Land Reforms

by

Land Reforms

In this article , we will  deal with topic titled ‘Land Reforms’.

 

 

Introduction

Land reform was a Government program to promote socio-economic equality in the rural setup by dealing with the deficiencies of British Era land tenure system.

 

Objectives

  • Socio-Economic Development
  • Social Justice
  • Increasing agricultural productivity
  • Improving the standard of living

 

Colonial Legacy
The British rule had a devastating impact on Indian agriculture where despite of commercialisation and differentiation, it didn’t led to the emergence of Capitalist Agriculture. Reasons were

  • Extraction of Surplus from Peasantry
  • Transfer of Surplus from India to Britain
  • Creation of Rentier landlord class instead of class of rich peasants

 

 

Features of Indian Agriculture during Colonial Rule

  • Colonial State made a very high tax demand on agriculture . Eg : Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari System
  • Growth of Landlordism and rack renting .
  • In addition to the rent, landlords resorted to illegal exactions (bonded labour, begar etc) . Hence, land owners preffered to give their land on tenancy instead of going for capitalistic mode of agriculture
  • Hence, petty commodity production with traditional technology rather than large scale modern capitalist farming was the typical production pattern in colonial India .

 

At the time of Independence, Indian Agriculture due to long term stagnation was facing food shortages and famine conditions. Hence, multi-pronged approach was the need of the hour. Eg (based on recommendations of Kumarappa Committee , 1949 & Nagpur resolution, 1959)

  • Abolition of Zamindari
  • Land ceiling
  • Distribution of surplus land via cooperatives
  • Prevention of fragmentation of land holdings to make force labour illegal
  • Remunerative prices for agriculture produce

 

 

Questions : To what extent land reforms were able to alter the socio-political fabric of rural India ?

 
It can be broadly divided into two parts

Pre 1960s Institutional Reforms

  • Abolition of Zamindari
  • Tenancy Reforms
  • Land Ceiling
  • Bhoodan and Gramdan Movement
  • Cooperatives

 
Post 1960s Technological Reforms

  • Green Revolution

 

 

Abolition of Zamindari
  • It was the first provision to be launched
  • To ensure Judicial implementation of Zamindari abolition ,  Government of India passsed First Amendment Act

 

 

Issues wrt Zamindari Abolition Act’s implementation

  • Absence of adequate land records
  • Resentment by the Zamindars
  • Zamindars allowed to retain land which were declared to be under their personal cultivation. It was followed by large scale eviction of less secure small tenants.
  • Land is in State List , only the formulation of Policy was in hands of Union while implementation was in hands of state. Eg : In J&K , it was success because presence of Sheikh Abdullah
  • Filing petitions in the Judicial courts
  • Zamindars – Revenue Officials nexus

 

However, out of all the land reforms , abolition of Zamindari met with the maximum success .  Despite resistance by the landlords , the process was completed in democratic manner because Zamindar as a class became socially isolated during National Movement.

 

Outcome

  • Emergence of Dominant Caste (Superior Tenants who got land in lieu of Zamindari abolition)
  • Rise of Rural Middle Class
  • Agricultural productivity got enhanced
  • Common villagers got access to common village resources which was earlier under control of Zamindars

 

 

 

Tenancy Reforms

Issue of Oral and Unrecorded Tenancy continued even after abolition of Zamindari.

 

There were three aspects regarding Tenancy Reforms

  • Security of Tenure to tenants who have cultivated a piece of land continuously for a fixed number of years.
  • Reduction of rents paid by Tenants to a fair level
  • Tenant’s Right to acquire ownership of land subjected to certain restrictions

 

 

There were two fold purpose of the tenancy reforms

  • To improve the condition of tenants
  • To maintain the balance between the interest of the owner and tenant

As a result , Right of Resumption for the purpose of self cultivation was introduced. However, this provision led to large scale eviction of tenants.

 

 

Failure

  • Right of Voluntary Surrender was also given to the tenants . However, it was misused and led to largescale eviction
  • Issue of Farm Servant
  • Issue of Conversion to Share-Croppers : Sharecropper were not given protection under Tenancy Legislation as they didn’t pay a rent in cash but a fixed produce as rent.

