Geography

A semi-conductor is a substance characterized by its capacity to carry a small electrical current. The essential criterion for a semi-conductor is that it should neither be an excellent conductor of electricity nor a poor conductor; instead, it falls in between these extremes.

Semiconductors function by virtue of an electron imbalance. This imbalance of electrons generates positive charges (WHERE THERE ARE EXCESS PROTONS) and negative charges (WHERE THERE ARE EXCESS ELECTRONS) at two ends of surfaces of the semi-conductor material. 

Due to this helpful characteristic, it is used in the following industries

Research and Development Centers

• Proximity to leading research and development institutions and universities focusing on technology and engineering is crucial.

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Skilled Workforce

• The availability of a highly skilled workforce specializing in electrical engineering, materials science, and related fields is essential.

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Infrastructure and Connectivity

• Robust infrastructure, including reliable power supply, advanced production facilities, etc., is a vital factor in determining the location of the Semiconductor industry.

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Access to Capital

• The availability of large capital is essential as a semiconductor requires significant investments in research, development, and production facilities.

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Government Support and Incentives

• Supportive government policies, tax incentives, and grants can attract semiconductor companies to a specific location. 

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Intellectual Property Protection

• Strong legal frameworks and intellectual property protection contribute to a conducive business environment for semiconductor companies. 

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Cluster Effect

• An established semiconductor industry cluster can attract more companies to a specific location. Clusters promote collaboration, knowledge exchange, and the development of specialized supply chains.

Taiwan

• Taiwan, specifically Hsinchu Science Park, is the largest semi-conductor producer, producing almost 60% of the global semi-conductors. Taiwan Semi-conductor Manufacturing Corporation (TSMC) is the largest producer of semi-conductors in the world. 
• The island nation benefits from a robust industrial ecosystem, government support, and proximity to major Asian markets.
• Additionally, the Taiwanese government has actively supported the semiconductor industry through policies and investments.

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The USA 

• The USA is the second most significant producer. 
• The US is home to Silicon Valley in California, a global technology and semi-conductor innovation hub. 
• It benefits from a well-developed infrastructure, large market, skilled workforce, and proximity to research institutions.

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South Korea

• With companies like Samsung, South Korea is a significant player in semiconductor production. 

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China 

• China has been aggressively investing in its semiconductor industry. 
• Government policies, access to a large consumer market, and technological advancements contribute to China’s presence in the industry.

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Japan

• With companies like Toshiba and Renesas, Japan has a long history in semiconductor manufacturing.
• A robust industrial base and a focus on high-tech manufacturing contribute to Japan’s position in the semiconductor industry.

Historically, India has heavily depended on semi-conductor imports from Taiwan and Hong Kong to meet its growing demand for electronic goods.

The Indian Government has recognized the strategic importance of the semi-conductor industry and has taken steps to encourage its growth.

Why Should India Invest in the Semi-Conductor Industry?

1. Save Forex and Earn Revenue: Investing in semi-conductor manufacturing in India will diminish reliance on imported semi-conductors for domestic companies and generate revenue through exports to global markets. This strategic move could position India as a key global hub for electronic goods, fostering job creation and attracting investments from top multinational firms.
2. Meeting Escalating Demand: The surge in digitization, coupled with advancements in intelligent computing and the rise of artificial intelligence (AI), has led to an unprecedented demand for semi-conductors and chipsets.  
3. Self-Sufficiency (Atma Nirbhar): Establishing a semi-conductor industry in India would contribute to the nation’s self-sufficiency, addressing the challenges of supply chain disruptions witnessed during the COVID-19 pandemic.  
4. Multiplier Effect: Developing indigenous semi-conductor manufacturing capabilities will create a positive ripple effect on related industries.

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Initiatives to promote Semi-Conductor Manufacturing in India

• Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme for IT Hardware and Semi-Conductors: The Government is giving incentives on goods manufactured in India. 
• Semicon India Program: The Government is providing financial support to companies who are investing in the development of the semi-conductor ecosystem, such as fabrication (fab), research, design and testing facilities. For example,
  • Semiconductor Fab: Dholera
  • Assembly Testing, Marking and Packaging Facility: Morigaon (Assam), Sanad (Gujarat)
• Design Linked-Incentive Scheme: The Government provides financial support of 50%  of eligible expenditure on the design, subject to a ceiling of ₹15 crores per applicant.
• Semiconductor Manufacturing Incentive Policy: Indian government to provide subsidies worth $15 billion to promote manufacturing of Semiconductors in India.
• India Semiconductor Mission: It is a business division within Digital India Corporation to develop vibrant display and semiconductor ecosystem.
• National Policy on Electronics, 2019: The policy aims to make India a global hub for designing and manufacturing Electronics Systems, including Chipsets.
• Foreign Direct Investment: 100% FDI in the semi-conductor industry is allowed via Automatic Route.
• Collaborations and Partnerships: The government is signing MoUs with various countries to invest in the Indian semi-conductor industry. For example, Israel has signed a MoU to invest 22,000 cr. 

Due to the above initiatives, various projects are coming up in India. One worth mentioning is Tata’s commercial fabrication plant, which is in partnership with the Taiwanese firm PSMC and costs above Rs. 91,000 crore.

