Geography

• Indian Peninsula is traversed by a large number of rivers which have existed for a much longer period than the Himalayan rivers. As such, the peninsular rivers have reached a mature stage and almost reached the base level of erosion. 
• Due to the low gradient, the velocity and the load-carrying capacity of the river are low, and the rivers form big deltas at their mouths. It is especially observed in the east-flowing rivers pouring into the Bay of Bengal. 
• But the west-flowing rivers of Narmada and Tapi and those originating from the Western Ghats and emptying their water in the Arabian Sea form estuaries instead of deltas.
• Some of the rivers also have waterfalls. E.g., The Jog Falls on the Shravati (289 m), Sivasamandram on the Cauvery (101 m) and Dhuandar (15 m) on the Narmada 

• Geologists think of the Sahyadri-Aravali axis as the primary water divide in the past. 
• It assumes that the existing Indian Peninsula is the remaining part of a bigger landmass, with the Western Ghats located in the middle of the landmass dividing the entire drainage into two symmetrical parts – one flowing in the east and the other flowing in the west. But the western part of the Peninsula cracked and submerged in the Arabian Sea and disturbed the symmetrical plan of the rivers on either side of the watershed during the early Tertiary period.
• During the collision of the Indian plate, a second major distortion was introduced in the Peninsular block, and it was subjected to subsidence and consequent trough faulting through which now flow the main west-flowing Peninsular rivers, i.e. the Narmada and the Tapi. 

Although the general direction of flow of the Peninsular Rivers is from west to east, a careful study reveals at least three main directions of flow.

1. Cauvery, Krishna, Godavari, Mahanadi and several smaller rivers drain southeast into the Bay of Bengal.
2. Narmada, Tapi and several small streams originating from the Western Ghats flow westward into the Arabian Sea.
3.  Chambal, Betwa, Ken, Son, and Damodar (tributaries of Ganga and Yamuna) flow in a north-easterly direction.

Origin

• Western flanks of Amarkantak Plateau in Madhya Pradesh

Length

• 1310 Km (largest west-flowing river)

Flow

• After rising from the Amarkantak Plateau, it flows through the rift valley between Vindhya & Satpura ranges.
• For 1078 km, it flows through Madhya Pradesh. Later, it forms the boundary between Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh for 32 km and between Maharashtra and Gujarat for another 40 km. Finally, it meets the Gulf of Khambhat after travelling for 160 km in Gujarat, forming an estuary.
• There are several islands in the estuary formed by Narmada, of which Aliabet is the largest.
• Near Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh), the world-famous Dhuandhar Falls (15 m) lies on it.

Hydro Projects

• Various Hydro-projects like Indira Sagar, Sardar Sarovar, Omkareshwar, Bargi and Maheshwar have been constructed on it.

Origin

• Near Multai Reserve Forest in the Satpura Range (Madhya Pradesh)

Length

• 730 km (second largest west-flowing river)

Course of River

• Tapi originates from Multai Reserve Forest and flows through the plains of Vidharbha, Khandesh and Gujarat, passing through (large areas of) Maharashtra and (small parts of) Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. 
• It finally falls into the Gulf of Khambhat near Surat, making an estuary.
• Note: Almost the whole of its course is below Satpura.  
• Important industrial area of Surat (famous for the textile industry) and Nepanagar (famous for the paper and newsprint industry) lies in its basin. 
• It is also known as ‘The Twin or Handmaid of Narmada’. 

Hydro Projects

• Various Hydro-projects like Hathnur Dam, Girna Dam and Dahigam Weir (in Maharashtra) and Kakrapar Weir and Ukai Dam (in Gujarat) have been constructed on it.

Origin

• Vindhya Ranges

Length

• 533 Km

Course of River

• After rising from Vindhya Ranges, it flows through Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat and empties itself in the Gulf of Khambat.

Origin

• West of Ajmer in Aravalli Range

Length

• 482 km

Course of River

• It rises west of Ajmer from the Aravalli range and flows southward.
• It is unique as it flows through the Thar Desert.
• It is known as Sagarmati in the upper course.
• Near Govindgarh, it joins Sarsuti/Saraswati (which originates from Pushkar Lake), and from this confluence, it gets its proper name as the Luni.
• It is finally lost in Rann of Kachchh. 
• Note: River is named so because its water is brackish below Balotra.