 

 

Operation Barga

  • To address the concerns of Sharecroppers , Operation Barga was launched in 1977 in  West Bengal. The objective was time bound registration of Share croppers so as to ensure permanent occupancy and hereditary rights and the crop division in the ratio 1:3
  • Issues with Operation Barga
    • Lack of Political Will
    • Ethically indefensible in context of Landlords with very small land holdings
    • Due to skewed land-man ratio , landlords often rotated leased land among two or more sharecroppers . Hence, registering all of them was economically unviable

 

 

Limitation of Tenancy Reforms

  • Security of Tenure to all the tenants met with only limited success
  • Adverse  man-land ratio led to high rents
  • In most of the states where Green Revolution was success , rent was as high as 70% due to increase in land value.
  • Ownership Rights of Tenants were partially achieved
        • Right to Resumption by land owners
        • Legal or illegal eviction
        • Voluntry surrender
        • Shift to Oral or Concealled Tenancy

 

According to Daniel Thorner, despite the loopholes Land Reforms succeeded in creation of progressive cultivators making investment and improvement in productivity

 

Land Ceiling

  • Objective : making Land distribution more equitable

 

  • During the First Five Year Plan, the government accepted the Kumarappa Committee Report, which recommended the ceiling of 3 times the Size of Economic Land Holding but stated that exact upper limit would be fixed by respective states and redistribute the surplus land among the landless

 

  • However due to improper implementation , it was declared in 1959 that the ceiling should be fixed by all the states and the surplus land should be vested to Panchayats and managed through Cooperatives consisting of Landless Labourers.

 

 

Lacunae in Land Ceiling

  • The ceilings fixed by the states  were very high
  • Ceilings were imposed on the individuals and not on the family households
  • Large number of exemptions were given by many states to promote capitalist farming
  • Exemption to the lands held by Cooperatives was also misused by transferring lands to bogus Cooperatives
  • Long delays in the implementation of ceiling provisions defeated the purpose as it led to Benami Transfers .

 

 

It didn’t meet success but the laws definitely discouraged concentration of land ownership beyond ceiling levels

 

Bhoodan and Gramdan Movement
  • It was an attempt at land reform through a movement and not by Government Legislation.
  • Vinoba Bhave organised the Sarvodaya Samaj to take up the task of Social Transformation.
  • It  was based on idea that each family should give 1/6th of their land by accepting poor member as part of their family.
  • Although it wasn’t a political movement but it had the support of many mainstream politicians .
  • It started from Telegana and later spread to North India . However post 1956, the movement lost it’s momentum and the substantial part of land given was either unfit for cultivation or was under litigation.
  • Meanwhile , the movement took a new form of that of a Gramdan which was based on premise that land belongs to God and it is equally and collectively owned . The movement started in Orissa and was successful in villages where class differentiation was yet not emerged and there was little if any disparity in the ownership of land

 

 

Positives

  • It popularised the idea that land is a gift of nature and belongs to all
  • It was a voluntary movement
  • It created atmosphere for political propaganda and agitation for redistribution of land and development of Cooperatives

 

 

UPSC Question : Critically discuss the objectives of Bhoodan and Gramdan movement started by Vinoba Bhave and their success.

 

Kargil War

by

Table of Contents

Kargil War

In this article , we will  deal with topic titled ‘Kargil War.’

 

Introduction

Line of Control (LoC) at Shimla Declaration was defined till NJ 9842 . Both India and Pakistan interpreted LoC beyond that point in their own way

  • India : LoC is along Saltoro Ridge (ie entire Siachen lies in India)
  • Pakistan : It is along line joining NJ 9842 to Karakoram Pass

 

 

Chronology

Operation Meghdoot(1984)
  • Siachen Glacier was occupied by India

 
Nuclear Test / Pokharan (1998)
  • India conducted Nuclear test
  • Weak later Pakistan also tested Nuclear Bomb

 
Lahore Declaration (1999)
  • As both countries were now nuclear powers, situation became tense .
  • Lahore Declaration was signed in Feb 1999 that conflict related to Kashmir will be peacefully resolved

 
Operation Badr (1999)
  • In April 1999, Pakistan occupied crucial positions on Siachen Glacier
  • The aim was to sever the link between Kashmir and Ladakh causing Indian forces to withdraw from Siachen and forcing India to negotiate a settlement on Kashmir Issue. Pakistan believed that any tension in the region would internationalize the Kashmir issue and help it to secure speedy solutions.