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Challenges faced in manufacturing Semi Conductors

• Complex Value
  Chain: The
  semi-conductor value chain has three major components: Design,
  Fabrication, and Assembly and Testing. These processes are very expensive
  as they are highly dependent on R&D and Intellectual Property
  protection.     
• Massive
  Investment: Semi-conductor
  manufacturing is a complex, capital and technology intensive process.
  Semi-conductor Fabrication facility requires many expensive devices.
  Estimates put the cost of building a new fabrication facility (fab) over
  one billion dollars. 
• Lack of
  Skilled Workforce:
  Insufficient skilled labour poses a challenge for semi-conductor
  companies; India falls short of meeting this crucial requirement.
• Requirement
  of very specific Raw Materials: Apart from Silicon, numerous types of chemicals
  & gases are involved in semi-conductor fabrication that are not till
  now available in India.  
• Lack of
  uninterrupted Power and Water Supply: Manufacturing a single semi-conductor chip requires
  thousands of gallons of pure water and an uninterrupted power supply.
• Global
  Competition: It
  is also difficult to compete with Taiwan and China, which, due to better
  cost-efficiency and first mover advantage, have become the favoured
  destinations for global chip manufacturers. 

Proximity to Markets

• Detroit in the USA has a huge automobile industry due to its proximity to the U.S. consumer market.

Supply Chain

• Building a vehicle requires numerous components ( like steel, rubber, plastic, paint, cables etc.). Hence, an efficient supply chain is important in deciding where to locate the automobile industry. E.g., Germany’s automotive industry benefits from a well-developed infrastructure and efficient supply chain networks for building automobiles. 

Skilled Labour and Talent Pool

• Stuttgart (Germany) is home to major automotive companies benefitting from a talented pool of engineers and workers.
• Similarly, the Gurgaon-Manesar Belt (Haryana, India) has attracted automotive manufacturing due to the availability of skilled labour.

Government Policies and Incentives

• The Mexican government’s pro-business policies and trade agreements have attracted automakers to set up plants in Mexico.

Research and Development Centers

• Silicon Valley in the USA and Bengaluru in India have attracted electric and autonomous vehicles due to R&D centres in these regions. 

• Transport: Located on the banks of the Detroit River and linked to Lake Huron, the geographical positioning of the city of Detroit provides a vital connection to the expansive Great Lakes waterway system, facilitating the cost-effective movement of goods and materials.
• Labour: In the 19th century, Detroit saw the emergence of floor mills utilizing running water and the adoption of internal combustion engines for boats. It led to the establishment of numerous repair shops, fostering the development of generations of skilled labour.
• Entrepreneurs: Two iconic figures stand out in the narrative of Detroit’s entrepreneurial spirit: William Durant (founder of GM) and Henry Ford (founder of Ford Motors).
• Raw Material: Detroit’s proximity to Pittsburgh, a major steel-producing centre, ensured a steady steel supply. Additionally, the region has numerous intermediate industries providing components, such as seat cushions, spray paint, tires, and electronic circuits.

• Andaman & Nicobar Island group is situated in the Bay of Bengal. 
• It runs like a narrow chain in the north-south direction extending between 6.39°N to 14.34°N.
• The main islands under the Andaman and Nicobar Island group are
  1. North Andaman
  2. Middle Andaman
  3. South Andaman
  4. Little Andaman
  5. Car Nicobar
  6. Little Nicobar
  7. Great Nicobar

India’s southernmost point, Indira Point or Pygmalion Point, is situated here on the Great Nicobar Island.

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Nature of Islands

• The Andaman and Nicobar Islands were formed as a result of tectonic interactions between the Eurasian and Indo-Australian Plate. The Indo-Australian Plate started subducting beneath the Eurasian Plate in the Andaman Sea. As a result, volcanic activity occurs, leading to the formation of volcanic island arcs.
• Structurally, we can say that
  1. Andaman: Extension of the Arakan Yoma mountain range of Myanmar, i.e. submerged mountains  
  2. Nicobar: Extension of Mentawai islands to the southeast of Sumatra 
• The region continues to be seismically active, with occasional earthquakes and volcanic activity, reflecting the ongoing tectonic processes in the area.
• Some islands are fringed with coral reefs as well. 

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Some Important Channels

10 Degrees Channel	Separates Andaman from the Nicobar group of Islands
Coco Channel	Separates Coco Islands (of Myanmar) from Andaman Islands (India)
Grand Channel	Separates Great Nicobar from Sumatra (Indonesia)

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Volcanoes in this region

There are two important volcanoes situated in this region

Barren Island	It is an active volcano situated east of the Andaman Islands
Narcondam Island	It is a dormant volcano situated east of the Andaman Islands

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Change in names

The government has changed the names of some of the islands of the Andaman and Nicobar groups of Islands to reflect Indian history. These are

Ross Island	Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose Dweep
Neil Island	Shaheed Dweep
Havelock Island	Swaraj Dweep
Mount Harriet	Mount Manipur (As several Manipuri soldiers, including Maharaja  Kulachandra Dhwaja Singh of Manipur, were deported here after the Anglo-Manipur War of 1891)

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Polity

• Andaman and Nicobar are Union Territories of the Indian Union administered by the President through the Governor.
• Its High Court is situated in Kolkata.
• Capital Port Blair is situated on the South Andaman Island.

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Tribes of Andaman and Nicobar

4 major tribes of Andaman are as follows (all are Negrito Tribes)

Sentinelese	– It is found on North Sentinel Island (part of the North Andaman region). Only 50 to 100 members of this tribe are alive today. – Sentinelese are pre-Neolithic people who have lived here for more than 55,000 years without contact with the outside world. They still avoid any outside contact and came in the news in 2018 when an American Christian Missionary named Chau was trying to enter their territory.
Great Andamanese	– It is found on Strait Island, part of North and Middle Andaman Island.  – Fewer than 50 Great Andamanese are alive today.
Jarawa	– Jarawas are found on South & Middle Andaman islands.  – There are 300 to 400 Jarawas alive today.
Onge	– Onge are found on Little Andaman.  – Fewer than 100 Onges are alive today.