• The Western Ghats are the source of about 600 small streams that run west and ultimately drain into the Arabian Sea. 
• The Western Ghats receive large rainfall from the southwest monsoons, large enough to feed many streams. Although it consists of 3% of the areal extent of the basins of India, they contain about 18% of the country’s water resources.
• The hydroelectric potential of these rivers is nearly 9500 MW, of which nearly 5500 MW is operational.
• Since these streams receive significant water from the monsoons, they drain excess rainwater to the Arabian Sea. Because of the relatively abundant water available in these rivers, some river water diversion programs have also been undertaken. E.g., 
  • Periyar (west-flowing) – Vaigai (east-flowing) diversion project was developed during the British period, shifting excessive water from Periyar to Vaigai. 
  • Kurnool-Cuddapah Canal, which was initially planned for irrigation as well as navigation 

6.1 Mandovi and Zuari (Goa)

• Mandovi (Mahadayi) and Zuari are the main rivers of Goa.
• Both originate in the Western Ghats.
• They finally fall into the Arabian Sea.
• Famous Dudhsagar Falls lies on the Mandovi River. 
• Currently, the Mahadayi river water dispute is going on between Goa, Karnataka and Maharashtra.

6.2 Kalinadi, Sahravati & Netravati (Karnataka)

• Kalinadi, Shravati and Netravati are the major rivers of Karnataka, which originate in the Western Ghats and fall into the Bay of Bengal.
• Among them, Shravati is famous for Jog Falls (Gerosoppa Falls), which lies on it.

6.3 Bharatpuzha, Periyar and Pamba (Kerala)

• Bharatpuzha, Periyar and Pamba are the main rivers of Kerala, originating in the Western Ghats.
• Periyar River is vital for agriculture and hydroelectric power.
• Pamba drains into Lake Vembanad.

Origin

• From Ranchi Plateau in Jharkhand

Length

• 395 km

Course of River

• After originating from Ranchi Plateau, it flows southeast and forms a boundary between West Bengal and Odisha.
• It has a large number of waterfalls on it as it leaves Peninsular Plateau.
• Finally, it joins the Bay of Bengal, forming an estuary. 

Origin

• Northern foothills of Dhankarnaya (Chhattisgarh).

Length

• 857 Km

Course of River

• The river originates in the foothills of Dandakaranya and then travels through a saucer-shaped basin called ‘Chhattisgarh Plain’. A number of hills surround this basin, and as a result, it is joined by many tributaries like Ib, Mand, Hasdo and Sheonath on the left bank and Ong, Tel and Jonk on the right bank.
• Later, it enters Odisha, where Hirakud Dam is built on it.
• It forms a gorge on reaching the eastern ghats and empties itself in the Bay of Bengal, forming a (birdfoot) delta. Bhubaneshwar is located on the apex of the Mahanadi delta.

Tributaries

• Left Bank:  Ib, Mand, Hasdo and Sheonath
• Right Bank: Ong, Tel and Jonk

Origin

• Trimbak Plateau of Western Ghats near Nashik (Maharashtra)

Length

• 1465 km (It is the largest Peninsular river and next only to Ganga and Indus Systems)

Other names

• Vridha Ganga
• Dakshin Ganga

Course of River

• From Trimbak Plateau, it flows eastwards till Nashik, from where it leaves the Western Ghats and opens up.
• Subsequently, it receives a large number of tributaries. These include right bank tributaries like Manjra and left bank tributaries like Penganga, Pranhita (Wardha and Wainganga join to form Pranhita), Indravati, Sabri & Sileru.
• After Maharashtra, the river enters Telangana and subsequently to Andhra Pradesh. In Andhra, the river divides itself into two streams, i.e. Gautami Godavari and Vashishta Godavari, before pouring into the Bay of Bengal, forming a delta characterised by a number of Paleochannels & Mangroves associated with lagoons.

Tributaries

A large number of tributaries.

Origin

• Western Ghats near Mahabaleshwar (Maharashtra)  

Length

• 1400 km (it is the second largest Peninsular river)

Course of River

• It rises in Mahabaleshwar, and after passing through Karnataka, it enters Andhra.
• Finally, it merges with the Bay of Bengal, forming a birdfoot delta (Mississippi type). 
• During the flow, it receives tributaries like Koyna,  Ghataprabha, Malprabha, Bhima, Tungabhadra, and Musi are its important tributaries.
• It finally meets the Bay of Bengal, forming a large delta.

About Tributaries

• Koyna is a small tributary but is very famous for Koyna Dam. The Dam was probably the primary cause of the devastating earthquake of 1967.
• Tungabhadra is formed by the merging of the Tunga and Bhadra rivers.
• Musi joins Krishna near Wazirabad. The famous city of Hyderabad is located on its banks.

