural economy. From abolishing zamindari to digitizing land records, the journey has been long and uneven—but deeply transformative.

River Linking Project 

by

Last Update: June 2025 (River Linking Project )

River Linking Project 

This article deals with the ‘River Linking Project (UPSC notes)’. This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

  • The River Linking Project is a long-pending mega water management initiative of India that aims to transfer water from surplus river basins to water-deficient regions of the country.
  • It is being implemented under the aegis of the National Water Development Agency (NWDA).

History of River Linking in India

YearEvent
British EraEngineer Sir Arthur Cotton proposed linking rivers like the Ganga and Cauvery for inland navigation. But the idea was shelved due to expanding railway connectivity.
1982NWDA formed to study the feasibility of river interlinking.
2012Supreme Court gave its go-ahead to the interlinking of rivers.
2015First major success: Godavari-Krishna rivers connected.
2024Foundation stone laid for Ken-Betwa River Link, India’s first inter-state river interlinking project under implementation.

National Perspective Plan (NPP)

The NWDA has prepared a National Perspective Plan for interlinking 30 rivers through 30 links, divided into:

1. Himalayan Component – 14 river links

River Linking Project 

2. Peninsular Component – 16 river links

River Linking Project - Peninsular Component

Benefits of River Linking

  • Enhanced irrigation potential across drought-prone regions of India. E.g., the Ken-Betwa link is expected to irrigate 10.6 lakh ha.
  • Flood control in surplus regions and drought mitigation in deficit regions.
  • Reduce regional imbalance in water availability.
  • Adds 35 GW of hydropower capacity by constructing ~3,000 new dams.
  • Boosts inland navigation via newly constructed canals.
  • Job creation in sectors like construction, tourism, and fishing.

Issues with River Linking Project

Environmental Impact

  • Alters riverine ecosystems, flora, and fauna.
  • Reservoirs may lead to increased methane emissions (a potent greenhouse gas).
  • Interferes with groundwater recharge, potentially drying aquifers.
  • Rivers may become seasonal or stagnant due to upstream diversions.

Displacement & Rehabilitation

  • The project may displace over 6 lakh people.
  • Past examples (e.g., Bhakra and Pong dams) show inadequate rehabilitation.
  • Land acquisition remains a major hurdle.

Waterlogging & Salinity

  • Canal seepage increases soil salinity — seen in Punjab under the Indira Gandhi Canal Project.

Political & Geopolitical Challenges

  • Inter-state disputes: States unwilling to share water, claiming no real surplus.
  • Neighbouring countries like Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Bhutan oppose interlinking due to their dependence on Himalayan rivers.
  • Experts fear “surplus today may not be surplus tomorrow” as development, climate change, and industrial use increase.

Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP)

  • On 25th December 2024, Prime Minister  Modi laid the foundation stone for the Ken-Betwa River Linking Project, declared as a National Project.
  • The project aims to transfer surplus water from the Ken River to the Betwa River, both of which are tributaries of the Yamuna.
  • A 221 km long canal, including a 2 km tunnel, will be constructed for this purpose.
  • The project is located in the Bundelkhand region, covering 13 districts across Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP)
  • As per the Union Jal Shakti Ministry, the project will:
    • Provide irrigation to 10.6 lakh hectares of land,
    • Supply drinking water to over 60 lakh people in UP and MP,
    • Generate 103 MW of hydropower.

Parbati–Kalisindh–Chambal–Eastern Rajasthan Canal Project (PKC–ERCP)

  • Parbati–Kalisindh–Chambal–Eastern Rajasthan Canal Project (PKC–ERCP), also known as Ramjal Setu Link Project, is expected to channel surplus water of the Chambal river basin for irrigation, drinking and industrial use to 23 districts of Rajasthan, benefitting 3.45 crore people.
  • Issue: submergence of 37 sq km in the Ranthambhore tiger reserve effectively cutting it into two sections and constricting the north-south animal dispersal route

Multipurpose River Valley Projects

by

Last Updated: June 2025 (Multipurpose River Valley Projects)

Multipurpose River Valley Projects

This article deals with the ‘Multipurpose River Valley Projects (UPSC notes)’. This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Multipurpose River Valley Projects and its Benefits

Multipurpose River Valley Projects are large dams and associated infrastructure built to fulfil multiple objectives from a single water resource. These include

Multipurpose River Valley Projects
  1. 💧 Storage of Water – for drinking and other domestic uses.
  2. 🚜 Irrigation – to support agriculture, especially in arid and semi-arid regions.
  3. ⚡ Hydroelectricity Generation – clean, renewable and emission-free energy.
  4. 🌊 Flood Control – by regulating river flow and holding excess water.
  5. 🌱 Soil Erosion Control – by checking excessive water flow.
  6. 🚢 Inland Navigation – making rivers navigable throughout the year.
  7. 🐟 Fish Culture – Large reservoirs provide breeding grounds for fish.
  8. 🌴 Recreational Development – development of tourism, parks, and picnic spots around reservoir areas.