2 major tribes of Nicobar are ( (all are Mongoloid Tribes)

Shompen	Shompen resides on the Nicobar Islands.
Nicobarese	Nicobarese resides on the Nicobar Islands.

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Importance of Andaman & Nicobar

Strategic  Importance

• Securing Sea Lines of Communication (SLOC): These islands are important in
  securing busy Sea Lines of Communications (SLOC) by creating a series of
  chokepoints.
• Overseas
  Strait of Malacca: Andaman and Nicobar Islands can choke Chinese supplies in
  case of war.
• Net Security
  Provider: India
  can utilize the strategic location of these islands to act as a ‘net
  security provider’ in the region and promote stability in the Indo-Pacific
  region.

Economic Importance

• Exclusive
  Economic Zone (EEZ): Nearly 30% of India’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is
  derived from the maritime boundaries around these islands.
• Fisheries
  Potential: The
  rich marine biodiversity surrounding the islands provides significant
  fisheries potential.
• Tourism
  Potential: The
  scenic beauty, diverse ecosystems, and historical significance make these
  islands a prime tourist destination.

Historical Importance

• Cellular Jail
  (Kala Pani): Freedom
  fighters were imprisoned here during the colonial era, and the jail
  remains a testament to the sacrifices made for the nation’s freedom.
• Azad Hind
  Fauj Headquarters: During World War II, the Azad Hind Fauj, led by Netaji
  Subhas Chandra Bose, had its headquarters in the Andaman and Nicobar
  Islands.

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Side Topic: Great Nicobar Island Development Project

• The government has sanctioned
  a Rs 72,000 crore development project for Great Nicobar.
• It is strategically important
  due to its equidistance from Klang, Colombo and Singapore and its position
  in the vicinity of the East-West international shipping corridor.

• Lakshadweep group of islands are situated in the Arabian Sea 
• It is a group of 36 islands. But 4 islands are most important, which includes
  1. Amini 
  2. Kavaratti 
  3. Minicoy
  4. Agatti

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Structure

• These islands are part of Reunion Vulcanism. The base of the islands is provided by volcanic lava.
• The entire Lakshadweep islands are made up of Coral Deposits.

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Some Important Channel

8 Degree channel	Separates Minicoy from Maldives
9 Degree channel	Separates Minicoy from the main Lakshadweep archipelago

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Population

• The population of these islands is 60,650, with a Muslim majority. But Minicoy has a Christian majority.
• The entire indigenous population of the islands is Scheduled tribe, but tribes aren’t named.
• The majority of people speak Malayalam (except in Minicoy, where people use Mahl written in Divehi script (same as Maldives)

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Polity

• These islands were earlier known as Lacadive, Minicoy and Amindivi Islands. The name Lakshadweep was adopted in 1973
• Lakshadweep Islands is a UT under the administered control of Lt. Governor.
• Kavaratti is the administrative capital of Lakshadweep
• It is under the jurisdiction of Ernakulam High Court 

a. Sriharikota Island

• It is located in Andhra Pradesh between the Bay of Bengal and Pulicat Lake. 
• Sriharikota is one of ISRO’s satellite launching stations.

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b. Wheeler Island / Abdul Kalam Island

• It is located off the coast of Odisha.
• It serves as a missile testing site.

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c. Pamban Island

• It is situated in the Gulf of Mannar between India and Sri Lanka . 
• This island is covered with white sand.

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d. Majauli Island

• It is located in Assam. 
• It is a riverine island situated in the Brahmaputra River. It is the largest riverine island in the world.
• The island is under severe ecological threat due to extensive soil erosion of its banks.
• It is home to Assamese neo-Vaishnavite culture.

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e. Diu Island

• It is located on the coast of Kathiawar.
• It is famous for the historical Diu Fort (built by the Portuguese) and beautiful beaches.
• Note: Daman is not an island. 

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f. Sagar Island

• It is located in the Ganga Delta in the Bay of Bengal.
• It is an important place for Hindu pilgrimage.

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g.  Phumdis / Floating Islands

• They are located in Manipur 
• It is part of Keibul Lamjao National Park.
• It is famous for Sangai (breed of Deer)

• Raw Material: The hides and skin of cows, goats, sheep, and buffaloes serve as the primary raw materials for the leather industry. India, being one of the largest producers of livestock, provides a substantial supply of raw hides and skins.
• Water: Water is a vital component in the tanning process, where raw hides are treated to become leather. Tanneries are often established near rivers or lakes to ensure a continuous and sufficient water supply. For instance, tanneries in Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, utilize the water from the Ganges River.   
• Labour Availability: The leather industry is labour-intensive, involving various stages like cleaning, dyeing, cutting, and stitching. It requires huge numbers of skilled and unskilled labourers.
• Concentrated Demand: The presence of a concentrated demand for leather products, both domestically and internationally, plays a crucial role in shaping the leather industry. 

• Historical Factor: The rich history of Mughal patronage in the region played a significant role in developing leather craftsmanship in UP.
• Water Availability: Major leather centres like Kanpur are strategically located along the banks of the Ganga River. 
• Demand: 
  • UP is one of the most populous regions in India. The high population density creates a consistent demand for leather products like footwear.
  • UP has a well-developed sports industry, and leather is an essential material used in sports equipment manufacturing—for instance, cricket balls and footballs.
  • The proximity of UP to Haryana, a state with a robust automobile industry, creates a leather market for car seats and interiors. 
• Government Policies: Supportive government policies, subsidies, and initiatives have encouraged entrepreneurs and investors to establish and expand leather-related businesses in UP. 