Origin

• Taal Kaveri on the Brahmagiri hills, situated in Coorg Plateau

Length

• 800 Km

Another name

• Dakshina Ganga or Ganga of the South

Course of River

• It originates at Taal Cauvery and then flows eastwards to reach the Bay of Bengal. 
• About 3% of the Kaveri basin falls in Kerala, 41% in Karnataka and 56% in Tamil Nadu.
• This river is perennial with comparatively lesser fluctuations in flow as its upper catchment area receives rainfall during summer by the southwest monsoon and the lower catchment area during the winter season by the retreating northeast monsoon. 
• It is one of the best-regulated rivers, with 99% of its irrigation potential already harnessed. Major dams include Krishna Raja Sagar Dam (Mysore) and Mettur Dam. 
• During the course, it joins various tributaries. These include left-bank tributaries such as Hemvati and Shimsa and right-bank tributaries such as Kabani, Bhavani, Noyil and Amravati. 
• It finally falls into the Bay of Bengal, a few kilometres above Tiruchirapalli, forming the quadrant Delta in the Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu.

Origin

• Varushand Hills

Course of River

• It flows south of Cauvery and lies entirely in Tamil Nadu. It flows through dry channels, tends to get lost intermittently, and reappears on the surface.

Origin

• Ganga originates as Bhagirathi from Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh in the Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand. 
• Alkananda joins Bhagirathi at Devaprayag. But before the river reaches Devaprayag, the Dhauliganga, the Pindar, and the Mandakini rivers pour into the Alaknanda. 
• Below Devaprayag, the combined water of the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda flows under the name of the Ganga. 

The flow of Ganga in Plains

• Ganga enters plains at Haridwar. 
• From here, it flows in south and southeast directions for a distance of 770 km to reach Allahabad, where the Yamuna joins it. After that, it passes through the Bihar plains. 
• It ceases to be known as Ganga as it turns southeast and south of Farraka near Rajmahal Hills. It splits into Padma in Bangladesh and Hugli in West Bengal. 
• After travelling 220 km further down in Bangladesh, the Brahmaputra (or the Jamuna as it is known here) joins it at Goalundo.
• Further, it meets Meghna and joins the Bay of Bengal.
• The Ganga and the Brahmaputra form the largest delta in the world before entering the Bay of Bengal. The delta comprises a web of distributaries and islands covered by dense forests called the Sundarbans. 

• Thar desert is the 9th largest desert in the world. 
• It lies to the west of Rajasthan Bangar. 
• t is a region of undulating topography with the presence of movable longitudinal sand dunes called the “Dhrian“. 
• The region receives deficient rainfall below 150 mm annually. Hence, an arid climate with low vegetation cover is found here. Thar desert is also known as Marusthali due to this. 
• It is believed that this region was under the sea during the Mesozoic era. It can be corroborated by the evidence available at the wood fossils park at Aakal and marine deposits around Brahmsar, near Jaisalmer. 
• Although its surface features have been shaped by physical weathering and wind, its underlying rock structure is an extension of the Peninsular plateau. Mushroom rocks, shifting dunes, and oasis are prominent desert land features found here (primarily in its southern part). 
• The majority of the rivers in this area are ephemeral. Luni River flowing in the Southern part is of significance. It is a water deficit zone because of the high evaporation and low precipitation. There are some streams that, after flowing for a while, dry up and join a lake or playa, presenting a typical example of inland drainage. The brackish water of lakes or playas is also the primary source of salt.
• This region is also famous for Great Indian Bustard, found in the Great Indian Desert Park (near Jaisalmer).

• Depression in deserts is filled with water occasionally. It evaporates later, leaving behind salts & minerals. The cycle of deposition & evaporation goes on & is a source of
  • Borax. 
  • Gypsum. 
• Examples of Playas include Pokharan, Thob etc.

• Peninsular Plateau is the largest physiographic unit of India, stretching from Aravallis in the north-west to the Shillong plateau in the north-east and Kanyakumari in the south. It is triangular in shape. 
• It occupies 50% of the Indian landmass, consisting of numerous small plateaus and mountains measuring around 16 lakh square km. 
• It is an ancient tabular block containing Archean Gneiss, Schist and the Dharwar rock system. In the Deccan plateau, igneous Basalt rocks are also found.
• It is among India’s oldest and most stable landmass. It has undergone minimal structural changes since its formation. It has never been submerged beneath the sea except in the few places where marine transgressions have been made, and that too locally. Along with that, it has not experienced any tectonic activity except for Bhima Fault formed along the Bhima river.
• Due to old age, the rivers in this region attained their base level and developed broad and shallow valleys. 
• Plateau’s general elevation is from west to east, also vouched by the river movement (except in the Narmada-Tapi rift valley).