Issues with Multipurpose Projects

Despite the many benefits, large multipurpose and irrigation projects face multiple challenges across economic, environmental, social, and political dimensions:

1. High Capital Cost

  • The construction of large dams and canals requires substantial financial investments, including land acquisition, construction, relocation, compensation, and environmental mitigation.
  • The government often funds these projects through heavy borrowing or international loans.

2. Long Gestation Period

  • These projects take years or even decades to complete from planning to commissioning. Delays happen due to litigation, funding issues, interstate disputes, or public protests.

3. Environmental Impact

  • There is submergence of large forested areas, grasslands, and fertile agricultural land, which alters the local ecosystem and microclimate.
  • Example: Submergence of thousands of hectares of forest in the Tehri Dam project.

4. Human Displacement

  • Construction leads to the large-scale displacement of people from submerged villages and towns. But the rehabilitation and resettlement are often poorly executed or delayed.
  • Example: The Sardar Sarovar Dam displaced over 2 lakh people, many of whom still await proper rehabilitation.

5. Biodiversity Loss

  • The construction of Multipurpose projects alters the natural flow of rivers, affecting aquatic life and riverine biodiversity by blocking fish migration routes, destroying natural wetlands, and disrupting breeding habitats.

 6. Seismic Risks

  • Many dams are located in the Himalayan region, which is seismically active. Sudden earthquakes can cause dam breaches, leading to catastrophic floods downstream.

7. Waterlogging and Salinization

  • Improperly maintained canals can lead to seepage, causing waterlogging and salinisation, making land unfit for agriculture. It is common in canal-irrigated areas of Punjab and Haryana.

8. Cultural and Social Loss

  • Dams often submerge sacred religious sites, temples, burial grounds, and ancestral lands.
  • Disrupts tribal cultures, traditional water-sharing practices, and local governance systems.

9. Interstate and International Disputes

  • Disagreements over water allocation, reservoir levels, and usage rights lead to legal and political conflicts.
  • Example: Bhakra Nangal Dam water dispute among Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan.
  • Internationally, projects on Indus River tributaries often draw opposition from Pakistan.

Important Multipurpose Projects & Dams in India

Memorising these projects by river and state will help you in Prelims & MCQ-based exams.

Punjab and Himachal

Bhakra Nangal DamSatlujHighest gravity dam in India (226 m), forms Gobind Sagar Lake
Pong DamBeasUsed for irrigation and hydropower
Pandoh DamBeasDiverts water to Satluj via Beas-Satluj Link
Ranjit Sagar (Thein) DamRaviLocated near Madhopur, used for irrigation & hydroelectricity
Chamera ProjectRaviLocated in Himachal Pradesh

Jammu and Kashmir

ProjectRiverRemarks
Salal ProjectChenabFirst major hydro project post-Indus Waters Treaty
Baglihar DamChenabDisputed by Pakistan, under Indus Waters Treaty
Ratle ProjectChenabInvolves foreign investment
Lower KalnaiChenabUnder development
Kwar ProjectChenabUpcoming large dam
Kishenganga ProjectJhelum (tributary)Diverts water from Kishenganga to Bonar Nallah
Wullar Barrage (Tulbul Project)JhelumNavigation project, opposed by Pakistan

Rajasthan, MP, UP

Chambal Valley ProjectChambalConsists of Gandhi Sagar, Rana Pratap Sagar & Jawahar Sagar Dams
Indira Gandhi CanalUses Satluj, Beas & RaviLongest canal in India, waters arid Thar desert areas
Parvati-Kalisindh-Chambal LinkChambal basinInterlinking of rivers for irrigation in Rajasthan/MP

South India

ProjectRiverStateNotes
Mullaperiyar DamPeriyarKerala (operated by Tamil Nadu)Inter-state dispute
Idukki DamPeriyarKeralaOne of the highest arch dams in Asia
Krishna Raja Sagar (KRS)CauveryKarnatakaBuilt by Sir M. Visvesvaraya
Mettur DamCauveryTamil NaduOldest dam in Tamil Nadu
Nagarjuna SagarKrishnaTelangana / AndhraMajor hydropower & irrigation project
Srisailam ProjectKrishnaAndhra PradeshKey hydroelectric project
Sharavathi ProjectSharavathiKarnatakaBuilt over Jog Falls
Polavaram ProjectGodavariAndhra PradeshUnder construction, national project

Eastern India

ProjectRiverStateNotes
Hirakud DamMahanadiOdishaLongest earthen dam in the world (4.8 km)
Rengali ProjectBrahmaniOdishaMultipurpose use
Farakka BarrageGangaWest BengalPrevents silting in Kolkata port

North Eastern India

ProjectRiverStateNotes
Teesta ProjectTeestaSikkim/West BengalPower generation & irrigation
Subansiri ProjectSubansiri (Brahmaputra tributary)Arunachal PradeshIndia’s largest hydroelectric project under construction
Siang Upper Project (SUMP)SiangArunachalFaces local resistance
Loktak ProjectLeimatakManipurProvides power to North-East region