• Historical Reasons: During World War II, the soaring demand for army boots and belts acted as a catalyst for the leather industry in West Bengal. Consequently, Bata has also set up their plant in West Bengal at the place now known as Batanagar (in 24 South Pargana)  
• Cheap Labour: West Bengal and its neighbouring states, such as Bihar, provide a vast pool of skilled and unskilled workers at competitive wages.
• Fresh Water: West Bengal benefits from the presence of the Hugli River, providing a consistent and ample supply of fresh water required for leather manufacturing
• Market
• Domestic Demand: West Bengal, a populous state with a growing economy, offers a robust domestic market for leather products. 
• Port Facilities: West Bengal has strategic ports such as Kolkata Port and Haldia Port. These ports facilitate the export of leather products to international markets.

Inadequate Supply of Hide and Low Hide Quality:

• Cultural Factors: In India, cattle are considered sacred and a source of wealth. Unlike the US and other Western countries, Indians do not sell their cattle for slaughter.
• Laws on Cow Slaughter: Several states have imposed bans on beef and cow slaughter, negatively impacting the leather industry.
• Right-Wing Vigilantism: Right-wing vigilantism frequently harms people from castes involved in flaying, leading many to abandon the profession, causing difficulties when cattle die and need to be flayed.
• Poor Quality Hide: Flaying, considered polluting work, is done by lower caste individuals without proper scientific equipment, resulting in lower hide quality.

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Problems with Tanning:

• Tanning Pollution: Tanning, done with Chromium salt and sulfides, pollutes rivers when untreated wastewater is dumped, rendering the water unsuitable for drinking and commercial purposes.

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Competition from China:

• During the 1980s and 90s, the US leather industry moved to China due to strict environmental laws, enabling China to acquire US technology and capital.

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The dominance of MSMEs

• In India, Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) dominate the leather sector, making it challenging to compete with global players.

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Lower Demand:

• Religious Considerations: Religious beliefs in India affect leather usage, leading to lower demand for leather products.
• Climatic Conditions: Warm weather makes leather jackets and garments unsuitable, affecting demand.
• Price Consciousness: Indian consumers prefer cheaper synthetic substitutes due to price consciousness.

India is the major producer of jute, along with Bangladesh. China and Pakistan are other notable producers.

• Bangladesh: Bangladesh is the world’s largest producer of jute. The jute industry is a vital sector of their economy, employing millions.
• India:
  • West Bengal: The majority of India’s jute mills are concentrated in West Bengal 
  • Andhra Pradesh: Andhra Pradesh also has a significant jute industry.
• China: China also has a notable jute industry, with mills in cities like Nantong and Qingdao.
• Pakistan: Pakistan has a smaller but significant jute industry, mainly centred around cities like Karachi and Lahore.

• Raw material: The majority of jute is cultivated in West Bengal. The favourable climate and soil conditions in this region are ideal for jute cultivation.
• Energy: Proximity to coal mines in Raniganj and Jharia provides a stable energy source for jute processing.
• Water: Jute processing requires substantial amounts of water. The Hooghly River (a distributary of the Ganges) in West Bengal ensures a reliable and abundant water supply for the jute mills.
• Cheap Labour: West Bengal, along with states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, provides a large pool of skilled and unskilled labour at relatively low wages.
• Capital: Kolkata, the capital of West Bengal, had well-established banking and financial facilities during the British colonial period. 

• Geographical Disadvantages: After partition, jute mills remained in India while the prime jute-producing regions ended up in Bangladesh.
• Intense Competition from Bangladesh: Bangladesh adopted modern technology in jute production, thus reducing production costs and making their products more competitive in the global market.
• Labour Union Problems: Frequent strikes and disputes in jute mills hindered regular operations, affecting overall productivity.
• Competition from Synthetic Packing: The growing usage of synthetic materials for packaging has decreased the demand for jute products.
• Lack of Marketing Strategy for Eco-Friendly Appeal: There are insufficient efforts in promoting jute as an eco-friendly and biodegradable material in international markets.

Major wool producers include 

Australia

• Australia is the largest wool producer.
• Australian Merino sheep are renowned for their fine wool quality.

New Zealand 

• New Zealand is another prominent wool-producing nation.
• New Zealand wool is valued for its softness.

South Africa

• The country has a substantial sheep farming industry.
• South African wool is recognized for its durability.

Argentina

• Argentina, particularly the interior and rain shadow areas of Patagonia, is a significant wool producer.

• Climate: Temperate and semi-arid conditions are conducive to sheep farming and wool production.
• Abundant Grazing Land: Vast expanses of grasslands and grazing areas are conducive for sheep farming activities.
• Sheep Breeds: Specialized sheep breeds, like Merino sheep in Australia, have been developed over the years to produce high-quality wool efficiently.
• Traditional Livelihood: Sheep farming has been a traditional livelihood in regions like Australia, New Zealand, Patagonia (Argentina), etc., and passed down through generations.

During the Industrial Revolution, Yorkshire emerged as a significant hub for woollen textile production due to:

• Abundant local supply of wool
• Access to water from nearby streams
• Availability of coal for powering machines

However, the Yorkshire woolen industry declined. It can be attributed to:

• The commencement of large-scale sheep rearing in the South Hemisphere (SH) made it challenging for Yorkshire to compete in terms of pricing.
• Introduction of cheaper synthetic fabrics, which the Yorkshire industry couldn’t compete with.

As a consequence, the industry in Yorkshire suffered, leading to its downfall. Yorkshire’s woolen industry still uses imported wool from the South Hemisphere, but it has lost its former glory.

Factors influencing Woolen Industry in India

• Nature of Raw Material: The location of raw material sources is not crucial as wool is non-perishable and lightweight.
• Market Conditions: Winters in Northern India are extremely cold, fostering a high demand for woolen products. Approximately 75% of the woolen industry is concentrated in the northern states.