• The entire peninsular plateau was formed during the pre-Cambrian era, i.e., 500 MYA (Million Years Ago).
• Later, the Indo-Australian plate (containing Peninsular Plateau) started to move towards the Eurasian plate. Around 70 MYA during the tertiary period, it passed over the Reunion hotspot, and highly fluid basaltic lava broke through the surface, forming a basalt flood province called Deccan Traps. 

The entire Peninsular Plateau consists of several smaller plateaus and hill ranges.

• It lies in the north-western part of the Peninsular Plateau. It lies to the south-east of Aravallis and north of Vindhyachal Range. 
• Chambal, Betwa and Ken drain the Malwa Plateau before joining the river Yamuna.
• It consists of an extensive lava flow, thus covered with black soils.
• It is devoid of vegetation, and due to gully erosion by rivers like Chambal, deep ravines have developed, and the region has been made unfit for agriculture, converting it into Badlands. 

• It is a part of the Peninsular Plateau, which extends east of the Malwa Plateau and is known as Bundelkhand.
• It lies in Madhya Pradesh & Uttar Pradesh.
• It has an average elevation of 300-600 m 
• It is made up of Granite & Gneiss rocks.
• It is a drought-prone region.
• River streams such as Betwa and Ken flow through it. The erosional work of these rivers has converted this region into an undulating (wave-like) area.

• Bagelkhand lies to the east of Bundelkhand. 
• It is made up of limestone and sandstone.
• It is drained by Son and Mahanadi rivers.  
• The general elevation is between 150 m to 1,200 m.

• The Chhattisgarh Plain is the only plain region in the Peninsular plateau that is worth naming.
• It lies between Maikal Range and Odisha Hills. 
• It is saucer-shaped and is drained by the Mahanadi River.
• The general elevation is between 250-330 m. 

a. Maharashtra Plateau 

• It lies in Maharashtra and forms the northern part of the Deccan Plateau.
• It is formed due to fissure eruption and lava flow. Hence, most of the rocks of this region are basaltic rocks of lava origin.
• It has ‘step-like topography‘ due to horizontal lava sheets. Hence, it is also known as ‘Deccan Traps.”
• Maharashtra Plateau has ‘Black Soil’, also known as ‘Regur’. It is well suited for the cultivation of Cotton.
• Important rivers of south India like Godavari, Bhima, Krishna, Vardha and Venganga flow through it. The erosional activity of these rivers has converted the region into a number of shallow and broad valleys flanked by flat-topped steep-sided hills and ridges. E.g., Godavari flows between Satmala and Balaghat.

b. Karnataka Plateau

• It lies to the south of the Maharashtra plateau. 
• It is also known as Mysore Plateau.
• The general elevation is between 600-900 m.
• It is primarily made up of Archean formations.
• Karnataka plateau has two parts, Malnad and Maidan.
  1. Malnad means ‘Hilly and Forested land.’
  2. Maidan means ‘plains’. It is a rolling plain made up of granite. 

• The famous Baba Budan hills lie in the Malnad region, and it is renowned for its coffee plantation (the famous Café Coffee Day chain is based here).
• The region is highly dissected by the fast-moving rivers emerging from the Western Ghats.
• River Kaveri originates from the Malnad. It jumps from Malnad to Maidan to make the famous Shivsamudram Falls. Here, river Kaveri has two islands, i.e. Shivsamudram Island and Srirangapatnam Island (famous for the Treaty of Srirangapatnam). The lake between the two islands is known as Ranganathitoo Bird Sanctuary. Due to excessive water, the Shivsamudram region is famous for sugarcane.
• River Tungabhadra (a tributary of Krishna) also originates from the Malnad region. 

c. Telangana and Rayalaseema Plateau

• It is made up of Archean Gneiss with an average elevation of 500-600 m.
• This region is semi-arid as it lies in the rain-shadow zone of the western and eastern ghats.
• It is a highly dissected region by the rivers passing through this region, i.e. Godavari, Krishna and Penneru.

d. Dandakaranya Plateau

• It is the mineral-rich region of Chhattisgarh and Odisha, touching parts of Maharashtra.
• It is drained by the Indravati river.
• Richest mines of India are found in Dandakaranya Plateau
• It is badly affected by naxalism and is a part of the ‘Red Corridor.’

