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Question: Imagine government as an investor. Given fiscal and capacity constraints, where would it invest to reap maximum benefits? 

According to the Economic Survey, low-cost maternal and early-life health and nutrition programs offer very high returns because: 

• Spending on a mother is an economical option as a healthy mother is more likely to give birth to a healthy baby who learns better and stays in school longer. Additionally, a newborn’s most rapid physical and cognitive development occurs in the womb. 
• The success of subsequent interventions—schooling and training—is influenced by early-life development. E.g. Government’s investment in skills training can reap the best results only if Child has developed full Cognitive & Physical Health at an early age.

Neo-Natal Mortality Rate

• It is the number of deaths of children below the age of 1 month per 1000 live births. 
• According to NFHS-5 (2019-2021), India’s Neo Natal Mortality Rate is 24.9

• Neo-Natal Mortality depends upon Mother’s health, as the leading cause of Mortality during the first month differs from the next 11 months. It depends on Utero Nutrition which is determined by the Birth-Weight of Children. 
• India has high Neo-Natal Mortality because Indian women begin pregnancy at low weight. Along with that, they don’t gain weight during pregnancy, resulting in low birth weight of the child.

Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)

• Number of deaths of children below the age of 1 year per 1000 live births. 
• According to NFHS-5 (2019-2021), India’s Infant Mortality Rate is 35.2.

• Note: IMR is an important indicator for determining the socio-economic status of any country because, more than any age group, the survival of infants depends upon their socio-economic environment. 

Child Mortality Rate (CMR)

• CMR is the number of deaths of children in the age group of 0-4 years per 1000 live births. 

Under Five Mortality Rate (U5MR)

• Number of deaths of children in the age group of 0-5 years per 1000 live births.
• According to NFHS-5 (2019-2021), India’s U5MR is 41.9.

• U5MR is an internationally accepted standard instead of Child Mortality Rate. Hence, India is moving towards it. 

Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR)

• The Maternal Mortality Rate is the death of mothers during or within 42 days of childbirth per 1 lakh live births.
• According to NFHS-5 (2019-2021), India’s MMR is 97.

Pradhan Mantri Suraksheet Matritva Yojana (SMY)  

• Launched by Health Ministry in 2016
• It provides Ante-Natal (before birth) check-ups for pregnant women on the 9th of every month by specialist doctor 

Janani Suraksha Yojana

• Launched by Health Ministry in 2005
• To promote Institutional delivery of pregnant women instead of home births, which can be risky

LaQshya Program

• LaQshya, or Labour Room Quality Improvement Initiative, was launched in 2018 by Health Ministry. 
• The scheme aims to upgrade the Labour Room infrastructure, ensure essential supplies’ availability, and enhance healthcare providers’ skills.

Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana  

• Launched by Health Ministry in 2017
• Under the scheme, ₹5,000 is given to eligible mothers. The benefits are provided in the following manner:
  1. First instalment: ₹1,000 is given upon early registration of pregnancy, usually within the first trimester (up to 180 days).
  2. Second instalment: ₹2,000 is given upon receiving at least one antenatal check-up after six months of pregnancy.
  3. Third instalment: ₹2,000 is given upon the birth of the child and registration of the child’s birth, along with the submission of the child’s immunization details.
• It is applicable for first two children 

Integrated Child Development Program 

• It is a flagship scheme which aims to improve the nutrition, health status & school dropout ratio of children in the age group 0-6 years. 
• In 2016-17, other schemes like Anganwadi Services and National Crèche Scheme were brought under this scheme.

To Combat Diseases among Pregnant Women & Infants 

• Anaemia: Major problem in Pregnant women. Iron Folic Acid Supplements are given by the government
• Diarrhoea: A large number of infants die because of this. The government gives ORS and Zinc Tablets.

India has four seasons as mentioned below.

• Winter season commences in January and remains till the end of February.
• During this period, due to the sun’s apparent movement towards the south, vertical rays of the sun fall over the Southern Hemisphere. That is why the temperature starts to decrease in the Northern Hemisphere, and pressure belts along with Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) start to move southwards.  
• As the temperature over Indian Subcontinent starts to decrease in winter, the pressure starts to increase. The high pressure replaces the low pressure over Northern India.
• The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) starts to move southwards and gradually moves out of India. As a result, monsoon winds also start to retreat, moving towards ITCZ, i.e. from North-West to South-East. These winds are dry as they move from land towards the sea and have already shed moisture. These are known as retreating monsoon or North East Monsoon.

Cold Waves

• During this period, high-pressure areas develop over central and western Asia. Dry and cold continental winds from the Caspian Sea and Turkmenistan enter the Northern Plains, which cause a fall of many degrees in the temperature of the great plains. These north-western cold winds, moving at a speed of 3 to 5 km per hour, are termed as the Cold Waves.