Important Note

1. Apparels: Imported wool is preferred due to the coarseness of Indian wool, which can cause discomfort.
2. Non-Apparels: Indian wool is utilized for making carpets and blankets.

Major centres in India

Near Raw Material

J&K	Srinagar
Punjab	Ludhiana, Dhariwal, Amritsar
Gujarat	Jamnagar (raw material from Kathiawar)
Rajasthan	Bikaner & Barmer

Near Market

J&K	Srinagar
Punjab	Ludhiana, Dhariwal, Amritsar
Kanpur	1870: Woollen textile setup to meet requirement of British Indian army
Mumbai & Chennai	They mostly utilize imported wool for making apparels

• Cheap Labour: Historically and even in contemporary times, the silk industry heavily relies on cheap skilled labour, particularly women, due to their dexterity and precision required in the delicate process of silk production. Cheaper labour reduces production costs significantly, making it economically viable for manufacturers.
• Proximity to Mulberry Farms: Silk-producing units are often located near mulberry farms to reduce transportation costs and ensure a constant supply of leaves for the silkworms.
• Climatic Conditions: Silkworms require a specific temperature range for their growth and cocoon formation. Regions with moderate temperatures and high humidity are conducive to sericulture. Extreme cold or hot climates are unsuitable.
• Well-Drained Soil: Silkworms are susceptible to diseases in waterlogged soil. 
• Water Availability: The silk industry requires a significant amount of water, both for mulberry cultivation and for the rearing of silkworms.  
• Government Support: Government policies, subsidies, and incentives play a vital role in the growth of the silk industry.  
• Transportation and Connectivity: Good transportation infrastructure, including roads, railways, and ports, facilitates the movement of raw silk and finished products. Well-connected regions have a competitive advantage.

India is home to various types of silk, including Mulberry, Tasar, Oak Tasar, Eri, and Muga. Among these varieties, Mulberry silk dominates, constituting 74% of the total silk production.

Major Producers include

Mulberry Silk	Mainly in Southern states 1. Karnataka 2. Tamil Nadu 3. Andhra Pradesh
Non-Mulberry Silk	1. Jharkhand 2. Chhattisgarh 3. Odisha 4. North East

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Importance of Silk Industry in India?

• Women-Friendly Occupation: The Silk Industry in India is a women-friendly occupation, with women consisting of more than 60% of the total workforce.  
• Ideal for upliftment of Weaker Sections in Rural Areas: This industry is an ideal program for weaker sections in rural areas due to its low capital intensity and short gestation period.
• Eco-friendly activity: As a perennial crop with good foliage and root spread, Mulberry contributes to soil conservation. Waste from silkworm rearing can be recycled as inputs to the garden.
• Fulfil equity concerns: As end-product users are mostly from the higher economic groups, the money flows from high-end groups to low-end groups. 
• Export Potential: India’s Silk Industry has significant export potential, allowing the country to earn foreign currency.  

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Challenges faced by Indian Silk Industry

1. Decreased Export Revenue: The Indian Silk Industry has been grappling with a decline in export earnings, primarily caused by the global recession and diminished demand for silk products in Western nations.
2. Intense Price Competition: Intensified price competition due to the incorporation of low-cost Chinese silk or artificial/synthetic silk yarns has forced natural silk traders to resort to distress sales to remain competitive.
3. Reduction in Cultivated Area: The cultivation of mulberry silk has suffered due to a consistent reduction in the area of mulberry cultivation.  

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India is a leading producer. WHY?

• Raw Material: India’s leading silk production is facilitated by the cultivation of mulberry plants. These plants can be grown on any soil type, including hill slopes and have a high tolerance for drought conditions.
• Labour: Sericulture does not demand hard physical labour. Silkworms, the critical players in silk production, can be reared by individuals, especially women and older people, making them an ideal source of supplementary income for households.
• Low Capital Requirement: Sericulture requires minimal capital investment. This affordability enables tribals and impoverished sections to engage in silk production, boosting their economic prospects.  
• High Demand: In India, the demand for silk consistently exceeds the domestic supply. This demand-supply gap necessitates the import of silk to meet the market requirements.

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Karnataka has a well-developed Silk industry. WHY?

Karnataka’s thriving silk industry has prospered due to several factors. 

Raw Material:

• Mulberry thrives in Karnataka’s climate, making it readily available for sericulture.
• Karnataka utilizes the Bombax variety of silkworms, which can be reared throughout the year with a high yield.

Water Supply:

• Karnataka benefits from an abundant supply of soft water, which is crucial for silk production.  

Labour Force:

• Women play a significant role in rearing silk worms, contributing to the labor force involved in silk production.

Capital Investment:

• During World War II, capitalists in Mysore accumulated substantial wealth, providing a financial boost to the silk industry.
• Mysore’s silk was in high demand for making parachutes, further driving economic growth in the region.

Technological Advancements:

• Karnataka benefits from the presence of the Central Silk Board located in Bangalore.

• China dominates global silk production, contributing approximately 80% of the total output. 
• India is another substantial producer, accounting for around 18% of the global silk production. 
• Countries like Japan, Brazil, Thailand, and Vietnam individually produce 0.5% or even less of the world’s silk supply.

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Why is China a leading producer?

China holds a prominent position as the leading silk producer due to several factors.

• Climate: China’s temperate and tropical climate provides an ideal environment for cultivating silk.
• Technology: Scientists have developed hybrid silk varieties with higher yields.  
• Labour: China has abundant & skilled labour.  
• Government Policy: Sericulture in China is organized through cooperatives, ensuring efficient production and distribution. 

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Japan was earlier a major producer but now produces less than 0.5%. 