• It is the north-east extension of the Peninsular Plateau.
• It is separated from the Peninsular Plateau by Rajmahal -Garo Gap / Malda Gap. It is formed by the down-faulting, which was later filled by the sediments of river Ganga and its tributaries. 
• This region is made up of Dharwar rocks of the Archean Rock System, shales and schists with granite intrusions.
• Coal, iron ore, sillimanite, limestone, uranium, and other minerals are abundant in the Meghalaya Plateau.
• The Meghalaya Plateau is divided into numerous hills such as Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, Barail and Mikir Rengma (Karbi-Anglong Plateau). Out of all, Khasi is the highest. Shillong, situated in the Khasi hills, is the highest point of the Meghalaya Plateau.
• This region receives ample rainfall from the south-west monsoon. The Meghalaya plateau has severely degraded as a result. Chirapunji exhibits a barren rocky surface devoid of any vegetation.

• It extends from Gujarat (Jobat) to Bihar (Sasaram).
• It has an average elevation of 450 to 600m.
• It is a BLOCK MOUNTAIN formed due to rifting. The southern boundary of the Malwa Plateau has escarped downwards due to faulting, and as a result, a block mountain and rift valley have formed. Vindhya is the block mountain (horst), while in the adjoining rift valley (graben), the Narmada river flows towards the west.
• Vindhyas act as the ‘Water divide of India.’    
• It is a source of many north-flowing rivers like Chambal, Sindh, Betwa & Ken ( tributaries of Yamuna).
• It contains limestone and marble (property of the Vindhyan System of rocks).
• Kaimur Range is an extension of Vindhyas.

• Satpuras are a series of seven-block mountains (Sat = 7 and Pura = Mountains). It is not a continuous range in contrast to Vindhyas. 
• They run in the west-to-east direction, starting from Rajpipla Hills (Gujarat) to Gawilgarh (Maharashtra), followed by Mahadev Hills (Madhya Pradesh)and ending with the Maikal Hills (Chhattisgarh). 
• It runs through Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. 
• It forms the boundary between Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh and between Maharashtra and Gujarat.
• Dhupgarh near Panchmarhi in Mahadeo Hills is the highest peak of Satpuras. 
• Important rivers like Narmada, Son and Tapi originate from Satpuras.
  • Narmada and Son originate from Amarkantak 
  • Tapi originates from a place known as ‘Multai’.
  • Narmada flows in the rift valley between Vindhyas and Satpuras, while Tapi flows south of Satpuras.
  • Both Narmada and Tapi are west-flowing rivers in contrast to all other peninsular rivers, which are east-flowing.
• Amarkantak, situated in the Maikal Hills of Satpura, is important as 
  • Rivers Narmada and Son originate here. It represents an example of ‘radial drainage’.
  • Famous Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve (famous for Tigers) is situated here.
• Important fauna of the region includes Tigers, Elephants, Barasingha, Black Panther etc.
• Important tribes of the Satpuras include Khonds, Mundas and Bhils. 
• It has great economic importance.
  • Tropical Deciduous Forests of Satpura provide the best grade teak in the world apart from Sal and Tendu (minor forest produce).
  • The paper industry of India is concentrated in this region. Vallabhgarh, which is the largest paper mill in Asia, is situated in this region.

• The Eastern Ghats are a series of discontinuous hills starting from the Vaigai river in Tamil Nadu to the Mahanadi River in Odisha.
• There is no structural and geological homogeneity. All the hills have formed in different geological events. 
•  Eastern Ghats consists of (from south to north)
  • Shevaroy and Javadi in Tamil Nadu
  • Palconda and Nallamalai in Andhra Pradesh 
  • Garjat in Odisha
• They are cut by four major rivers of South India, i.e. Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri & Mahanadi.
• Eastern Ghats are much older than Western Ghats.
• They are not as high as the Western Ghats. 
• The highest peak of Eastern Ghats is Mahendragiri (in Garjat Hills) 
• They receive lesser rainfall than the Western Ghats. Hence, the vegetation of this region is Tropical Deciduous.  