 
Operation Safed Sagar (1999)
  • Part of Operation Vijay to re-conquer Siachen Glacier

 
Operation Talwar (1999)
  • Part of Operation Vijay to re-conquer Siachen Glacier

 

Rajiv Gandhi Era

by

Rajiv Gandhi Era

In this article , we will  deal with topic titled ‘Rajiv Gandhi Era .’

 

Events during his tenure

  • Panchayati Raj
  • IT Revolution : Literacy Mission + White Revolution + Immunization + Drinking Water Mission + Edible Oil Mission + One telephone in each village
  • Computerization
  • Operation Blackboard (providing basic infrastructure to primary schools) + Navodaya Vidyalayas
  • Sri Lankan Crisis
  • Peace Accords : Assam Accord
  • Shah Bano Judgement
  • Women Perspective Plan for Woman: Dowry Prohibition Act, Health and education among women promoted & reservation in seats for women in Panchayats
  • Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (52 days job / predecessor of MGNREGA)
  • Protection of Environment : New ministry of environment was created + Mission to Clean Ganga launched + Proposal for Planet Protection Fund started
  • Cleaning Politics : Anti-Defection Law
  • Concept of Lok Adalats

 

 

Foreign Policy Initiatives

  • Action Plan for Nuclear Disarmament
  • AFRICA Fund (Action for Resisting Invasion, Colonialism & Aparthied)
  • Played important role in ensuring Namibian Independence
  • Relationship of India with Nepal deteriorated : Rajiv Gandhi’s Government shut the trade routes with Nepal which had a devastating impact on Nepal’s economy. Reason = Nepal’s growing bonhomie with China (China card)

 

 

Sri Lankan Crisis
Factors leading to Ethnic Crisis in Sri Lanka in 1980s

  • In 19th century,  Britishers had taken more than 10 lakh Tamil labourers from different parts of Madras to Sri Lanka in the lure of good employment opportunities in plantations. For over 100 years, these Tamils laboured for the prosperity of Sri Lanka . However, 1948 the government passed Ceylon Citizenship Act which deprived them of their Citizenship Rights.
  • In 1956, Sinhala was declared as the only Official Language which was considered as a delibrate attempt of cultural, linguistic and economic domination.
  • During 1960s, there was a pact which was signed between India and Sri Lanka known as Sirimavo – Shastri Pact. According to this pact, 5 lakh Tamils were to be brought back to India and remaining were to be conferred Citizenship in the span of 15 years. However, Government of SL kept on extending the time limit
  • In 1970s, policy of standardisation was introduced wrt admission in the educational institutions.
  • State sponsored colonialisation of traditional Tamil areas by Sinhalese peasants.
  • Preference given to Buddhism in the Sri Lankan Constitution.
  • Banning of import of Tamil literature

All these factors led to emergence of ethno-nationalism among the Tamilians in Sri Lanka . However, it was the Operation Liberation which Sri Lankan Government launched in 1978 to attack Jaffna which became the precipitating factor culminating in start of Civil War.

 

Under the pressure from South, Indian government was providing the necessities to the people in Jaffna.

 

 

Indo – Sri Lanka Accord

In the wake of continuing Tamil Insurgency, an accord was signed known as Indo-Sri Lanka Accord .

 

Features

  • Northern and Eastern Province of Sri Lanka would be merged into single province
  • Substantial devolution of power
  • LTTE would be dissolved and arms would be surrendered
  • Indian Army would come for the aid of Sri Lanka if required

Accord failed to materialise as LTTE refused to surrender and the Indian Government got involved in the messy situation as they faced ridicule from their people as well as Sri Lanka . It finally ended with murder of Rajiv Gandhi

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Kashmir Issue

by

Table of Contents

Kashmir Issue 

In this article , we will  deal with topic titled ‘Kashmir Issue .’

 

Introduction

  • Immediately after Kashmir’s accession to India in 1947 , India offered to conduct plebiscite under International auspicies . But UN has placed the rider that first Pakistan had to withdraw it’s troops. Till 1953 , India was ready to abide by the results of plebiscite but it wasn’t conducted . Hence, by the end of 1956, India made it evident to Pakistan and International Community that Kashmir’s accession to India is a settled fact

 

  • J&K was granted special status under Article 370. However, through successive Presidential Orders , the autonomy was diluted which led to the emergence of resentment among the people of Kashmir .
  • Secondly , due to land reform initiatives taken by Sheikh Abdullah and Delhi Agreement led to the emergence of Praja Mandal led by Prem Nath Dogra in context of Jammu (people of Jammu started a movement demanding full accession to India , greater share for  Jammu in Government services and separation of Jammu and Kashmir) . The movement was provided a national colour by Shyama Prasad Mukherjee. As a result, the entire movement acquired a communal colour and Sheikh Abdullah lost his faith in Indian secularism and demand for independence of Kashmir surfaced .

