Geography

• Copper is essential for the electric industry.
• Due to the increase in demand,  new mining & smelting techniques have developed.

Uses of Copper

Stages of Copper Refining

• First stage, i.e. Concentration: In this process, we get blister copper using the froth floatation method, which is 2.5% of the original quantity. Hence, concentration is done near the mine.
• Second Stage: Blister Copper is 99% pure but can’t be used as such. Refining of Blister Copper is done using electrolysis. In this process, weight loss is just 1%. Hence, electricity is the deciding factor in this stage. 

1. Availability of Copper Deposits:  Regions with abundant copper ore reserves have a competitive advantage. For example, 
   • Malanjkhand copper deposit in Madhya Pradesh is one of India’s largest copper deposits, leading to the establishment of the Malanjkhand Copper Project.
   • Khetri Copper Complex in Rajasthan is strategically located near the Khetri mines, a major copper ore source.
2. Power Supply: Reliable and affordable power supply is essential for copper smelting and refining processes. Areas with access to sufficient electricity, preferably with a stable grid, are preferred. 
3. Infrastructure and Transportation: Adequate infrastructure, including transportation networks, is crucial for the copper industry. The Tuticorin Port in Tamil Nadu is an important hub for copper imports and exports, providing a favourable location for copper-related industries in the region.
4. Skilled Labor Force: A skilled labour force with expertise in mining, metallurgy, engineering, and related fields is crucial for the copper industry.
5. Government Policies and Incentives: Favorable government policies, like tax incentives, subsidies etc., can attract copper industries to specific locations.
6. Market Access: Proximity to domestic and international markets is important for copper industries. 

1. Chile

• Chile is the world’s largest copper producer, accounting for a significant portion of the global copper supply. The country’s vast copper deposits are mainly located in the Atacama Desert.

 2. Zaire and Zambia

• Zaire and Zambia, both African nations, possessed significant copper ore reserves and established refineries to process the raw material into valuable copper products. In an effort to exert more control over their natural resources and economic sectors, the governments of Zaire and Zambia chose to nationalize these refineries. 
• However, the nationalization of the copper refineries did not go as planned, and the refineries began to face financial struggles, turning into loss-making ventures due to mismanagement, lack of expertise, and changing market dynamics.

3. China

• China is a significant player in both copper production and consumption. Major copper-producing provinces in China include Jiangxi, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang.

4. Australia

• Australia has substantial copper resources and availability of cheap electricity.

5. Indonesia

• Indonesia is a major copper producer, with its Grasberg mine being one of the world’s largest copper and gold mines.

6. USA

• The Copper industry was concentrated around the states of Utah, Montana, and Arizona (UMA). These states are known for their historical significance in copper mining and refining. 
• However, the landscape of the industry in the UMA region started to shift due to factors such as rising costs of electricity, legal requirements to curb sulfur dioxide emissions necessitating expensive upgrades and Foreign competitors offering increased competition.

7. Canada

• Canada has copper production primarily in provinces such as British Columbia and Ontario.

8. Russia

• Russia’s copper operations are concentrated in regions like the Ural Mountains and Siberia.

9. Mexico

• Mexico’s copper production is centred in areas like Sonora and Zacatecas.

• Lithium is the lightest solid metal. 
• It is mainly produced from hard rock or brine mines.
• Major Lithium Ores include
  1. Spodumene: Primary source of Lithium which contains high concentrations of Lithium (between 3% to 7.6%)
  2. Petalite: Another important Lithium ore.

Lithium Batteries

• Lithium Batteries or Lithium-ion Batteries is the primary use of Lithium due to their use in electric vehicles, smartphones, tablets, laptops etc. Lithium-ion batteries are popular as they have high energy density, long lifespan, and lightweight nature.