Japan was once a significant producer, but currently, its silk production has declined drastically, accounting for less than 0.5% of the total output.

Labour:

• The industrial sector offers higher wages, leading to a scarcity of labour for sericulture.

Capital:

• Other sectors provide better returns on investment compared to silk production.

Lost Market:

• Traditional Japanese attire like kimonos are no longer widely worn by Japanese women, resulting in a diminished market for silk products. Kimonos are predominantly reserved for ceremonial occasions in contemporary Japan.

Entrepreneurship:

• An example is Koromo town, where the silk industry was in decline, and both land and labour were available at a low cost. Toyota seized this opportunity, purchased land in the area, and transformed it into an automobile manufacturing facility. 

Many factors have influenced the establishment of cotton and textile industries in India. 

1. Proximity to Raw Material: Unlike other industries where the weight or perishability of raw materials is a critical concern, cotton and textile industries benefit from the fact that cotton is relatively lightweight and non-perishable. Therefore, being in immediate proximity to the source of raw cotton is less important than in some other industries.
2. Proximity to Market: Given the importance of market demand in dictating the type of cloth to be produced, a significant consideration is the proximity to the consumer markets. Being close to the market facilitates efficient distribution and reduces transportation costs.
3. Water Availability: The textile industry involves processes like dyeing and bleaching that require substantial amounts of water. Consequently, the availability of water bodies such as rivers and lakes plays a role in industry location. 
4. Energy Availability: Cotton and textile production requires a considerable amount of energy, particularly in processes like spinning, weaving, and finishing. 
5. Labour Supply: Textile production involves intricate processes that require skilled workers, and a region with an ample labour pool can provide a competitive advantage.
6. Capital and Finance: Access to financial resources can facilitate expansions, modernization, and technological advancements.
7. Climate: Climate considerations are also relevant. Dry climates can lead to thread breakages during textile production. Historically, this led to the preference of coastal areas with higher humidity for textile industry setup. However, technological advancements, such as artificial humidifiers, have diminished the climate-related constraints on industry location.

At present, the trend is to locate industry at or close to markets, as the market decides what kind of cloth is to be produced. 

Cotton Industry in Ancient & Medieval India 

• The cotton textile sector has been integral to India’s traditional industries. Across the globe, India held a renowned reputation for crafting muslin, an exceedingly delicate form of cotton fabric, along with calicos, chintz, and various other superior cotton textiles.
• The development of the textile industry in India stemmed from many factors. 
  1. Firstly, the nation’s tropical climate made cotton the optimal fabric, providing a large market. 
  2. Secondly, India has abundant raw materials due to the substantial cultivation of cotton.
  3. The country possessed an abundant reserve of skilled labour necessary for this industry.

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During the Colonial Era

• Initially, the British didn’t foster the growth of the native cotton textile sector. They shipped raw cotton to their mills in Manchester and Liverpool, then imported the finished goods back to India. These products were more affordable due to mass production in British factories.
• In 1854, the first modern cotton mill was set up in Mumbai. The city had various advantages as a hub for cotton textile manufacturing:
  • It was situated close to Gujarat and Maharashtra, key cotton-producing regions.  
  • Mumbai’s status as a financial centre provided access to the necessary capital for industrial initiation.
  • Its urban nature attracted a substantial labour force, ensuring a readily available pool of affordable workers.
  • The machinery required for cotton textile mills could be directly imported from England.
• Subsequently, Ahmedabad saw the establishment of two more mills, namely the Shahpur Mill and the Calico Mill.
• By 1947, the total number of mills in India rose to 423. However, this situation changed after the partition, leading to a significant downturn in the industry. This was because most of the prime cotton-producing areas were now in West Pakistan, leaving India with 409 mills and only 29% of the previous cotton-producing territory.

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After Independence 

• After Independence, this industry gradually recovered and eventually flourished.
• Production of cotton cloth has increased almost five times since Independence. Cotton textile has been facing tough competition from synthetic cloth.

India’s Cotton and Textile industries are vital to the nation’s economic landscape, owing to their multifaceted significance and widespread impact.

1. Backward Linkage with the Agriculture Sector
2. Employs 4.5 crore individuals
3. Approximately 12% of the nation’s total exports are comprised of textiles and textile products.
4. Rural Development: Cotton cultivation and subsequent processing through the textile value chain often occurs in rural areas. As a result, the growth of these industries contributes to rural development.

• Fierce International Competition: The industry faces fierce competition from countries like Bangladesh, Vietnam, and Ethiopia, which enjoy Duty-Free Access or have signed Free Trade Agreements with major markets such as the EU and USA. This advantage puts Indian textiles at a disadvantage in terms of pricing and market access.
• Most Indian mills are small-scale operations, preventing them from achieving the economies of scale enjoyed by larger competitors.
• Mechanization vs Job Dilemma: The Indian industry is caught in a dilemma regarding mechanization. While mechanization can enhance productivity, it also threatens traditional jobs. Balancing technological advancement with employment opportunities is a critical challenge. 
• Competition from synthetic textiles:  The rise of synthetic textiles has further intensified the struggle for market share. Synthetic textiles often offer cost advantages and versatility.
• Cotton Farmers under stress: Indian Cotton Farmers face immense stress due to various factors, including the monopolization of seeds by a few major corporations and the introduction of genetically modified crops like BT Cotton.