Jet Stream and Upper Air Circulation

• Along with that, Sub-Tropical Westerly Jet (STWJ), flowing over Tibet Plateau in the summers, shifts southwards and creates high pressure over North India. STWJ extends from the Mediterranean sea to Western Asia, the Persian Gulf, Iran and Pakistan, crosses the great plains of India and reaches the China sea. 

Rainfall due to North East Monsoon over Coromandal Coast in Winter

• Rain occurs in winter due to the North-East monsoon as well. 
• When Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) moves out of India, dry continental winds start to blow from North East to South-West.  
• But a part of North-East winds pass over the Bay of Bengal & cause rainfall on the Coromandal Coast. It is known as North-East Monsoon and precipitates over Coromandal Coast only.

Western Disturbances

• Sub-Tropical Westerly Jet reaches Northern India after passing over the Mediterranean Sea, where it rains during winter. These winds bring cyclonic disturbances formed over the Mediterranean Sea to north India. 
• Due to Sub-Tropical Westerly Jet,  
  1. Punjab, Haryana, northern Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir and Western Uttar Pradesh receive an average of 20 to 50 cm of cyclonic rainfall, which is very useful for the Rabi crops. 
  2. Neighbouring Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir and Kumaon Hills experience snowfall.
• Precipitation during the winter season is good for Rabi crops, especially wheat. 
• But excessive rainfall can also cause crop damage, landslides and avalanches. 

Weather in Cold Season

• The weather is pleasant in winter. 
  1. Days are pleasantly warm (moderate)
  2. Nights are cold. 
  3. Skies are clear with dry weather.
• Temperature decreases from south to north. It falls from 31° C in Trivandrum, 26° C in Calicut, 24° C in Chennai, 16° C in Varanasi, and Drass Valley has a temperature of -45° C
• Due to the sharp fall in night temperature, sometimes dense or heavy fog appears.
• Due to the cold waves in the plains, a severe frost occurs.

• At the end of February, the temperature rises as sun-rays fall vertically over areas north of the equator. Hence, the summer season remains from March till the end of May, and it is the longest season in India.
• Interior areas record the maximum daily temperatures. E.g., The maximum daily temperature recorded is 
  1. 38° C in Nagpur  
  2. 40° C in Madhya Pradesh  
  3. 45° C in the North-Western parts
  4. 48° C in the Barmer (Rajasthan)
• But coastal lands have moderate climates due to moderating effect of ocean and sea breeze. The temperature remains between 30 to 32° C in South India.

Pressure Systems 

• With an increase in temperature, Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) starts shifting towards the north.
• In May and June, due to high temperatures, a low-pressure Thermal Depression develops in the north–western parts of the country. Additionally, the Sub-Tropical ‘Jet’ stream shifts towards the north of the Himalayas. In this way, a special situation develops in the north–west, in which till the height of 6–7 Km from the surface of the land, the low-pressure cycles join each other and attract the monsoon winds fastly towards themselves.

Loo

In summer, North India comes under the influence of Loo. Loo is a strong, dusty, hot, and dry summer wind blowing from the west over the western Indo-Gangetic plains region of Northern India. It is especially strong in May and June. Due to its very high temperatures, exposure to it leads to fatal heat strokes. Due to its high temperature and dryness, it has severe drying effects on vegetation leading to browning in the areas it affects.

Norwesters or Kalbaisakhi

• The Loo ends in late summer due to the arrival of the monsoon. Loo (dry winds at high temperature) from the North-West and warm & moist winds from the Bay of Bengal converge around the Chotanagpur plateau. It causes thunderstorms and lightning accompanied by strong winds and heavy rainfall, mainly in the states of Assam and West Bengal. 
• These local winds are known as ‘Norwesters’ or ‘Kalbaisakhi,’ i.e. calamity of the month of Baisakh. They bring rainfall in Assam, West Bengal and Odisha. This rainfall is quite beneficial for the cultivation of Jute and Rice in West Bengal and Tea in Assam.  

Blossom and Mango Showers

• The coastal areas of Kerala and Karnataka receive rainfall close to the end of summer. These showers are extremely useful in the cultivation of tea, coffee and mango. They are also known as Mango Showers in Kerala (as they help in the early ripening of mangoes) and ‘Blossom Showers‘ in Karnataka, as with these showers, coffee flowers blossom in these areas.  

• Rain happening in October and November is known as Retreating Monsoons. 
• The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone begins moving southward in response to the sun’s southward movement towards the end of September, which weakens the southwest monsoon. Hence, the temperature in the Northern Plains starts decreasing, and consequently, pressure starts increasing. In response to this, Monsoon winds start to retreat from northern India, and this is also known as North-East monsoon as the winds blow from North-East to South-West.