Western & Central India

ProjectRiverStateNotes
Ukai ProjectTapiGujaratHydropower and irrigation
Kakrapar ProjectTapiGujaratSupplies nuclear power plant
Narmada Project (Sardar Sarovar)NarmadaGujarat/MPOne of the largest projects, displacement issues
Jobat & MaheshwarNarmadaMPAssociated Narmada projects
Damodar Valley ProjectDamodarJharkhand/WBBased on Tennessee Valley Authority (USA model)

Note: Superlatives

  • Highest: Bhakra (226 m)
  • Longest: Hirakud (4.8 km)
  • Oldest: Mettur/KRS

Groundwater Resources of India

by

Last Updated: June 2025 (Groundwater Resources of India)

Groundwater Resources of India

This article deals with the ‘Groundwater Resources of India (UPSC notes)’. This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

Water resources in India are broadly categorized into:

  1. Surface Water Resources: Comprising about 70% of usable water, including rivers, lakes, and ponds. 
  2. Groundwater Resources: Stored in underground aquifers.
Groundwater Resources of India

Understanding Groundwater and Aquifers

When it rains, some water flows over land (runoff), and some seeps down into the ground. This underground water that gets stored between rocks and soil is called groundwater. But it doesn’t float around randomly underground — it collects in a special place called an aquifer.

What is an Aquifer?

  • Aquifer = An underground layer of rock or soil that holds water.
  • These rocks have tiny spaces (pores) where water gets stored, like a sponge — these are called permeable rocks.
permeable rocks

Types of Aquifers

1. Confined Aquifer

  • Water is trapped between two hard, impermeable layers (like sandwich filling).
  • Since it’s trapped, it builds pressure — it can’t move freely or rise up on its own.
  • Need deep boring to extract water.

2. Unconfined Aquifer

  • Has impermeable rock only at the bottom. The top layer is open — water enters easily from rain, rivers, etc.
  • It can be accessed with shallow dug wells or tube wells.
Aquifers

Aquifers are hidden heroes of India’s water system. If we understand them and protect them, they can keep serving us for generations.

Groundwater Reserves in India

India has groundwater reserves of 30-40 million hectares, but the distribution is uneven. Key regions with groundwater reserves include:

  1. Alluvial Sedimentary Regions
    • Found in Northern plains, Peninsular river basins, and River deltas.
    • These areas generally have high groundwater potential due to porous sediments.
  2. Bhabhar Region (Himalayan Foothills)
    • It is characterised by coarse boulders and pebbles where streams disappear underground.
    • Groundwater here is less important for agriculture due to a lack of soil cover and difficult terrain.
  3. Coastal Plains
    • The Eastern Coastal Plains have broader river courses and deltaic formations, along with good groundwater reserves, but face issues related to overexploitation.
    • Western coastal plains are narrow with limited groundwater resources.
  4. Peninsular Gneissic and Granitic Rocks
    • Groundwater is stored mainly in fractures and cracks since the rocks themselves are impermeable.
    • Recharge is slow, making groundwater vulnerable to depletion.

Overexploitation of Groundwater

The Tubewell Revolution has transformed Indian agriculture, with about 60% of irrigation now dependent on wells and tube wells. The states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, and Tamil Nadu have particularly high groundwater extraction rates.

Causes of Groundwater Depletion

1. Discharge Factors:

  1. Intensive groundwater extraction for irrigation and other uses.

2. Low Recharge Factors:

  1. Climate change is causing erratic rainfall and droughts.
  2. Loss of vegetation reduces infiltration and recharge.
  3. Faulty urban planning with inadequate provisions for groundwater recharge (e.g., concrete surfaces blocking infiltration).

3. Other Contributing Factors:

  1. Climate change is leading to unpredictable monsoons and droughts.
  2. Cultivation of water-intensive crops, such as sugarcane and rice.
  3. Rising sea levels are causing saltwater intrusion in coastal aquifers.

Government Initiatives for Groundwater Conservation

  1. National Water Policy 2012: Framework for unified water management laws and institutions.
  2. Jal Shakti Abhiyan (2019): Focuses on improving groundwater availability in 256 water-stressed districts.
  3. Central Ground Water Board (CGWB): Monitors groundwater and promotes scientific management.
  4. Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY): Aims to enhance irrigation efficiency and reduce water wastage.
  5. Atal Bhujal Yojana: Community-led groundwater management through convergence of central and state schemes.
  6. MGNREGA: Implements water conservation activities in rural areas.
  7. Environment (Protection) Act, 1986: Provides a legal framework for groundwater protection.
  8. Jaldoot App: Launched by the Ministries of Rural Development and Panchayati Raj, this app facilitates village-level groundwater monitoring by Gram Rojgar Sahayaks, measuring water levels twice annually (pre- and post-monsoon).