• Northern Plains are the ‘aggradational plains‘ or ‘depositional plains‘ formed by the depositional works of three major Himalayan river systems viz, the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. 
• It extends from the foothills of the Himalayas to the northern edge of the Peninsular Plateau.
• Surface features of Northern Plains include
  1. Northern Plains of India have a remarkably homogeneous, monotonous, levelled surface with an imperceptible slope. 
  2. This entire plain region has a network of rivers and choes, due to which Doab regions have been formed. 
  3. The uniform structure of soft alluvial soil with imperceptible slopes has helped in the development of the ‘Dendritic Drainage Pattern.’
  4. Because the whole of the plain is formed by the deposition of alluvium by the rivers, landforms like alluvial fans, alluvial cones, meandering river terraces, natural levees, and flood plains are found in it.
  5. These plains extend approximately 3,200 km from east to west, making it the largest arable land in the world. 
  6. The average width of these plains varies between 150-500 km. Width decreases from west to east.
  7. The average height is 200 m above sea level. This height increases between Ambala to Saharanpur, known as Delhi Ridge, which acts as a dividing line between the Indus and Ganga river systems. 

• Northern Plains are the youngest physiographic feature in India. 
• Northern plains were formed in the Tertiary period due to the deposition of sediments in the ‘depression’ or ‘foredeep’, which lies between the Himalayas and the Peninsular Plateau. This depression was formed because the Indian plate, after the collision, abducted (a type of subduction in which the tectonic plate doesn’t melt) below the Eurasian Plate. The mighty rivers originating from the Himalayas deposited the sediments forming one of the flattest land on the earth, known as the Great Plains. 
• Note: The Peninsular rivers also contributed to forming Northern Plains like Chambal, Son etc. 
• The Himalayan Frontal fault separates the Shivaliks from the Great Plains.

Northern Plains can be divided in two ways as follows

2.1 Rajasthan Plains

• Rajasthan plain lies to the west of the Aravalli range and is divided into two parts, i.e. Marusthali and Bagar. Bagar region is part of the Northern plains while Marusthali is desert. 
• The Rajasthan plains slope toward the west and south.
• Rajasthan Bagar is a semi-arid region as it receives very less rainfall  
• Rajasthan Bagar is further divided into three parts i.e.
  1. Luni: Region drained by river Luni and its tributaries 
  2. Shekhawati Region: Region was ruled by Shekhawati Rajputs in the past.
  3. Ghaggar Plain: River Ghaggar, an inland river, drains and terminates in this region. This region has benefited from Indira Gandhi Canal carrying Punjab’s water to Rajasthan.

2.2 Punjab-Haryana Plains

• These are fluvial plains of Ravi, Beas and Sutlej  (tributaries of Indus). A large part of this plain is now in Pakistan.
• The slope of this plain is towards the southwest. 
• Punjab Plains has numerous seasonal rivers originating from the Shivaliks during the rainy season known as Choes. These rivers are responsible for the ravine and gully erosion.
• Delhi Ridge acts as the dividing line between the Indus River system (Punjab-Haryana Plains) and the Ganga River system. 
• It has the following divisions.
  1. Bari Doab: Lie between Beas and Ravi rivers
  2. Bist Doab: Area between Beas and Satluj rivers
  3. Cis-Satluj / Malwa: Area of Punjab lying eastward of Malwa. 
  4. Plain of Haryana: Area between Ghaggar & Yamuna consisting mainly of present-day Haryana state. It has a ‘saucer-shaped topography’. 
• These plains are well irrigated but are now suffering problems due to over-irrigation leading to salination, over-use of fertilisers etc.

2.3 Gangetic Plains

• Gangetic Plains extends from the Yamuna River to Bangladesh. 
• River Ganga and its tributaries constitute this plain by their sediments and make a great plain in India. 
• It can be divided into three parts. 
  1. Upper Ganga Plains: Also known as Ganga-Yamuna Doab as it consists of the area between Yamuna in the west and Ganga in the east. Awadh and Rohilkhand plains also lie in them.
  2. Middle Ganga Plains: Also known as the Bihar Plain or the Mithila Plain. It consists of the area between the Ghaghra River to Kosi River.
  3. Lower Ganga Plains: It is a flat deltaic region lying between the gap in the Rajmahal and the Garo hill ranges. It is located in the state of West Bengal and Bangladesh. Duars of the Terai tract are found in its north, and the world’s largest Sundarbans Delta is located in its southern parts.

2.4 Brahmaputra Plains

• Brahmaputra Plains is also known as Assam Plains or Assam Valley.
• The Brahmaputra enters India as Dihang and debouches in the flat Assam region, where it is known as the Brahmaputra. On entering the Assam Valley, the speed of the river decreases, and it engages in a deposition which causes the river to shift its course and develop multiple channels. Such a river is called the ‘Braided River’. Brahmaputra River is highly braided and known for floods.
• There are numerous riverine islands, out of which Majauli Island is the largest riverine island in the world.