• These monsoon winds retreat in almost the same sequence as they arrive in the country. 
  • They first leave Punjab till 15 September, 
  • Uttar Pradesh till 1 October, 
  • Ganges Delta till 15 October 
  • Till 15 November, these leave southern parts of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

• The retreat of the monsoon is marked by clear skies and a drop in the night temperature. But the land still remains moist. The combination of high temperature and humidity gives rise to oppressive weather and is known as ‘October Heat.’

• The North-East monsoons are generally dry as they originate on land except on the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, i.e. Coromandal coast because when they pass over the Bay of Bengal, they collect moisture and shed that moisture on the Tamil Nadu coast.

Cyclones on the Eastern Coast during retreating monsoon

• Due to the shifting of ITCZ over the Bay of Bengal and the convergence of winds on both sides of ITCZ, cyclonic depressions are created in the Bay of Bengal, whose water is already at high temperature due to continuous heating throughout the summers. These cyclones move towards the west or north-west. 
• These cyclones frequently hit the eastern coastal region and cause significant damage to life and property. The areas most vulnerable to these storms include the coastal belt of Tamil Nadu, Andhra, Odisha and West Bengal. 
• The number of devastating severe Cyclones hitting the Indian coasts has been increasing owing to the increase in sea surface temperature in the northern Indian Ocean.

• The advancement in information technology has profoundly influenced the country’s economy. The Information Technology (IT) revolution opened up new economic and social transformation possibilities.
• The Indian software industry has emerged as one of the fastest-growing sectors in the economy.  
• A majority of the multinational companies operating in the area of information technology have either software development centres or research development centres in India.  

Knowledge-Economy is primarily based on intangible assets such as the value of its workers and IPR. These sectors include Space, Pharma, IT, e-learning etc. 

India’s competitors in Knowledge-Economy

Indian Knowledge-Based Economy

1. Space

• India has been able to develop Space Sector due to the support given by the Indian government. But, apart from ISRO, India has not been able to produce a world-class space company (such as SpaceX of the USA)

2. BPO

• Indian BPO sector is well developed and is a major contributor to Forex earnings of India.

3. Electronics

• The Indian government has not supported developing the electronics sector in the past. Hence, India’s electronics sector was not able to develop. 
• The present government wants to develop the Electronics sector in India and has started schemes like Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme. Companies such as Samsung and Apple have started manufacturing their products in India. 

4. Pharma

• India is known as the ‘pharmacy of the developing world’ and the 11th largest drug producer globally. But private companies are not spending on R&D and hence not able to produce novel and revolutionary drugs, for which Indians are dependent on foreign companies such as Pfizer, Novartis etc. 

Bangalore is known as the silicon valley of India.  

1. Historical perspective

• In the 1950-70s, Bharat Electronics Limited, IISC, National Defence lab, HAL, and ISRO were set up here. It created backward & forward linkages in the field of electronics.  

2. Well Connected

• The city is well connected by road, railways & air.

3. Skilled Labour

• IISC & a large number of institutions around Bangalore provide a large number of professionals to work in the software industry.

4. Progressive Government

• The government’s policies helped, like providing land at reasonable rates, tax concessions etc. 

5. Pleasant climate

• A pleasant climate is a perk for professionals, especially in Tropical countries like India. It is an ideal place to living   

But Bangalore has not been able to cope with the rapid increase in population. Due to jammed roads & increased pollution, other cities came up to compete like Pune, Gurgaon, Noida etc.

We can classify the cash streams based on who is the prominent player

• An ‘‘environment” or ”green” tax is imposed on a product that damages the environment to reduce its production or consumption. 
• It is in line with the ”polluter pays principle”. 

Benefits of Environment taxes

• They internalize environmental costs into prices.
• Deter actions that lead to environmental damage 
• Encourages innovation and development of new technology
• Government can use the revenue raised by environmental taxes for development activities and thus reduce the level of other taxes (e.g. income tax or excise duty on medicines) 

Government’s initiatives in this regard

1. Clean Environment Cess

• The government introduced Clean Energy Cess on coal at Rs.50 per ton in 2010.
• The rate is subsequently increased to Rs. 400 per ton presently.
• The money thus collected is transferred to the National Clean Energy and Environment Fund.

2. Higher Excise Duties on SUV

• Government charges higher excise duty on fuel-guzzling SUVs.