Groundwater Pollution

Groundwater Pollution

Apart from the alarming depletion of groundwater levels, the quality of groundwater in India is also deteriorating due to pollution:

  • Fluoride contamination is widespread in regions such as the northern plains, Telangana, and Golconda, leading to fluorosis —a disease that causes tooth decay and bone damage.
  • Arsenic contamination is serious in areas like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal (notably Malda, Murshidabad, Burdwan, Asansol), primarily due to untreated discharge from leather and other industries.
  • Nitrate levels have increased nationwide because of excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers like urea, contaminating groundwater and posing health risks.

Rainwater Harvesting

Rainwater Harvesting is the process of collecting and storing rainwater for direct use or for replenishing groundwater.

Rainwater Harvesting

Benefits

  • Increases water availability
  • Checks the declining groundwater table
  • Reduces community dependence on groundwater for daily needs
  • Saves energy by reducing the need for groundwater pumping

Traditional Rainwater Harvesting Methods in India

India has a rich history of rainwater harvesting dating back over 4000 years, with diverse regional techniques such as:

  • Rajasthan: Kund or Tanka (underground covered tanks)
  • Himachal Pradesh: Kul and Kuhi
  • Maharashtra: Bhandaras
  • Tamil Nadu: Eri
  • Andhra Pradesh: Cheruvu

Watershed Management

Watershed Management means protecting and managing all the water and land within a watershed so that rainwater is not wasted, groundwater gets recharged, soil stays in place, and people benefit.

It focuses on:

  1. Storing more rainwater where it falls
  2. Reducing water runoff that causes floods and soil erosion
  3. Recharging groundwater by letting water slowly soak into the ground
  4. Improving farming, increasing incomes, and reducing migration

Simple Techniques Used

  • 🛑 Check dams – small earthen dams to slow water flow and recharge groundwater
  • 🌱 Afforestation – tree planting to hold soil and reduce erosion
  • 🌿 Vegetative cover – helps trap rainwater and improve soil health
  • 🏞️ Avoiding large concrete dams – to maintain natural river flow and ecosystem balance

Scheme: Jal Sadhana

  • It was previously called the Integrated Watershed Management Programme or IWMP
  • Features:
    1. Plans made with full community participation
    2. Old ponds and dams are cleaned before the monsoon
    1. Each farm is ensured water
    1. Focuses on both drought and flood prevention
    2. Uses satellite images and mobile apps (like Drishti) to monitor progress

Nuclear Fusion

by

Last Update: June 2025 (Nuclear Fusion)

Nuclear Fusion

This article deals with ‘Nuclear Fusion .’ This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology’, which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus . For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

  • In a Nuclear Fusion reaction, two small atoms (usually isotopes of hydrogen, like Deuterium and Tritium)  combine to form a bigger atom (Helium) and release enormous energy.
  • Nuclear Fusion needs very high energy and can be carried at 10^7 K temperature (such a high temperature is challenging to achieve & even more challenging to maintain) 
Nuclear Fusion

How Does Fusion Work?

  • Fusion reactors aim to replicate the conditions of the Sun using a technology called Tokamak to carry out Nuclear Fusion.
  • A Tokamak is a doughnut-shaped (toroidal) chamber designed to replicate the Sun’s fusion process under controlled laboratory conditions. Here’s how it works:
Tokamak Technology

Steps of Nuclear Fusion using Tokamak Technology

Step 1: Creating Plasma

  • Hydrogen gas is heated to temperatures exceeding 150 million degrees Celsius, converting it into plasma – a superheated, electrically charged state of matter.

Step 2: Magnetic Confinement

  • Since no material can contain such extreme heat, powerful magnetic fields (created by superconducting magnets) are used to hold the plasma in place without touching the walls. These magnetic fields form a magnetic “cage” to confine and stabilize the plasma.

Step 3: Fusion Reaction

  • Inside the Tokamak, Deuterium and Tritium nuclei collide at high speeds.
  • If they come close enough, the strong nuclear force overcomes repulsion, and they fuse to form Helium and a high-energy neutron.

Real-World Tokamak Projects

1. ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor)

  • Location: Cadarache, France
  • 35 nations, including India, are part of it.
  • Largest Tokamak ever built.
  • Goal: Produce 10 times more energy than input (50 MW in, 500 MW out).
  • Timeline: Commercial viability expected by 2050.

2. China’s EAST (Artificial Sun)

  • Simulates the Sun’s fusion process.
  • Surpassed 1,000 seconds of sustained fusion in Jan 2025.

3. Aditya Tokamak

  • India’s own Tokamak at the Institute for Plasma Research, Gujarat.
  • It is part of India’s independent fusion program.