1. Granary of India
   • It is a region of very fertile plains. Therefore, it is the most important agricultural region. 
   • Since it lies north of the Tropic of Cancer, Rabi and Kharif crops can be grown here.
   • Due to perennial rivers and underground water, canals and tubewell irrigation are well developed here. 
2. Houses half of the Indian people
   • Northern Plains houses more than 50% of India’s population in one-fourth of the geographical area of India .’
3. Well developed Transportation
   • Due to flat topography and high population density, road and rail density is highest in the Northern plains. 
4. Well-developed Food Processing Industry
   • Because of well-developed agriculture, the food processing industry dominates in this region. 
5. Birthplace of Indian religions
   • All the main religious movements, from Vedic Hinduism to Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, were born in the Northern Plains. Hence, the Northern plains represent the soul of India.

The narrow coastal strip between the edges of the Peninsular plateau and the coastline of India running for a distance of six thousand kilometres from the Rann of Kutch in the west to the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta in the east is called Coastal Plains.

Indian Coastal Plains are of two types i.e.

1. West Coastal Plains 
2. East Coastal Plains 

• It stretches from Rann of Kutch in the north to Kanyakumari in the south.
• It is the coastline of Submergence except for the Kutch and Malabar regions.
• These are very narrow (average width = 65 km). It is quite narrow in the middle and a bit broader in the north and south. 
• They receive very heavy rainfall, because of which laterite soil is found here. As a result, they are not very important for agriculture except for some plantation agriculture such as Cashewnut (Maharashtra and Karnataka), Coconut (Kerala), Tapioca and Rice. 

They can be divided into the following parts

a. Kutch Peninsula

• Kutch region is an emerged coast. It was an island surrounded by sea and lagoons. The sediments brought by the Indus River, which once flowed across this region, eventually filled these seas and lagoons.
• It is an arid and semi-arid region receiving very less rainfall. The Arabian branch of the South-West monsoon passes by without causing any rain because of the absence of any obstruction to cause Orographic rainfall. 
• One of India’s busiest and most important ports, i.e. Kandla Port, lies in this region. 
• It is famous for salt mining.
• The grassland in the Kutch region is known as Banni grasslands.
• Kutch region is famous for Kharai camels which are swimming camels and facing threats due to salt mining and the destruction of mangroves. 
• The Kutch festival is celebrated every year, showing the unique landscape of white sands. Sands are white due to salt.
• The most famous attraction is Mandvi Beach because of its white sand, purity of water and pearls. 

b. Kathiawar Peninsula

• It is a submerged coastline. 
• It is a region of black soil due to Deccan lava.  
• Due to black soil, it is famous for cultivating cotton, groundnut and tobacco. 
• Basaltic and volcanic mountains known as Gir Ranges are situated in this region. Gir ranges are also famous for Asiatic Lions.

c. Konkan Coast

• It is a submerged coast extending from Daman to Goa, passing through Maharashtra.
• India’s commercial capital lies in this region. Mumbai was an island, but parts of the sea lying between Mumbai and the mainland have been reclaimed in the recent past.  
• It is also rich in Petroleum resources. Bombay High lies here.
• Famous west flowing river Mandovi or Mahadevi flows through the Konkan Coastal plains. Dudhsagar waterfall lies on the Mandovi River.

d. Canara Coast

• It is a submerged coast lying in Karnataka.
• It is famous for west flowing river Shravati. Jog Falls (271 m) lie on the Shravati River. 

e. Malabar Coast

• Malabar coast lies between Mangalore and Kanyakumari. It includes Southern Karnataka and Kerala.
• It is a coastline of emergence and therefore has numerous lagoons and backwaters. 
• It is much wider as compared to the other parts of the western coast.
• It is a low-lying plain with a height at no place exceeding 30 m above sea level. 
• Distinctive characteristics of the Malabar coast include lakes, lagoons, and “Kayals” (backwaters). Backwaters are shallow lagoons, and the largest among them is Vembanad Kayal or Vembanad Lake, which is 75 km long and 5-10 km wide. Kochi is situated on its opening. 
• Lake Vembanad is linked 4 other large lakes by canals and fed by 38 rivers to form National Waterway 3 from Kottayam to Kollam.
• This region is also famous for  Kuttanad underwater rice cultivation and has been given the tag of GIAHS (Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems) by Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO). ( India has three GIAHS- two others being Pampore Saffron cultivation of Kashmir and Koraput traditional agriculture of Odisha)

• West Coast is Submergent Coast, whereas East Coast is Emergent Coast implying that Western Coast is deeper than Eastern Coast, providing favourable conditions for natural ports.
• Western rivers form Estuaries, whereas Eastern rivers form Deltas, which require constant dredging to maintain the required depth necessary for the entry of ships.
• Building excellent ports and harbours in the East is challenging since the continental shelf stretches 500 km into the ocean.
• Due to the construction of the Suez Canal, the importance of the Western Coast increased as it provided a shorter route between India and Europe.