• It was launched by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (Ministry of Power) under the National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE).
• It is a market-based mechanism in which sectors are assigned efficiency targets. Industries that over-achieve targets get incentives through Energy-Saving Certificates (ESCert). Other companies can buy those ESCerts to meet their targets

• Under the Renewable Purchase Obligations (RPO) mechanism, DISCOMs must purchase certain percentage of their total energy in the form of renewable energy.
• Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) are provided under the RPO mechanism if DISCOM is using more than the required Renewable Energy. DISCOM is entitled to RECs equivalent to the surplus
• Those Discoms, which are not able to use the required Renewable Energy can buy these RECs and claim that they have purchased renewable energy.

What are green bonds?

• The Green Bond is a type of bond (debt instrument). But the issuer of a green bond publicly states that capital is being raised to fund ”green” (environment-friendly) projects, like renewable energy, clean transportation etc. 
• It can be issued by Banks as well as Companies. 

Timeline

Importance

• India has set an ambitious target of generating 40% of its energy through Renewable sources by 2030 as part of its Paris Climate Deal obligations (INDC). It requires massive funding, and Green Bonds can help in raising that.
• Higher interest rates in India raise renewable energy costs by about 25%. Green bonds carry a lower interest rate  
• Green bonds enhance an issuer’s reputation by showcasing its commitment towards sustainable development. 
• It allows issuers to tap into pools of global investors & capital funds dedicated to ethical climate change and green investing. 

Risks & challenges

• Greenwashing: There have been heated discussions regarding whether the projects that green bond issuers fund are environmentally friendly. E.g., Reuters reported how activists were claiming that the proceeds of the French utility GDF Suez’s $3.4 billion green bond issue were used to fund a dam project that hurts the Amazon rainforest in Brazil.
• Most green bonds in India have a shorter tenure of about 10 years (compared to international issuances). A typical loan is for minimum 13 years. 
• Most Indian Green Projects are small and unattractive to investors due to their small scale.
• Borrowing costs and information asymmetry: In India, the cost of green bond issuance has consistently remained higher than that of other bonds.

Further steps required

• Standardizing the definition of green 
• Going towards securitization & aggregation: Many standalone green projects such as rooftop solar, energy efficiency, and rural water supply remain unattractive to institutional investors owing to the smaller scale and vast geographical spread. Aggregation and securitization of such projects could be a welcome move in providing mainstream debt to small-scale green projects.

Side Topic: Blue Bonds

• It is a sub-type of green bond.
• Blue bonds are sustainability bonds used to fund initiatives to preserve and protect the ocean and its surrounding ecosystems. E.g.,
  • Sustainable fisheries
  • protection of fragile ecosystems
  • reducing pollution and acidification
• E.g. 2018- Seychelles issued the world’s first ”Blue Bond” to expand its marine protected areas and fisheries sector. 

• Global Environment Facility (GEF) was established during the Rio Earth Summit of 1992 to address the world’s most challenging environmental issues.
• GEF provides funding for 5 things 
  1. UNFCCC
  2. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
  3. Stockholm Convention on POPs
  4. Minamata Convention on Mercury 
  5. UN Convention to Combat Desertification  
• World Bank serve as the Trustee of the GEF 

• It was established in 2010 at COP 16 held in Cancun. 
• GCF raise money from rich countries to fight climate change. Projects will be carried out in developing countries to fight climate change using this fund.
• The aim is to spend $100 Billion per year from 2020.
• Countries have to appoint a National Designated Authority (NDA) that acts as the interface between their government and GCF. India’s NDA is NABARD.

Issues with GCF

1. How to define Green Climate Finance. E.g : 
   • Will US NGOs (e.g. Ford Foundation or Melinda Gates Foundation) working on providing clean water in Africa be considered within US Green Climate Obligations in Account books? Developed countries are re-categorising all these funds under GCF Obligations. 
   • Is Technology Transfer part of Green Climate Finance? Suppose Patents are transferred like the US transferred patents to produce Solar Cells in India. Will the cost of the patent be counted under GCF obligations? Developed countries are in favour while Developing countries are opposed to this. 
2. Which Countries have the first claim over GCF Corpus? Should AOSIS Nations, which are most affected by Climate Change, get these funds or African Nations or Other developing countries? 
3. Whether to spend it on Mitigation or Adaptation projects

• Minerals are aggregates of two or more than two elements having a definite chemical composition and atomic structure & formed by the inorganic process.
• The development of the entire secondary sector is based on minerals. India has vast deposits of minerals. 
• In the earth’s crust, they are in the form of ore. They are extracted, processed & then utilised for the economic benefit of society.

Minerals have certain characteristics

• These are unevenly distributed over space. 
• There is an inverse relationship between the quality and quantity of minerals, i.e., high-quality minerals are less in quantity than low-quality minerals. 
• All minerals are exhaustible over time. These take a long to develop geologically, and they cannot be replenished immediately at the time of need. Thus, they have to be conserved & not misused as they do not have a second crop.