Other Minor Uses

• Heat-resistant glass and ceramics
• Lithium Grease Lubricants: These can withstand high temperatures
• Flux additives for iron, steel and aluminium production
• Optics
• Thermonuclear Weapons
• Coolant in Nuclear Processes: Lithium has the highest specific heat capacity of all the solids
• Fuel for Rocket Propellants: Complex hydrides of Lithium such as Li[AlH4] 

• Australia: It is the world’s biggest supplier, which produces it from hard rock mines. 
• Lithium Triangle: The Lithium Triangle consists of Lithium rich region in Argentina, Bolivia and Chile.
  1. Chile: It is the second-largest producer of Lithium. Salar de Atacama is very rich in Lithium.
  2. Argentina: It is found in the salt flats of Salinas Grandes and Hombre Muerto.
  3. Bolivia: It is found in the brine deposits of Salar de Uyuni.
• China: China’s Tibet, Qinghai, and Sichuan are rich in Lithium.
• Canada: In Canada, Quebec is rich in Lithium.
• United States: Nevada, North Carolina, and California have Lithium deposits.

• National Mission on Transformative Mobility: To encourage domestic Lithium-Ion Cell manufacturing and EV components. 
• ISRO and BHEL Agreement: To develop low-cost lithium-ion batteries. 
• India’s first lithium cell plant manufacturing facility will be launched in Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh. 
• Strengthening relationship with Lithium Triangle Nations: India is focusing on ‘Lithium Triangle’ nations Argentina, Bolivia and Chile.

Raw Materials required in the Cement industry are

• Limestone: 60-65%
• Silica: 20-25%
• Alumina: 5-12%
• Slag from Steel plant 
• Slag from Fertiliser plant 
• Sea Shells

Availability of Raw Materials

• Limestone, clay, and gypsum are used in huge quantities in cement manufacturing. As a result, the cement industry is situated close to the raw resources. That’s why cement plants such as Ultratech Cement and Ambuja Cement are situated in Rajasthan (rich in limestone).

Infrastructure and Transportation

• The cement thus produced needs to be transported to the market. As cement is a heavy and bulky material, a well-developed network of roads, railways or ports (for exports) is required. 

Power Availability

• Cement manufacturing is an energy-intensive industry. Hence, the cement industry is located in regions with an adequate and cheap energy supply like coal, hydroelectricity, or renewable energy. 

Water Availability

• An ample water supply is required to manufacture cement for processes such as cooling. Hence, cement plants are situated near water sources, like rivers or lakes.

Government Policies

• Government policies and regulations can also influence the location of cement industries. Environmental regulations, tax benefits and subsidies can encourage or discourage the establishment of cement plants in that region.

Environmental Factors

• Air Pollution Regulations can affect the location of the cement industry. Since Cement is a polluting industry, it is not situated in states with strict air pollution requirements. 

Geological Considerations

• Geological factors, especially the quality and composition of limestone deposits, can influence the location decisions of cement plants. 

Major industrial houses in the Cement Industry in India include 

• UltraTech Cement
• ACC Limited (Headquartered in Mumbai)
• Ambuja Cement (Mainly Gujarat based)
• Shree Cement (Beawar (Rajasthan) based)
• Ramco Cement (Chennai based)
• Dalmia Bharat Cement (Tamil Nadu based)
• JK Cement

Ethical Governance is a corruption-free, moral and people-centric government.

People think that concept of Good Governance is modern. But they are wrong. Many times in past, scholars have conceptualized what constitutes good governance.

Kautilya

• Kautilya, in his Arthashastra, wrote, “In the happiness of subjects lies the happiness of king and in the welfare of subjects lies the welfare of king. ” Hence, he has written about Citizen-Centric Government.  
• Kautilya has also highlighted the corruption & given the concept of Kantakshodhana, i.e. king should purge those elements strictly. 

Gandhi’s Vision of Ramrajya

• The vision of Ramrajya, or the ideal state, involves Governance based on Moral Principles like nonviolence, truth, and righteousness. 
• Gandhi said that government which is not working in the people’s interest is morally corrupt. 
• Swaraj, i.e. Self Rule, is one of the pillars of his Ramrajya or Good Governance. 

Aristotle

He has divided the government into two parts 

• Perverted Government: Power is used in the interest of the ruling class
• Legitimate Government: Power is used in the public interest 

Rule of Law

• Rule of Law involves governance based upon rules and regulations 
• In modern times, these rules & regulations are codified in the country’s constitution and laws. 

People’s Participation

• Real democracy doesn’t just mean voting to elect government but the participation of people in governance itself. 
• The mechanism of people’s participation in contemporary times are

Consensus Orientation

• Consensus Orientation in governance involves seeking input from various individuals and groups affected by a decision or policy, aiming to reach a consensus that considers the diverse perspectives and interests involved.
• Ethical Governance is opposite to the ‘Winner takes All’ approach. 