Challenges in Achieving Controlled Nuclear Fusion

Despite decades of research, controlled nuclear fusion remains an engineering challenge due to:

  1. Extremely High Temperature: The reactor must reach temperatures higher than the Sun’s core to achieve fusion.
  2. Handling Plasma: At such temperatures, matter exists as plasma, which can’t touch any surface. It must be suspended using strong magnetic fields, which are difficult to maintain.
  3. Electrostatic Repulsion: Nuclei resist coming close due to Coulombic repulsion. Achieving collision conditions is very difficult.
  4. Material Limitations: The reactor walls must withstand intense heat and radiation without degrading.
  5. Instability: Even minor changes in magnetic fields can destabilize plasma containment.
  6. Sustaining Reaction: Even if ignition is achieved, maintaining the reaction long enough to extract energy is tough.

Advantages of Nuclear Fusion

  • Abundant Energy: Energy released is millions of times more than fossil fuels.
  • Sustainability: Fuel sources (Deuterium & Tritium) are abundant and can be extracted from water and lithium.
  • Zero CO₂ Emissions: Environmentally friendly—only helium is released.
  • No Chain Reaction: Fusion is self-limiting. Hence, there is no chance of a meltdown.
  • Low Proliferation Risk: Fusion doesn’t use fissile material like uranium or plutonium.
  • Minimal Waste: No long-lived radioactive waste is generated.

Why Nuclear Fusion is Better than Nuclear Fission?

CriteriaNuclear FissionNuclear Fusion
WasteProduces radioactive wasteNo long-lived radioactive waste
FuelUranium or PlutoniumDeuterium
RiskMeltdown risk highNo meltdown risk
PollutionEmits radioactive wasteNo radioactive waste or harmful gases
EfficiencyLower than fusionHigher than fission

Conclusion

Nuclear Fusion has the potential to revolutionize clean energy. Although practical implementation is decades away, recent breakthroughs bring hope. For UPSC aspirants, understanding fusion vs. fission, tokamak, and India’s initiatives is vital from Science & Tech, Environment, and Current Affairs perspectives.

Space Tourism

by

Last Updated: June 2025 (Space Tourism)

Space Tourism

This article deals with ‘Space Tourism‘. This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology, which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

What is Space Tourism?

Space Tourism
  • Space Tourism is the commercial activity of sending private individuals, not just astronauts, into space for leisure, adventure, or research purposes. It’s like going on a unique trip, but instead of visiting a new city or country, you’re travelling beyond Earth.
  • Space begins at an altitude of 100 km (62 miles) above Earth’s surface, known as the Kármán line. At this point, the atmosphere becomes too thin to provide sufficient lift for an aircraft to stay aloft. Beyond this altitude, an object must achieve orbital velocity to avoid falling back to Earth.
  • The global space tourism market size is estimated at USD 851.4 million in 2023.

Important Development

  • FRAM2 Polar Mission (2025): SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rocket took 4 commercial Astronauts to orbit Earth from Pole to Pole.
  • Polaris Mission (2024): Billionaire Jared Isaacman conducted first Private Spacewalk. Mission was conducted by Polaris Mission.

Companies involved in Space Tourism

Virgin GalacticPublic traded company founded by Richard Branson.
Blue OriginPrivately held company of Jeff Bezos. It has built Spacecraft named New Shepherd.
SpaceXPrivately held company of Elon Musk.
Other companiesXCOR Aerospace and Armadillo Aerospace

Why is Interest in Space Tourism Growing?

  • Decline in the Cost of Space Tourism: The cost of a space trip has dropped significantly, from $600,000 to $250,000. It is expected to decrease further to $2,000 per kilogram in the coming years.
  • Technological Advancements: A major technological advancement is the development of suborbital reusable launch vehicles, which has made such projects feasible.
  • International Interest in Space Tourism: Nation States are increasingly supporting private sector participation in space (which wasn’t the case earlier)
  • Development of Space Accommodations: In June 2019, NASA announced plans to allow private citizens to fly to the ISS for short visits. Many private entities are also developing hotels in space for tourists’ stay, like Orion Span, which has announced a plan to build the world’s first luxury hotel in space named Aurora. 

Issues with these developments

  • Legal Ambiguity: No international space law has defined the term ‘space tourist’. Existing space treaties, such as the Outer Space Treaty and the Rescue Agreement, are only applicable to astronauts.
  • Unclear Passenger Liability: International treaties and conventions are aimed at regulating the signatory states and are bereft of provisions to handle the liability of private entities in space.
  • Ethical issues: Many health risks associated with space flight are still not well understood, and very little research has been done on medical consequences of such flights on the health of participants.
  • Environmental Impact
    • Rockets emit gaseous and solid pollutants directly into the upper atmosphere. Studies show rocket launches may lead to ozone layer depletion, especially above the Arctic.
    • Debris from spacecraft re-entry also poses an environmental threat.