The foundation of the cotton and textile industry lies in cotton cultivation. Cotton is primarily grown in regions with favourable climatic and soil conditions. Significant producers of cotton include 

1. United States: Cotton is grown in southern states like Texas and Mississippi
2. India: Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh 
3. China: Northwest regions, particularly Xinjiang
4. Pakistan: Sindh and Punjab provinces contribute significantly to Pakistan’s cotton production
5. Brazil: Mato Grosso region  

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After cotton is harvested, it goes through a series of processing stages. Major cotton processing centres are concentrated in:

1. United States: Southern states like North Carolina.
2. India: Textile Mills are concentrated in Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu  
3. China: Coastal regions like Shanghai, Zhejiang, and Jiangsu  
4. Pakistan: Karachi, Faisalabad, and Lahore  
5. Brazil: São Paulo and Santa Catarina

The textile industry in Manchester and Lancashire has a rich history that witnessed remarkable growth during colonial times but declined significantly after World War II. 

Rise during Colonial Times

1. Favourable Climate: Manchester and Lancashire’s location was advantageous due to the moist Westerlies, providing high humidity levels and preventing threads from breaking during manufacturing.
2. Abundant Raw Materials: Cheap cotton was available from its colonies, such as India and Egypt.
3. Strategic Transportation: The proximity of Liverpool as a major port city facilitated the import of raw materials and the export of finished products.
4. Quality Water Sources: Streams from the Pennine hills provided soft water, ideal for dyeing and bleaching.
5. Abundant Energy: The availability of coal from Northern England and Wales served as a reliable source of energy.
6. Expansive Market: The demand for textiles in Europe And the massive market in British colonies provided a market for the finished product. 

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Decline after World War II

The decline of the Textile industry after World War II can be attributed to the following factors.

1. Loss of Colonies: Post-World War II, the loss of colonies meant that the dirt-cheap raw materials(cotton) from India and Egypt were no longer readily available. 
2. Competition from Other Nations: Emerging players like Japan entered the global textile market with cheaper production methods.

Various factors contribute to the thriving cotton industry in China, with a major concentration in the bustling city of Shanghai. 

• Favourable Climate: Shanghai is a port city with a humid climate. This humidity is crucial in the cotton industry as threads are less likely to break during production.
• Raw Material:  The Yangtze-Kiang Delta, where Shanghai is located, is fertile ground for cotton cultivation. 
• Transport: Shanghai benefits from its status as a port city, offering easy access to international markets. Additionally, the city is well-connected by rail and road networks, facilitating the movement of raw materials and finished products.
• Water and Energy: The Yangtze River not only serves as a transportation route but also provides a source of water and energy. Access to water resources is crucial for textile industries. Furthermore, the river can be harnessed for hydroelectric power.
• Labour: With a large population, Shanghai has a pool of skilled workers who contribute to the manufacturing process.
• Market: Within 1000 nautical miles, major markets like Kobe, Taiwan, South Korea, and Hong Kong are accessible, facilitating international trade. Moreover, within China, cities like Nantong, Wuhan, and Chongqing, connected via the Yangtze River, create a robust domestic market. 

Other centres in China include Hwang-Ho Valley, Sichuan, Nanjing, Beijing, etc.        

1. Raw material

• The sucrose content in sugarcane starts to decrease as time passes after harvesting, making it imperative for the sugar to be extracted within 24 hours to achieve better recovery. As a result, the ideal location for sugar mills would be close to the sugarcane fields to minimize transportation time and maximize sucrose content preservation.

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2. Weight loss

• The weight loss of sugarcane during processing is significant, with sugar accounting for around 10% of the total bulky sugarcane. This high weight loss further underscores the importance of situating sugar mills near the source of raw material, as it reduces transportation costs and logistical challenges associated with moving large quantities of sugarcane over long distances.

Sugar Mill

The core unit of the Sugar Industry is the sugar mill, a facility where sugarcane undergoes a series of processes to yield various forms of sugar products.

Input	Sugarcane
Process	Sugar juice + boiling =brown sugar
output	Raw Coarse Brown Sugar, Bagasse and Molasses
Location Principle	Regarding the location of sugar mills, they are strategically placed in close proximity to sugar-farming areas to minimize the transportation costs of raw sugarcane. This proximity ensures freshly harvested sugarcane can be quickly transported to the mill for processing, minimizing transportation time and maximizing sucrose content preservation. E.g. in Uttar Pradesh, Maharahstra, South Gujarat.

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Sugar Refinery

Sugar Refinery transforms the raw coarse brown sugar obtained from sugar mills into refined sugars of various grades, including brown and white sugars.

Input	Raw Coarse Brown Sugar (from sugar mill)
Process	Raw Sugar is refined
output	Brown and White sugars of various grades.
Location Principle	Sugar refineries are strategically located near their target markets. By situating the refineries close to major urban centres or food processing industries, the sugar industry can effectively supply its products to various sectors of the economy, including food and beverage production, confectionery, and other consumer goods.

Sugar production is primarily concentrated in two distinct regions: Louisiana and Hawaii.

Louisiana

• Subtropical climate is conducive to sugarcane cultivation. 
• Earlier, cheap labour was available. Later, they invested in automated harvesting machines and precision agriculture techniques. 

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Hawaii

• Hawaii’s islands’ volcanic soils are suitable for sugarcane cultivation.
• Historically, Hawaii’s sugar industry relied heavily on immigrant labour, including Japanese, Chinese, Filipino, and Portuguese workers. Later, they invested in Mechanized methods like combine harvesters and automated irrigation systems. 

Soil and Climate

• Soil is favourable for sugarcane cultivation
• Wet Climate favours sugarcane plantations.

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Labour

• Indentured labourers played a crucial role in establishing and sustaining the sugar industry in these island nations.  

• In India, the sugar industry holds significant prominence as it leads the world in the production of both sugarcane and cane sugar. 
• Besides, khandasari and gur or jaggery are also prepared from sugarcane. 
• This industry directly employs 4 lakh persons.
• Development of the industry on modern lines dates back to 1903 when a sugar mill was started in Bihar. Subsequently, sugar mills were started in other parts of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. In 1950-51, 139 factories were in operation. The number of sugar factories rose to 662 in 2010-11.