Equity and Inclusiveness

• The distribution of resources should be based on the principle of equity so that different sections of society receive these resources based on their need
• Inclusiveness involves including weaker sections in decision-making.

Effective and Efficient

• Effective government achieves the targets in the stipulated time. 
• An efficient government is one which delivers maximum with minimum resources 

Accountable

• Discussed separately (CLICK HERE)

Transparent

• The literal meaning of Transparency is openness 
• Tools of Transparency include RTI, E-Governance etc.
• Dealt exclusively in a separate article (CLICK HERE)

Responsive

• A responsive government is one which positively responds to people’s demands, needs and aspirations in a timely manner.

For this, we need to take various steps in various fields

1. Political Structure

• Enforce expenditure limits on elections strictly 
• Bring Political Parties under RTI
• Remove excessive protection given to tainted politicians 

2. Statutory Structure

2nd Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) has given various recommendations in this regard

• Amend the Prevention of Corruption Act 
• Integrity Pacts – When Government Organisation signs any contract with a Private organization, sign integrity pacts stating that if Private Organisation is found involved in any wrongdoing, the contract will cancel automatically. 

3. Institutional Structure

• Strengthen and give more teeth to CVC, Lokpal, CBI etc.

4. Social Infrastructure

Take help of society in reducing corruption and increasing Ethical Governance

• Give Civic Education in Schools.  
• False Claims Act (USA): If you think there is wrongdoing in some organization, gather evidence & produce it before the court. If the fine is imposed on that organization, some portion of money from that fine will be given to the litigant. 
• Social Audit: Social Audit is the audit through client or beneficiary groups or civil society groups (i.e. stakeholders) to ensure the social accountability of an organization.

• Conventional: Conventional energy sources refer to the traditional methods of generating power that has been widely used for many years—E.g., Coal, Petroleum etc.
• Non-Conventional: Non-conventional sources of energy are energy resources that are not derived from traditional fossil fuels—E.g. Solar, Wind etc.

Types of Coal

1. Peat

• It has the highest percentage of moisture & gives more smoke.
• Carbon content is 40% (lowest).
• It represents the very first stage of coal formation. 

2. Lignite

• It is also known as Brown Coal and is superior to Peat.
• Under pressure & heat, with time, Peat converts to lignite.
• Carbon content is 40-60%.
• In India, it is found in Neyveli (Tamil Nadu) (largest deposit), Palana (Rajasthan), and Lakhimpur (Assam).

3. Bituminous

• It is also known as Black Coal.  
• It is dense, compact & black in colour.
• Carbon content is 60-80%.
• Almost 80% of Indian Coal is Bituminous. 
• It is found in Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal & Madhya Pradesh.

4. Anthracite

• It is known as Hard Coal.
• When buried deep, all moisture gets expelled & Anthracite coal is formed.
• Carbon content is 80-90%.
• It has a short flame & is the most expensive of all.
• In India, Anthracite coal is found only in Jammu and Kashmir (Kalakot).

Distribution of Coal in the World

1. China

• China has the largest reserves in the world (12%).
• Overwhelming concentrations are found around 
  • Hwang Ho river basin, particularly in Shansi
  • Manchurian coal fields 
  • Shantung Hupei fields

2. USA

• The USA has the second largest reserves in the world.
• Main coal regions
  • Appalachian Region
  • Arkansas Rocky Region
  • Illinois 
  • Indiana

3. Australia

• Australia has the fourth largest coal reserves, but they are substantially unexploited.
• Main regions
  1. Queensland
  2. Tasmania
  3. New South Wales
  4. Victoria

4. Russia

• Though coal reserves decreased after disintegration but have substantial reserves.
• Main coal regions
  1. Pechora coal basin
  2. Kuznetsk region
  3. Moscow-Tula region

5. Ukraine

• A substantial amount of coal reserves are found in Donetsk Basin.

6. Germany

• Germany is the largest coal producer in mainland Europe. 
• Main coal regions
  1. Ruhr Valley
  2. Saxony 
  3. Saar Basin

7. South Africa

• The main coal regions in South Africa include Transvaal, Cape Province, and New Castle.  