Additional Resources

G7 and India

by

Last Updated: G7 and India (June 2025)

G7 and India

This article deals with ‘G7 and India – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘International Relations’, which is an important pillar of the GS-2 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

The G7 is an informal forum of 7 leading industrialized nations, which dominate global trade and the international financial system.  These 7 nations are

  1. UK
  2. Canada
  3. France
  4. Germany
  5. Italy
  6. Japan
  7. The USA
G7 and India

The European Union (EU) also participates in G7 summits but is not a formal member. Occasionally, other countries, including India, are invited as guest participants.

Notably, the G7 lacks a permanent secretariat or a formal legal charter. It is an informal consultative platform.

Note: It was previously known as G8. But Russia was expelled after the Annexation of Crimea.

History

The G7 traces its origin to 1975, when the leaders of six industrialised countries (excluding Canada) met in response to the OPEC oil crisis and ensuing global recession.

  • 1976: Canada joined, forming the G7.
  • In 1998, Russia joined the group in the post-Cold War era, forming the G8.
  • 2014: Russia was expelled due to the Crimea annexation; the group reverted to the G7.

The group originally focused on macroeconomic issues, but the G7 gradually broadened its agenda to include:

  1. International Security
  2. Climate Change
  3. Counter-terrorism
  4. Health and Education
  5. Human Rights and Development

Latest Summit (2025 – Canada)

  • Host: Canada
  • Venue: Kananaskis, Alberta
  • India’s Participation: India has been invited to every G7 Summit since 2019, underscoring its growing global stature. Although initial hesitation was noted, Canada eventually extended an invitation to Prime Minister Narendra Modi.

Significance of the Group

Economic Significance

  • Represents ~40% of global GDP
  • Home to ~10% of the global population

Political and Diplomatic Power

  • The meeting of the G7 brings together major liberal democracies, creating a powerful bloc that influences global political discourse

Climate and Sustainable Development Leadership

  • G7 countries are at the forefront of climate negotiations and financing green transitions.

Importance of the G7 for India

Global Recognition

  • Regular invitations signal India’s growing influence in global governance and diplomacy.

Counter China

  • Close security cooperation with G-7 countries can counter Chinese expansionism in the Indian Ocean.

Economic and Developmental Gains

  • Cooperation with G7 countries opens avenues for advanced technology transfers, digital economy partnerships, and innovation in critical sectors like AI, clean energy, and healthcare.

Support for Multilateral Reform

  • India leverages the G7 platform to advocate for reforms in institutions like the UN Security Council, WTO, and IMF, to make them more representative.

Bilateral Engagements

  • G7 Summits provide opportunities for high-level interactions with major powers such as the US, UK, France, and Japan, bolstering bilateral ties.

Humanitarian Assistance and Development Aid

  • The G7 is one of the largest sources of Official Development Assistance (ODA) to developing countries.

Barter System

by

Last Updated: March 2025 (Barter System )

Barter System

This article deals with ‘Money.’ This is part of our series on ‘Economics’, which is an important pillar of the GS-2 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

Imagine a world without cash, credit cards, or digital payments. Long before money existed, people relied on the barter system—a simple way to trade goods or services directly. E.g., 

  • A farmer might swap 1 kg of rice for 200 grams of tomatoes.
  • A gardener could trade 1 kg of tomatoes for 50 grams of almonds.

Problems with Barter System

  • Double-Coincidence of Wants: It can happen only with a ’Double-Coincidence of Wants’ i.e. both people want exactly what the other has. For example, If you grow apples and want oranges, you must find someone with oranges who also wants apples. If they want bananas instead, no deal!
  • Search Cost or the Cost of Transaction is High: Finding the right trading partner could take hours, days, or even weeks. For example, a potter wanting bread might roam the village searching for a baker who needs pots. 
  • Don’t favour Division of Labour / Specialization: Due to the above problems, all persons will try to become Jack of all trades but master of  none. 
  • Don’t favour Industrialization: Industrialists will have to find a large supply line with every person having a double coincidence of wants.  
  • Don’t favour Concentration of Wealth: Since all the wealth is perishable. E.g., one can’t store tomatoes for an extended period.
  • The Problem of Divisibility of Value: In Barter System, you cannot always divide the value to buy whatever you want. 
  • Not always Fungible: In Fungible items, division & mutual substitution is possible, e.g. Gold Bars, Currency Notes & Coins. But barter goods are not always fungible. E.g., if a diamond is cut into smaller pieces, the summation of all the smaller parts will not be equal to one bigger diamond. Hence, diamond isn’t fungible.

Concept of Fungible
Barter System

Benefits of Barter System

  • Barter System promotes Joint Family 
  • Food Inflation is  lower in Barter Economy compared to Money Economy.

Mesolithic Age

by

Last Updated: Feb 2025 (Mesolithic Age)

Mesolithic Age

This article deals with ‘Mesolithic Age’ . This is part of our series on ‘Ancient History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here.

What is Mesolithic Age?

Mesolithic is a transitional stage between Palaeolithic and Neolithic, falling between hunting-gathering and food-producing societies. 