The industrial sector refers to the part of the economy involved in producing goods through machinery, technology, and mass production methods. 

Classification of Industries

Primary Industry

• They use natural raw material
• E.g., Agriculture, fishing, forestry etc.

 Secondary Industry

• Use material obtained from primary industries to produce complex products 
• E.g. Fibre to readymade garments 

 Tertiary Industry

• It provides services (not related to manufacturing) 
• E.g. transport, consultancy, tourism, health services etc. 

Where Industry can set up

1. Nature of Raw Material

Industries using raw materials that lose weight are concentrated in the regions where raw materials are found.

1. Sugar Industry: Conversion of sugarcane to raw sugar involves a lot of weight loss. Hence, the sugar industry is set up near raw materials.
2. Steel Industry: Both Iron ore and coal are weight-losing. Therefore, a suitable location for the iron & steel industry is near raw material sources.

2. Market

• Markets serve as outlets for manufactured goods.
• Heavy machines, machine tools, and heavy chemicals are located near the high-demand areas as these are market-oriented. 
• Similarly, Petroleum refineries are also located near the markets as crude oil can be transported easily compared to several products derived from it. Koyali, Barauni and Mathura refineries are typical examples. 

3. Historical Factors

• Mumbai, Calcutta & Madras are industrially developed due to various historical factors such as the presence of capital and its proximity to power during British times as they were Presidency towns. 
• The availability of coal in the region and the presence of navigable waterways provided the necessary resources and transportation routes for the growth of the textile industry in cities like Manchester and Liverpool.
• The automobile industry developed in Detroit, Michigan, due to its proximity to raw materials like iron and coal and the Great Lakes waterway, which facilitated transportation. The establishment of the Ford Motor Company in Detroit in 1903 further solidified the city’s position as a hub for automobile manufacturing.
• Once a particular industry develops in a certain area, the forward & backward linkages of the Industry in these areas become well-developed. It attracts new Industries to these cities. 

4. Government policies

Government policies become a major factor in deciding where the industry will be set up. For example, 

•  If a government offers tax breaks or other financial incentives to companies that locate in certain regions, those companies may be more likely to choose those locations. In India, tax breaks were provided to industries located in hilly areas like Himachal, and as a result, large industries from the Punjab-Himachal border shifted to Himachal.
• Similarly, companies may be less likely to locate if a government imposes strict environmental regulations in certain areas.

5. Transport

The industry is set up in an area where infrastructure is developed & area is easily accessible.

• Switzerland makes wristwatches & not bulldozers because of transport reasons.
• The Great Lakes area (in North America) is highly industrialised because it is well connected via rail, road and ships. 

6. Labour

Highly skilled labour is required to run Industry. Due to this reason

1. African countries export rough diamonds because they don’t have skilled labour to finish them 
2. Australia supplies raw wool & not woollen garments because there aren’t enough people. 

7. Availability of Capital

The term “capital” refers to the funds or financial resources needed to start and operate an industry. It is an important factor in deciding the location of an industry, illustrated by the following examples.

1. The industry is located in Mumbai and Chennai because the capital is easily available there. 
2.  Software companies, including Apple, Google, Facebook etc., are concentrated in California as many venture capital firms are present to fund startups.

8. Climate

Climate can be an essential factor in deciding the location of industries, as certain industries require specific environmental conditions to operate effectively,

1. Tech companies are located in San Francisco (Silicon Valley), and Bangalore (Silicon Valley of India) because of the mild climate in the region, which provides a comfortable environment for workers, and the lack of extreme heat or cold can prevent equipment malfunctions.
2. The Winter Sports equipment industry is located in Helsinki (Finland) because cold weather provides a natural testing environment for products, and snow and ice create demand for such products.

9. Electricity

• Electricity is a major determinant as it powers the industry and is needed in many industrial processes.
• E.g., in Aluminium Industry, massive electricity is required for Bauxite refining. Hence, Aluminium Industry will be set up where electricity is cheap.