Indian Coal

• India has the third largest coal reserves in the world, but coal is of medium quality.
• India coal was not formed in the Carboniferous period. (Hence, it is not Anthracite)
• Most of the Indian Coal was formed in the Gondwana period. Hence, approx. 80% of Indian coal is Bituminous and non-coking grade.
• Since Indian Coal is of non-coking grade, it can’t be used as a reducing agent in metallurgical processes. Hence, coking coal is imported 
• Indian coal has low sulphur but high moisture. Thus it produces more smoke.

Formation of Indian Coal

Coal formation spans millions of years, involving the accumulation and transformation of organic matter. Globally, the formation of coal can be traced back to Carboniferous Period. But in India, most of the coal is from the Gondwana period. Coal formation begins with the accumulation of plant material in swamps and marshes to form peat. As more layers of plant material accumulated, the weight of the overlying sediment and the pressure from the Earth’s crust compressed the peat, gradually transforming it into coal, in the process known as coalification.

In India, Coal occurs in the rock sequences of two geological ages, i.e. Gondwana and Tertiary deposits.

1. Gondwana Coal

• It was formed 570-275 million years ago (due to in Damodar-Mahanadi Rift) 
• Most of the coal reserves in India consist of Gondwana coal.
• Gondwana coal is of Bituminous type.

2. Tertiary Coal

• Tertiary coal belongs to the Oligocene period (15 to 60 million years ago).
• 2% of coal reserves in India is of Tertiary coal
• Tertiary coal has low carbon content, in the range of 40-60%.
• The largest deposit of Tertiary coal is found in Neyveli in Tamil Nadu.

Indian Distribution

1. Bituminous Coal

2. Lignite Coal

3. Anthracite Coal

Only found in one place

Problems of Indian Coal 

• India doesn’t has high-grade coking coal. Hence, India depends on imports to meet domestic requirements.
• Regulatory challenges: A stricter regulatory framework for land acquisition, resettlement and rehabilitation, and environment management leads to a higher cost of compliance for access and extraction of coal.
• Good & low-grade coal are found together in Indian mines. Mining companies do selective mining & extract good coal, leaving bad coal behind. Selective mining is wasteful.
• India does open-cast mining—in contrast to underground mining worldwide. The open cast is cheaper but is associated with high pollution.
• Deep mining techniques used in India are primitive, leading to high causalities.
• Poor connectivity from coal mines to consumer locations via railways leads to a mismatch of demand and supply.
• Mining is primarily done by PSUs (Coal India). Their efficiency is low.  
• The poor financial state of DISCOMs: This has led to a financial challenge in the overall power sector. Several states, including Jharkhand and Maharashtra, have large outstanding dues to coal companies.

Petroleum is obtained from sedimentary rocks of Marine origin of the Tertiary period. 

Theory of Origin

• The origin of Petroleum & Natural gas is considered to be organic. Marine Living Organisms (like fish and microscopic plants and animals) got buried under accumulated sediments of crude mud, silt & sand and underwent a chemical change to form crude oil and natural gas due to high pressure & heat after millions of years. It is the reason why oil is found in many seabed. 
• The point to note is that where ever oil is found on land, that region must have been undersea in the geological history because that is the only way living organisms can be settled there and then pressurized to form oil. 
• E.g. the Middle East has enormous oil reserves because of the same reason. From 500-100 million years ago (MYA), large portions of the modern-day Middle East were submerged under a large, now non-existent sea called the Tethys Sea. Rivers feeding this ancient ocean saturated it with nutrients, giving rise to massive numbers of microscopic animals. They died & fell to the bottom of the sea, which was pressurized to form oil.

Some History

• The first oil well was constructed in the USA in 1859.
• In India, Petroleum was first discovered at Margherita (upper Assam) in 1860 by Assam Railway & Trading Company & then in Digboi in 1869.
• ONGC was established in 1956. Later, ONGC discovered oil in the Gulf of Khambat in 1961 & Bombay High in 1976.

Global Distribution

1. North America

2. South America

3. Europe

4. Asia

5. Africa

Indian Distribution

• Sedimentary rocks in which hydrocarbons are trapped often hold gas, which may be in association with crude oil or alone.
• It consists primarily of methane, which is lighter than air & toxic. It requires air-tight tanks for storage & similarly, leakproof pipes or trucks for transport, raising capital costs.