Relative Chronology

  • In the Indian Subcontinent, the Mesolithic period can be placed between 10,000 BP and 5,000 BP.
  • It is also known as Epipalaeolithic. For a time, the Mesolithic was not considered a separate phase as it is perceived as a transition phase between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic.
  • Outside the Indian Subcontinent, the Mesolithic Phase is often absent, with cultures transitioning directly from Palaeolithic to Neolithic.
  • Among the prehistoric periods, it is the shortest phase.

Tools

  • At the end of the Pleistocene and the start of the Holocene, a major shift was observed in the toolkit of prehistoric people. They started using very small tools known as Microliths.
  • Mesolithic tools are known as Microliths because they are tools of very small stones. Microliths range in length from under 1 cm to 5 cm.
Mesolithic Age
  • Some of these tools are miniature versions of Palaeolithic tools like burins, points, and scrapers. But tools in regular geometric shapes, like crescents, triangles, lunates etc., also came to the scene.
Examples of Mesolithic Tools
  • For the first time, we find bone tools as part of the Mesolithic tool kit.
  • For the first time, we also find composite tools, i.e. tools hafted, singly or in large numbers, onto wooden or bone handles to make spearheads, arrowheads, sickles, etc.
Composite Tools using Microliths

Climate

  • Around 10,000 years Before Present, the climate changed to the Holocene from Pleistocene.
  • The characteristics of the Holocene include
    1. Warm and wet climate
    1. More space was available for human habitation (as ice melted)
    2. Availability of new resources like new crops (in wild form) and small and swift animals (fit for human consumption).
    3. Expansion of forests and grasslands into previously arid areas
    4. Human groups became highly mobile and began to occupy various ecozones.

Subsistence Pattern

During Mesolithic Phase

  • Hunting and scavenging continued
  • Food gathering continued
  • Fishing as a subsistence strategy started
  • Domestication of animals started
  • People used fire and perhaps roasted food.

Settlement Pattern

  • The period saw the spread of settlements to new ecological niches. There were many sites in the Ganga Valley and lesser sites in Peninsular India. This was the result of
    • An increase in population due to favourable environmental conditions
    • Due to smaller tools, they require stones in small amounts, which they get using various transport channels.
  • Some evidence of artificial habitational structures associated with the Mesolithic Age has been found in Belan Valley. However, the evidence is indirect, as the structures have not survived.

Burials

  • This period saw the beginning of the Burial System.
  • Grave goods were also placed in the burials.
  • Double burials, i.e. a man and a woman were buried together, have also been found.

Sites

Mesolithic sites in India include

Other developments

  • Population Growth: The population started to increase, mainly due to increased resources.
  • Pottery is absent at most sites except Langhnaj in Gujarat & Kaimur Region in Mirzapur (UP).

Mesolithic Art

Portable Art

Mesolithic people created small and easily movable objects with artistic or decorative significance. These included

  1. Engraved bones found at Bhimbetka
  2. Human teeth with geometric marks on it 
  3. Hole in teeth, possibly to be used as pendants or amulets.
  4. Ostrich shell with designs on it  

Paintings

  • Famous Sites: Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh) is the most famous and extensively studied site of Mesolithic rock paintings. Mesolithic paintings are also found in Ezuthu Guha (Kerala) and various sites in Odisha.
  • Material Used:
    • Colours were created by grinding minerals found in the region (like Ochre, Charcoal, etc.)
    • Brush was made out of squirrel tail and animal fur.
  • Things shown in the painting include
    • Animals like leopards, tigers, panthers, and rhinoceroses dominate the scene.   
    • Hunting scenes depicting both individual and group hunting activities.
    • Women are depicted as gathering and preparing food. 

Palaeolithic Age

by

Last Updated: Feb 2025 (Palaeolithic Age)

Palaeolithic Age

This article deals with ‘Palaeolithic Age’ . This is part of our series on ‘Ancient History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here.

Classifying Indian Stone Age

  • In the 19th Century, a three-age system was used, which is based on the idea that the age of stone tools was followed by Bronze & then Iron.   
  • The next step was to identify changes within the Stone Age.  
  • Indian stone age can be divided into
    • Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age): 2 Million Years (MYA) to 10,000 Before Present (BP)  
    • Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age)  
    • Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)

Relative Chronology of Palaeolithic Age

Palaeolithic Age
  • It is the oldest part of the human past. It ranges from 2 Million Years Ago (MYA) to 10,000 BP in India.
  • Broadly, Palaeolithic age can be further divided into Lower, Middle & Upper Palaeolithic ages.
    • Lower Palaeolithic Age: 2 MYA to 1,00,000 Before Present (BP)
    • Middle Palaeolithic Age: 1,00,000 Before Present (BP) to  40,000 Before Present (BP)
    • Upper  Palaeolithic Age: 40,000 Before Present (BP) to 10,000 Before Present (BP)
  • However, there is a great deal of variation in the dates for different sites.