Classification into Metallic and Non-Metallic Minerals

Classification into Renewable and Non-Renewable Minerals

1. Renewable Resources

• Resources which can be renewed or replenished fast
• They are always available & not affected by human activities.
• E.g., Solar Energy, Wind Energy etc.

2. Non-Renewable Resources

• These have been built over a large geological time.
• They need to be used judicially & in a planned way.
• Fossil fuels, iron, gold etc.

• Minerals are mainly associated with metamorphic & igneous rocks of Peninsular India. The vast alluvial plain tract of north India is devoid of minerals of economic use. 
• Mineral resources provide the country with the necessary base for industrial development.
• Each mineral region is associated with a prior geological activity.

There are 5 mineral-rich regions in India where most minerals are concentrated.

1. Northern-Eastern Belt

• It is the richest mineral region of India.
• It consists of following 
  1. Chotanagpur Plateau
     • Kyanite (100% of India’s reserves)
     • Iron (90% of India’s reserves)
     • Chromium (90% of India’s reserves)
     • Mica (75% of India’s reserves)
     • Coal (70% of India’s reserves)
     • Others: Manganese, Copper and Limestone 
  2. Assam 
     1. Petroleum Reserve
     2. Lignite Coal

2. Central Belt

It is found in the Chhattisgarh region

• It is an extension of the Chotanagpur Plateau.
• Iron and limestone are found here.
• Coal is found here due to the Godavari-Wardha valley rifting.

3. South-East Region

In this region, the following minerals are found

• East Karnataka (Hospet Bellary Region): Iron
• Andhra (Cuddapah & Kurnool): Iron
• Andhra (Nellore): Mica, Manganese and Coal
• Telangana: Bauxite
• Tamil Nadu (Neyveli): Lignite coal

4. South-West Region

In this region, the following minerals are found

• Karnataka Dharwar: Iron, manganese, and limestone are found here 
• Goa: Iron is found here 
• Maharashtra (Ratnagiri): Iron is found here.   
• Kerala has deposits of Monazite and Thorium and Bauxite clay.

5. North-West region

In this region, the following minerals are found

• Petroleum 
  • Rajasthan: Barmer 
  • Gujarat: Gulf of Kutch 
• Building material 
  • Rajasthan is rich in building stones, i.e. sandstone, granite, and marble. Gypsum and Fuller’s earth deposits are also extensive. Dolomite and limestone provide raw materials for the cement industry.
• From Lakes
  • Salt from Playa lakes of Rajasthan. 
  • Lake Sambhar and Lake Didwana of Rajasthan – contain gypsum & borax deposits.

• The Forest Survey of India (FSI) released the India State of Forest Report for 2021.
• FSI undertakes a biennial assessment of the country’s forest resources.

Definition of Forest

• According to FSI, all lands more than 1 hectare with a tree canopy of more than 10%, irrespective of the land usage, ownership or legal status of the land. 
• The assessment is done using satellite data. The efficiency of this system is around 95%. 

Types of Forest Cover

There are three types of Forest cover.

1. Very Dense Forest: Tree canopy density of more than 70%
2. Moderately Dense: Tree canopy density between 40% and 70%
3. Open Forest: Tree canopy density of more than 10%

Issues with the System

• Plantations are also included in forest area, although they don’t provide the full benefits of forests and lacks biodiversity. 
• Satellite data is not foolproof. 

1. Forest and Tree Cover at the National level

• India’s total Forest and Tree Cover is 80.9 million hectares, i.e. 24.62% of the Indian geographical area. 
• It is an increase of 2,261 compared to the State of Forest Report of 2019.

2. Forest Cover in States

• The states with the largest forest cover are Madhya Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.   
• In terms of forest cover as a percentage, the top three States are Mizoram (85.41%), Arunachal Pradesh (79.63%), Meghalaya (76.33%) 
• Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Odisha witnessed the highest increase in forest cover. 
• Arunachal, Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, Tripura, Mizoram, Meghalaya and Sikkim are the states showing the maximum loss in forest cover.

3. Mangroves

• The total mangrove cover in India is 4,992 sq. km. 
• It has observed a net increase of 17 sq. km in the mangrove cover as compared to the 2019 assessment. 
• The mangrove cover in the country is  0.15% of the country’s total geographical area. 
• West Bengal has 42.45% of India’s mangrove cover, followed by Gujarat and the A&N Islands.  

From 2017 Report

4. Forest Fires

• 21.40% of the country’s forest cover is high to extremely fire-prone. 
• Most fire-prone forest areas are found in the north-eastern region and the central part of the country. 

5. Biodiversity

• Maximum tree diversity is found in tropical evergreen forests of Western Ghats (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka) followed by north-eastern states. 