Global Distribution

Indian Distribution

• In India, natural gas is found along with oil reserves. India does not have exclusive natural gas reserves. 
• Oil & Natural gas Commission(ONGC) does the exploration of Natural Gas.
• According to the estimate, the total Natural Gas reserve is about 450 billion cubic metres.

• In India, potential Natural Gas sites in India are
  1. Bombay High
  2. Gujarat
  3. Assam
  4. KG Basin
  5. Kaveri Basin
• After 1990, production of natural gas increased phenomenally yet production falls short of demand,

• Shale oil, often known as “tight oil,” is found in lesser quantities and deeper than conventional crude reserves. Its extraction requires creating fractures in oil and gas-rich shale to release hydrocarbons through hydraulic fracking.
• Note: Shale is Sedimentary Rock 
• It is colourless, odourless & lighter than air.
• In India, potential Shale Gas reserves are in 
  1.  Cambay
  2. Gondwana 
  3. Krishna-Godavari (K-G) Basin  
  4. Cauvery Basin 
  5. Ganga Basin 
  6. Assam – Arakan Basin 
  7. Barmer Hill Formation (Rajasthan)

Two main sources of Uranium are Pitchblende (containing 50-80% Uranium) & Uraninite (containing 65-80% Uranium).

Naturally occurring Uranium is composed of

Global Distribution

Significant uranium deposits are found in

1. Kazakhstan
2. Canada (Athabasca Basin)
3. Australia
4. Niger
5. Namibia

Distribution in India

In India, Uranium is found in the following areas

India produces 2% of the total Uranium produced in the world. 

Important Note 

• Uranium Corporation of India Ltd. (UCIL) is responsible for mining uranium ore for commercial purposes.  
• Uranium mined by the UCIL is used for both weapons and civil nuclear programs. The imported Uranium is used for civil nuclear energy purposes only. 

Uranium Mining Issues 

• Uranium contamination of groundwater due to Mining
• Uranium deposits in India are primarily of low grade (less than 0.15% Uranium). 
• Problems with land acquisition
• Issues of rehabilitation and resettlement of affected persons

• In nature, there is more Thorium than Uranium. 
• Two primary sources of Thorium are Monazite sands & Allanite. 
• As such, Thorium found in Monazite is fertile but can be converted to fissile material Uranium.

Global Distribution

Significant uranium deposits are found in

1. Brazil
2. Australia
3. USA
4. Egypt

Distribution in India

• India has the largest reserve of Thorium in the world.
• Main reserves include 
  • Monazite beach sand in Kerala 
  • Found in Andhra (largest producer), Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Kerala and West Bengal

• Minerals containing one or more metallic elements are called metallic minerals.
• Metallic Minerals provide a strong base for the development of the metallurgical industry & hence the process of industrialization.

• Iron ore is the most critical mineral on which a nation’s economy hinges.
• In 2018, India became the 2nd largest producer of Steel in the world, following China.
• India has the largest reserve of iron ore in Asia.
• Haematite and Magnetite are the two primary varieties of iron ore found in our nation.
• Due to its superior quality, Indian iron ore is in high demand in the global market.
• In the country’s north-eastern plateau region, the iron ore mines are located adjacent to the coal fields, adding to their advantage. 

4 Main Ore Types

1. Magnetite

• It is also known as Black Ochre.
• It has a high iron content of up to 70%. 
• As the name suggests, it has magnetic properties. 
• The largest concentration of Magnetite is found in Sweden, Liberia & former USSR. It is found in India as well.
• It is used in Electronic industries. 

2. Haematite

• It is the industrially most important ore.
• It contains 50-65 % iron content 
• It is known as Red ochre. 
• The largest concentration of Haematite is found in the Lake Superior Region, Labrador & Quebec in Canada, Guinea Highlands in Venezuela, Brazil etc. & the Dharwarian & Singhbhum rocks of India.
• In India, it is found in the Chotanagpur Plateau region, Dharawar & Cuddapah systems of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu (Salem, Tiruchi) & Goa.
• The main use of Haematite is in the iron & steel industries. 