Sources

Sources of Palaeolithic Age
  • Ethnographic Studies: Ethnographic studies of modern Hunter-Gatherers to observe and study their behaviours, tools, and lifestyle and get insights into subsistence strategies, social structures, and use of natural resources during the Palaeolithic period. Ethnographic studies are to be used cautiously as their interaction with modern societies might have significantly changed their strategies.
  • Archaeology: Animal bones and fossils, stone tools, bone tools, rock paintings and artefacts
  • Study of Human Genes: Study of Mitochondrial DNA (mt-DNA) provides information on pre-historic migrations.

Tools Associated

The division into 3 sub-phases is based on the differences in the tools

  1. Lower Palaeolithic: Used tools known as ‘Core Tools’ like Chopper Tools, Hand Axes and Cleavers
  2. Middle Palaeolithic: Used tools known as Flakes
  3. Upper Palaeolithic: More sophisticated tools called blades and burins were used

These tools were used for hunting, butchering, skinning the animals, recovering tubers and plant foods and processing the food. This can be ascertained by microwave analysis as tools develop different wear marks when they are used for specific purposes.

Notes 

  • Tools were made at sites known as Factory Sites. These are generally located close to the sources of raw materials.
  • The oldest tools in the Indian subcontinent are found in Riwat in the Soan or Sohan river basin (now in Pakistan). It is known as Sohan or Soan Industry.
  • For the first time, the Palaeolithic tools were found in Pallavaram (near Chennai in Tamil Nadu) by Sir Robert Bruce Foote in 1863. They are known as Madrasian Industry.

Climate

  • All three phases of the Palaeolithic Age are associated with the Pleistocene (or Ice Age).
  • The characteristics of this age were
    1. Cold and dry climate
    2. Most parts of the earth were not fit for human habitation
  • However, there were alternate phases of glaciation and inter-glaciation.
  • About 10,000 years ago, the Pleistocene era gave way to the Holocene era (which continues to the present day), and climatic patterns that exist today came into being.

Human Species

The evolution of the human species was observed

  1. Lower Palaeolithic: Homo Erectus
  2. Middle Palaeolithic: Homo Sapiens
  3. Upper Palaeolithic: Homo Sapiens Sapiens (Modern Man)

Note:  Human ancestors are likely to have first evolved in Africa and later migrated to different parts of the world. The earliest human ancestor species to migrate out of Africa was the Homo Erectus.

Band Society

  • Palaeolithic societies consisted of what is known as Band Societies.
  • Key features of Band Societies include
    • Very Small Groups (typically between 20-50 persons)
    • Flexible Membership that allows for adaptability based on environmental and social needs.
  • Band societies were egalitarian, with only two kinds of social units.
    • Families: Foraging activities were performed by the family
    • Bands: Hunting of large game involved a group of males from several families. Membership of groups changed from hunt to hunt.
  • There was no formal, permanent or hereditary leadership – the leader was either
    • A Skilled Hunter acted as a leader during the hunt.
    • Elders led while giving advice or informal guidance due to their experience.
  • Resources, such as food or land, were not privately owned.  

Subsistence

  • Hunting-Gathering: Palaeolithic societies depended on wild plants and animals for sustenance.
  • Whatever was collected or hunted was consumed immediately. The absence of surplus resources meant these societies operated on a subsistence economy.
  • Division of Labour: There was a division of labour based on gender roles
    • Men = Hunters (of Animals)
    • Women = Gatherers (of edible plants, fruits, nuts, roots, and seeds)

Settlement Patterns

  • They were spread all over the subcontinent except valleys of Ganga and Indus, coastal areas and north-eastern India. Heavy rainfall, uncongenial conditions and lack of raw materials might have prevented the occupation of these areas. Or perhaps there was no necessity for the pre-historic people to move into these areas.
Palaeolithic Sites
  • Palaeolithic people lived in open air and shelters made of rocks, grass, leaves or reeds.
  • Occupation sites could be
    • Continuous:  Bhimbetka & Hunsgi give evidence of continuous occupation
    • Temporary sites where people came, lived for some part of the year & moved on.

Totemistic Beliefs

  • Totemism refers to the belief system in which specific plants, animals, or objects are considered sacred or spiritually significant and often regarded as protectors.
  • Totemistic beliefs existed among Palaeolithic communities.

Palaeolithic Arts

The Palaeolithic period marks the beginning of the history of art. Examples of Palaeolithic art include

  • Bhimbetka Paintings: Bhimbetka (40 km from Bhopal) is the most important place where most paintings are found. It has about eight hundred rock shelters, five hundred of which have paintings.
Bhimbetka Paintings
  • Animal Teeth as Ornaments: Animal teeth with grooves have been found in Kurnool cave, suggesting they were attached to strings and worn as adornments.
  • Engraved Ostrich Eggshells: A piece of ostrich eggshell engraved with crisscross designs has been found in Ken River Basin, Patne and Bhimbetka
Ostrich Craft by Palaeolithic People