• CISF was raised in 1969.
• Its mandate is to 
  1. Provide security to critical infrastructure installations of the country like the Department of Space, Department of Atomic Energy, Airports, Delhi Metro, ports, historical monuments etc.
  1. Protect some private sector units and important government buildings in Delhi.
  2. Provide security to the protected persons classified as Z Plus, Z, X and Y.
• CISF is also the country’s largest fire protection service provider, providing fire protection cover to 102 Industrial Undertakings.
• CISF was assigned the specialized task of airport security in 2000 in the wake of the hijacking of Indian Airlines Flight IC-814 to Kandahar.
• CISF Act has been amended to enable it to provide security on a payment basis to private enterprises. Hence, CISF is also providing security to Infosys and Wipro headquarters.

• BSF is the world’s largest Border Security Force
• It was established in 1965 under Home Ministry to do away with the multiplicity of State Forces guarding the Indo-Pak Border. After the formation of Bangladesh, it was also made responsible for guarding the Indo-Bangladesh border.
• Border Security Force personnel have also been deployed in United Nations Stabilization Missions. The BSF troops are performing their duties exemplary to ensure the UN mandate.
• Presently, it has 192 battalions. 

Mandate

Peacetime Mandate

• Promote a sense of security among people living in border areas.
• Prevent trans-border crimes, unauthorized entry or exit and smuggling.

Wartime Mandate

• Holding ground in less threatened areas
• Protection of vital installations, particularly airfields
• Strengthening the main defence line at strong points
• Assistance in control of refugees
• Guarding Prisoners of War
• Maintaining law and order in the enemy territory controlled by the Indian Army. 
• Prevent infiltration in certain areas.

Note: Punjab Government accused some of the BSF officials of facilitating the entry of drugs from Pakistan to Punjab. In West Bengal, BSF officers have been accused of facilitating cow smuggling across the border to Bangladesh.

• ITBP was raised in 1962 in the wake of the Indo-China war. It was initially raised under CRPF Act. Later, ITBPF Act was enacted in 1994 and rules were framed. 
• ITBP was originally conceptualized as an integrated ‘guerrilla-cum-intelligence-cum-fighting Force’, self-contained in supplies, communication and intelligence collection. It has evolved over time into a conventional border-guarding force.
• ITBP is a multi-dimensional force. It is a mountain-trained force manned by professionally trained mountaineers. 
• ITBP is deployed from Karakoram Pass to Jechapla Pass in difficult hilly terrain at forward border posts at altitudes ranging from 9000-18000 feet. 
• They are called “Himveers“.

Mandate and Tasks

• Keep vigil on the Indo-China border.
• Detection & prevention of border violations & promotion of a sense of security among the locals on the Indo-China border
• Check illegal immigration, trans–border smuggling and crimes.
• Providing security to sensitive installations, banks and protected persons. Presently, it is providing security to Rashtrapati Bhawan, Rumtek Monastery (Sikkim), Tihar Jail (Delhi), LBSNAA and various sensitive installations in Chandigarh & Jammu. 
• Restore law and order and peace in an area after disturbance. 
• ITBP is also deployed in Afghanistan to provide security to the Indian Embassy in Kabul.
• ITBP is also involved in the movement for the preservation of the Himalayan environment & ecology.

• It was raised in 1984 as Federal Contingency Deployment Force to fight against terrorism and protect the states against internal disturbances.
• It operates under the Ministry of Home Affairs.
• NSG is a unique amalgamation of selected personnel from the Army, the Central Armed Police Forces & State Police Forces.
• Because of the colour of the uniform that the personnel wear, they are popularly referred to as Black Cats.
• NSG (Black Cats) are specially trained for room-to-room interventions, whereas Army is specialized in Open Combat. They will be more effective in fighting terrorists. Their weapons are more sophisticated and ideal for such fights.
• NSG Commandos are usually deployed to deal with high-risk tasks like Akshardham Temple in Gandhinagar and Hotel Taj and Oberoi in Mumbai.

Mandate

• Neutralise highly specialized terrorist attacks like aeroplane hijacks and hostage rescue operations.
• Provide training to other forces on bomb disposal technology.  
• NSG provide ‘close protection’ to the VIPs.
• In Delhi, they are always kept on alert to meet any emergency.

Issues

• It is criticized for the delayed response to the crisis. For example, NSG took 10 hours to respond to the 26/11 crisis.
• The NSG Headquarters is manned by a mix of personnel from all the forces with different cultural and professional outlooks leading to coordination challenges.
• The organization is headed by Director General belonging to the IPS with limited practical experience in counter-terror operations.
• NSG continues to be marred by a shortage of cutting-edge equipment and training aids.