3. Limonite

• Limonite has less than 50% iron content.
• It is yellow in colour.
• It is used as pigment for paint manufacturing.

4. Siderite

• Siderite is the carbonate of iron. It is found interbedded in sedimentary rocks. 
• Iron content is 20-30%. Hence, it is economically unviable to extract.
• It acts as a source of Manganese & Magnesium.

Distribution in World

Distribution in India

The country’s total reserves of iron ore were about 20 billion tonnes in 2004-05. Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Karnataka, Andhra, Telangana, and Tamil Nadu contain over 95% of the country’s iron ore deposits.

1. Odisha

• Iron ore occurs in a series of hill ranges in Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj and Jhar. 
• Important mines are Gurumahisani, Sulaipet, Badampahar, Mayurbhanj, Kiruburu (Kendujhar) & Bonai (Sundergarh).

Details of Important Mines

2. Jharkhand

• There are some of the oldest iron ore mines & steel plants in this region. 
• The most important mines are Noamundi and Gua in Poorbi and Pashchimi Singhbhum districts. 

3. Chhattisgarh

Bailadila (Bastar) , Dalli Rajhara (Durg) & Dantewara are important mines in Chattisgarh

Details of Important Mines

4. Karnataka

In Karnataka, Iron ore is found in the following areas

• Sandur-Hospet area of Ballari/Bellary district.
• Baba Budan Hills and Kudremukh of Chikkamagaluru district.
• Parts of Shivamogga, Chitradurg & Tumakuru districts.

Details of Important Mines

5. Maharashtra

• Found in districts of Chandrapur, Bhandara and Ratnagiri. 

6. Telangana

• Found in Karimnagar and Warangal district.

7. Andhra Pradesh

• Found in Kurnool, Cuddapah and Anantapur districts. 

8. Tamil Nadu

• Found in Salem and Nilgiri districts. 

9. Goa

• Iron ore is found in North Goa. 
• Mormugao port provides an additional advantage from where Iron ore is exported to Iran & Japan.

• India is 5th largest producer of Manganese in the world.
• About 1/5 of Indian Manganese is exported mainly to Japan.

Uses

• Manganese is needed during iron forging. If Manganese is not added to iron, iron breaks. It makes steel anticorrosive, hard& tough.
• It is used to produce alloys by mixing with Copper, Bronze, Nickel etc.
• It is also used in manufacturing insecticides & pesticides, photography and dry battery.

Global Distribution

Distribution in India

Almost all geological formations include deposits of Manganese. However, it is mainly associated with the Dharwar system.

Note: Manganese was mined for the first time in Srikakulam (1892) in Andhra Pradesh.

• Copper is a soft brown metal found in igneous & metamorphic rocks.
• The main ores of Copper are Cuprite, Malachite, Chalcocite & Bornite.
• In the electrical industry, Copper is a crucial metal for producing cables, electric motors, transformers, and generators.
• It is alloyable, malleable and ductile and a good conductor of heat and electricity. Since gold is a soft metal, Copper is mixed with it to strengthen jewellery.
• The most important alloys of Copper include
  1. Brass: Alloy of Copper and Zinc
  2. Bronze: Alloy of Copper and Tin

Global Distribution

Distribution in India

Indian share in world production is 4%. India isn’t self-sufficient and imports Copper from Zimbabwe, Australia, USA & Mexico.

• Gold is known as the international currency.
• Properties: durable, doesn’t rust, luster, malleable & ductile. 
• It is used as an ornament as well as to mint coins (historically).

Global Distribution

Distribution in India

About 90% of production is from Karnataka & rest is from Rajasthan, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Bihar & Andhra Pradesh. Three important gold fields in India.

1. Karnataka

1.1 Kolar Gold Mines, Mysore

• Mining started here in 1871.
• It still contributes 60 % of the total production of the country.
• The mine is more than 3000 m deep, and almost all gold has been extracted.

1.2 Hutti Goldfield, Raichur dist.

• It is the only gold-producing company in India. 

2. Andhra Pradesh

• Ramgiri Goldfield and Anantapur.

3. Placer or Alluvial gold

• Gold is obtained from sand & sedimentary deposits of the river.
• It is found in the Subarnrekha river in Jharkhand &  Lo in the Singhbhum district of the Chotanagpur plateau.