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Concentration of Sugar Mills in India

The sugar industry in India is geographically diverse, with various regions contributing significantly to its production. 

Maharashtra

• Maharashtra stands out as the largest sugar producer, accounting for over one-third of the country’s total output. 
• The sugar industry in Maharashtra is concentrated in the following regions 
  1. Western Maharashtra’s river valleys
  2. Sangli, Solapur and Satara
  3. Ahmadnagar, Pune and Nasik

Uttar Pradesh

• Uttar Pradesh is the second-largest sugar producer in India. 
• The sugar industry in Maharashtra is concentrated in the following regions 
  1. Western UP and Terai region
  2. Meerut, Moradabad and Muzaffarnagar
  3. Sitapur, Gorakhpur and Saharanpur

Tamil Nadu

• Tamil Nadu’s presence in the sugar industry is notable, with Coimbatore and Tiruchirapalli as key centres of production.

Karnataka

• In Karnataka, Chitradurga and Shimoga are instrumental in contributing to the state’s sugar output. 

Andhra Pradesh

• Andhra Pradesh’s sugar industry is prominent around cities like Hyderabad and Nizamabad.

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Sugar Mills are concentrated in Maharashtra?

The concentration of sugar mills in Maharashtra, India, can be attributed to a combination of various favourable factors 

1. Favourable Climate 
   • The warm climate supports better yield, and Maharashtra benefits from the abundant sunlight and warmth. 
   • The proximity to the ocean further enhances the sugarcane growth, as the minimal temperature fluctuations between day and night increase sugar yield and sugar content within the cane.
2. Soil: Lava soil in the region enhances fertility and water retention capabilities. This soil characteristic proves beneficial for sugarcane growth.
3. Energy: Mills use bagasse as fuel ( and is not a deciding factor in the case of the Sugar industry)
4. Transport: The transport infrastructure, specifically the presence of Mumbai Port, plays a crucial role in facilitating exports.
5. Labour: The transport infrastructure, specifically the presence of Mumbai Port, plays a crucial role in facilitating exports.

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Sugar Mills are concentrated in UP?

The sugar industry in India has a significant concentration of sugar mills in the state of Uttar Pradesh (UP). Various factors have influenced this geographical concentration. 

1. Soil Composition: The presence of potash and lime in the soil of Uttar Pradesh provides a favourable environment for sugarcane growth. 
2. Abundant Water Resources: The state of Uttar Pradesh is blessed with major rivers like the Ganga and Yamuna, along with their numerous tributaries. 
3. Energy Efficiency: Sugar mills in Uttar Pradesh have adopted an eco-friendly approach by utilizing bagasse, a by-product of sugarcane processing, as a renewable energy source.
4. Well-Connected Transportation Network: The dense road network in Uttar Pradesh and its flat terrain facilitate easy sugarcane transportation from farms to mills.
5.  Seasonal and Migratory Labour: The availability of seasonal and migratory labour in Uttar Pradesh helps maintain lower production costs. 
6. Large Domestic Market: With its substantial population, Uttar Pradesh boasts a large domestic market that exhibits a consistent demand for various sugar products like gur, khandsari, and sugar itself. 
7. Government Intervention: Regulatory measures, subsidies, and price support mechanisms impact the industry’s economic dynamics and stability

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Sugar Industry: North vs South

When comparing the sugar industries in North and South India, it’s intriguing to note that despite the favourable climatic conditions for sugarcane growth in the southern regions due to the absence of extreme heat, frost, and the moderating influence of the sea, the northern part of the country has a greater concentration of sugar industry. This phenomenon can be attributed to historical, economic, and agricultural factors.

1. Historical Factors: During the British colonial period, the northern regions of India were known for cultivating indigo, a plant used for producing natural dyes. However, with the advent of synthetic dyes, the demand for natural indigo diminished, leading many farmers in the North to seek alternative crops. Sugarcane emerged as a viable substitute due to its potential for sugar production. 
2. Other Options Available: Despite the climatic advantages in the South, farmers in those regions have better options for cultivating cash crops. Cash crops like cotton, tobacco, and coconut are well-suited to the southern climate and soil conditions.
3. In the North, the historical presence of sugar mills and the availability of infrastructure might have facilitated the growth of the sugar industry.

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Problems Faced by the Sugar Industry in India 

• Problem with State Advised Price (SAP): Due to political considerations, SAP is kept high, making sugarcane the most attractive crop to grow (due to this, it is grown even in drought-prone regions like Maharashtra). As a result, sugar mills are forced to pay high prices, culminating in high arrears to farmers. 
• Low Yield of Sugarcane: Per hectare, sugarcane productivity is low in India compared to global standards. For instance, productivity in India is 64.5 tons/hectare compared to Java – 90 tons/hectare & Hawaii – 120 tons/hectare.
• Mismatch between Sugar and sugarcane prices: The government tries to keep sugar prices low (to get the votes of consumers) but sugarcane prices high (to get the votes of farmers). As a result, sugar mills suffer losses. 
• Over-Regulation: 
  • The sugar industry is an over-regulated industry. Every sugar mill is allocated a command area, and the mill is bound to purchase sugarcane grown in that area. Sugarcane farmers can sell their sugarcane only in designated mills. 
  • State governments fix the quotas for different end uses of molasses and restrict their movement outside the state. 
  • Some states have even restricted the selling of power generated from bagasse outside the state. 
• Old and obsolete machinery: Most of the machinery used in Indian mills, particularly in UP and Bihar, is old and obsolete, being 50-60 years old