• Railway Protection Force draws power from Railway Protection Force Act and Railways Act.
• Its mandate is to
  1. Protect railway property, passenger and passenger area.
  2. Remove any obstruction hindering the movement of the railway. 
• It is different from the Railway Police, a branch of state police & responsible for preventing & investigating crimes on the railway & within railway premises.

• Disaster Management Act was passed in 2005, and NDRF was formed under the provisions of the act in the wake of the Gujarat Earthquake & Odisha Super Cyclone. 
• It was made from 8 battalions, 2 each drawn from ITBP, CRPF, BSF & CISF. Presently, it has 10 battalions.

Mandate

• Provide specialized response during disasters.
• Conduct rehearsals and mock drills
• Train State Disaster Response Teams
• Create awareness among people about different disasters

Topic: NDRF getting discriminatory attitude

• Sacrifices not recognized & awarded: E.g., in the Uttarakhand disaster of 2013, 14 personnel died in the Mi-17 Helicopter crash. 5 from Airforce got Shaurya & Kirti Chakra, while 9 from NDRF got nothing.
• Lack of Funds: NDRF is the only specialized force of its kind in the world but is deprived of funds, infra & logistical support. The question arises, what is the use of creating this if no fund is to be given? 
• Less Remuneration: Their remuneration is less than what their counterparts get in CRPF or BSF. Nothing is given in the name of the hazard fund. As a result, nobody is ready to come to this force from the parent organization.
• No Disability Pension: NDRF personnel are constantly required to train in simulated conditions of hazards & at the time, they end up losing their life, but there is no disability pension.

Other Problems

• Ambiguity in control and command: Ministry of Home Affairs controls the funds of NDRF while National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), an autonomous body, has administrative control over it. Hence, it has to deal with two bosses.

1. Bureaucratization of Armed Forces: Most of the higher posts of the top hierarchy are filled by IPS officers, who, most of the time, fail to take adequate steps for the welfare of the cadre officers. These organizations have a primarily military character; therefore, a civil service like the IPS has no valuable role to play in them.
2. Absence of a robust in-house grievance redressal mechanism: This has prompted incidents such as a soldier from BSF in 2017 using Social Media to raise his concerns. 
3. Stepmotherly Treatment by Government: Paramilitary forces allege stepmotherly treatment done by the government compared to the military. They get
   • Lesser pay than military counterparts
   • No martyr status 
   • No One Rank One Pension.
4. Sahayak/Buddy system:  Under this system, soldiers are forced to do personal chores for seniors.
5. There is a lack of effective arms and ammunition such as bullet-proof jackets, modern weapons, surveillance equipment, armoured vehicles etc.
6. CAPF is overburdened by doing the job of both the army and the police. E.g., CAPF personnel guard the borders and also battle terrorists and insurgents.  
7. Poor working conditions like no housing facilities, poor food and low allowances add to problems. Due to bad working conditions, the number of personnel opting for voluntary retirement schemes in the CAPF rose by 450% in 2016-17, according to the Home Ministry.
8. They are devoid of justice as Armed Forces Tribunal does not cover them.   

According to the NCRB data, as many as 2,200 CAPF personnel died in accidents and suicides from 2014-2018. It points towards the fact that something is seriously wrong with CAPF.

Way forward

• CAPF personnel should get better dispute resolution, communication facilities in field areas, yoga etc.
• IPS hegemony over the CAPF should be ended. 
• Some of the demands of the paramilitary forces are legitimate at face value and should be considered e.g. 
  • A Military Service Pay 
  • Timely career promotion
  • Martyr status if they die while fighting.     
• There is a need for a separate grievance redressal mechanism and a separate tribunal for paramilitary forces on the lines of the Armed Forces Tribunal. 
• For parity in allowance, “one area, one allowance” should be implemented, i.e., military and CAPF personnel deployed in the same area should get the same allowance. 
• Government should set up an R&D wing specifically to design weapons and vehicles for CAPF due to the unique challenges faced by them.

• Climate is often described as average weather 
• The classical period is 30 years. 

• Climate change is the periodic modification of the usual weather of the place. This change could be in the form of a change in the average temperature or precipitation pattern.
• The rate of climate change is dependent on causal factors, which may be gradual or drastic, regional or global.

The causes of Climate change can be broadly divided into natural and anthropogenic causes as follows

• Global Warming is the increase in the average temperature of Earth’s atmosphere leading to changes in global climate patterns. 
• The primary reason behind global Warming is the addition of an excessive amount of Green House Gases by humans since the inception of the Industrial Revolution.

Climate change resulting from the change in energy entering and leaving the planet’s system can be caused by natural and anthropogenic factors.

Natural Causes

Natural causes include continental drift, volcanoes, ocean currents, the Earth’s tilt, and comets and meteorites.

1. Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics

• Due to plate tectonics, continents keep on changing their position. 
• This drift impacts the climate because it changes the position and features of landmasses, such as a change in the flow of ocean currents and winds, which affects the climate.

2. Milanković Cycle / Variations in the Earth’s Orbit

The phenomenon was discovered by Serbian scientist Milanković in the 1900s, according to which the motion and tilt of the Earth change due to the gravitational pull between Sun and Moon. This results in what is known as Milanković cycles having a significant impact on climate and causing glacial and interglacial periods.

3. Volcanic Activity

• Volcanic eruptions result in an outburst of Green House Gases (especially Sulphur dioxide) and ash, impacting climatic patterns. 
• For example, massive volcanic eruptions 56 million years ago raised the global temperature by 8° C, and it took around 50,000 years to stabilize the climate.

4. Ocean Currents

On longer time scales, thermohaline circulation plays a crucial role in redistributing heat by extremely slow and deep transportation of the ocean water and redistributing the heat globally.

Anthropogenic (Human Caused) Factors

1. Green House Gases

• Natural Green House Effect helps make Earth a habitable place by maintaining the average temperature on Earth at around 14°C instead of -19°C without the Green House Effect.
• But human activities can increase the concentration of Green House gases leading to global Warming. 

2. Excessive Deforestation

• Excessive Deforestation has been carried out worldwide as a source of wood and to convert forest land to agricultural land. Dense forests help absorb carbon dioxide and reduce the Green House Effect.

Feedbacks are the processes that can amplify or reduce the effects of forcings.

In other words, due to the warming of the Earth, numerous changes occur in Earth’s atmosphere, which can impact the temperature. These factors are called Feedback impacts. Some of these changes can increase the temperature, while others can cool down the atmospheric temperature.

1. Feedback from Water Vapour

• Water vapour is one of the most crucial feedback effects. A slight warming of the Earth due to more sunlight or an increased greenhouse effect will increase the quantity of water vapour in the atmosphere. As water vapour is also a greenhouse gas, the extra water vapour will increase the greenhouse effect even more. Thus water vapour has an amplifying effect on global warming. 

2. Feedback from Snow and Ice-Cover

• The feedback effects from ice and snow-covered surfaces are similar. When the climate is cold, there is a lot of ice and snow on Earth, and the shiny surface reflects back sunlight to make it colder. But warmer climate results in lesser snow which leads to less reflection of solar radiation to outer space and increased warming. 

3. Feedback from Clouds

• All clouds both cool the Earth by reflecting sunlight into space and warm it up by absorbing heat from the surface.  
• The feedback effect depends upon the type of cloud.
  • Thin Cirrus Clouds (which appear high up in the atmosphere) generally have a warming effect. 
  • On the other hand, low Cumulus and Stratus clouds have a cooling effect. 

• Carbon footprint measures the total GHG emissions (under Kyoto Protocol) caused directly & indirectly by a person, organization, event or product.
• GHGs under Kyoto Protocol are 
  1. Carbon Dioxide 
  2. Methane
  3. Nitrous Oxide
  4. Hydro Fluro Carbon
  5. Per Fluro Carbon
  6. Sulphur Hexaoxide 
• Carbon Footprint is expressed as tons of CO2 equivalent (tCO2e). tCO2e is calculated by multiplying the emissions of each of 6 GHGs by their 100-year Global warming potential.

How can I reduce my carbon footprint?

Global Warming Potential

Global Warming Potential for a gas is the measure of the total energy that a gas absorbs over a particular period, usually 100 years, compared to Carbon Dioxide. 

Ecological Footprint

• It is the measure of human demand on the Earth’s ecosystem. The ecological footprint represents the impact that an entity (nation/town/individual) made on Earth that year by consuming Earth’s resources.  
• Global Hectare is the average productive land and water an individual requires to produce all the resources it consumes. In 2007, it was 2.7 Hectares /Person.

Water Footprint

It is the volume of freshwater used to produce goods and services by an individual or community.

It is of the following types

Ecological Debt

Ecological Debt can be defined as the amount by which the consumption of resources from within an ecosystem exceeds the ecosystem’s regenerative capacity.

Ecological Debt Day/Earth Overshoot Day

• Ecological Debt Day or Earth Overshoot Day refers to the calendar date when the total resources consumed by humanity will exceed the capacity for Earth to generate those resources that year. 
• It is not a fixed date but keeps on changing each year. WWF and Global Footprint Network decide it.

Side Topic: Earth Day

• It is celebrated on 22 April (every year) to increase awareness of environmental safety among ordinary people. 
• UNESCO organizes it.
• The theme of 2022: Invest in our Planet