 

 

Chronology

1953 Dismissal of Sheikh Abdullah and Ghulam Mohammad Bakshi was made new leader. However , he ruled J&K with heavy hand and was accused of high scale corruption

 
1971 1971 War gave a severe jolt to secessionists – plebiscite front and Sheikh Abdullah adopted concilliatory approach towards the government

 
1975 Sheikh Abdullah became CM

 
1982 Farukh Abdullah succeeded him

 
1984 There was a coup against Abdullah and Ghulam Mohammad Shah was made new CM

 

Because of his desire to construct Shah Masjid within premises of Hindu Temple in Jammu followed by Communal speeches led to a series of communal violence against the Kashmiri Pandits

 
1987 Farukh Abdullah won the election however failed to manage state polity and administration .

 

Reason –

  • Movement for secession stepped up in the valley
  • Hizbul Mujahidin & other fundamentalist groups resorted to violence
  • Jammu Kashmir Libration Front (JKLF) (due to lack of inability to gain power during elections) resorted to separatist means culminating in exodus of Kashmiri Pandits.

 

 

 

Way forward

  • From early 1950s , people of J&K felt alienated because of the absence of good administration, corruption and nepotism, Pakistan sponsored terrorism , violation of Human Rights, presence of army and political instability.
  • Following can be done
    • Socio-Economic Development and Job creation to channelise energy of youth in constructive way
    • Devolution in true sense
    • Perception management to drive away the mistrust

 

The extent of local autonomy is a contentious issue but needs to be resolved keeping in mind the sentiments of local people.

Punjab Crisis and Khalistan Issue

by

Punjab Crisis and Khalistan Issue

In this article , we will  deal with topic titled ‘Punjab Crisis and Khalistan Issue .’

 

 

Pre 1966 Phase

During 1980s , Punjab was engulfed by a separatist movement. The genesis of the problem lies in the initial development of post-independence period

  • Akalis asserted that religion and politics couldn’t be separated as two were essentially related in Sikhism. According to them , Sikhs were always subjected to discrimination, oppression and persecution etc and Hindus were accused of imposing Brahmanical tyranny. As a result, the demand for separate Punjabi speaking state was created during 1953 All India Akali Politics
  • Another significant feature of Akali politics was use and manipulation of institution and symbols of Sikh religion to harness religious sentiments .

 

There were two major issues

Linguistic
  • To divide Punjab into two linguistic zones – Punjabi and Hindi
  • The purpose of division was Punjabi as language for Official work and Educational instruction given in schools and colleges

 
Regional
  • Demand for Punjabi Suba
  • Denied by State Re-organisation Commission (SRC) since there is not much difference between two languages

However, Akali Dal’s demand for separate state after several opposition was finally accepted in 1966 when Sant Fateh Singh assured the central leadership that

  • Demand is solely on linguistic lines and not religious
  • Even the major political and social organisation in the Hindi speaking region also demanded a separate state

 

 

Post 1966 Phase

Post the creation of Punjabi Suba , Akali leaders didn’t have any issue which could have helped them to sustain. Hence, they started to move towards separatism.

 

Secondly , acquiring power through democratic means was a problem. Hence, Anandpur Sahib Resolution was put forward.

 

In 1980s election, when Akali politics and ideology was rejected by majority of Sikhs, they began to intensify the communal content of their politics. This was followed by Jarnail Singh Bhindrawala who gave a call for separation and armed struggle against the Indian state . He was fighting for political & ideological hegemony over people of Punjab. As a result, Operation Bluestar was launched followed by Assasination of Indira Gandhi and signing of Accord between Rajiv Gandhi and Sant Longowal.

 

Features of Accord

  • Transfer of Chandigarh to Punjab
  • Sharing of water through Tribunal between Punjab , Haryana and Rajasthan
  • Compensation to those who suffered from militancy
  • Revocation of AFSPA

 

Khalistan Issue

Causes

  • Partitioning of India on Religious lines => some Sikh factions raised voice for Khalistan
  • After formation of Punjabi speaking state PUNJAB,  Akali Dal was left with no issue
  • Socio-economic inequality aggravated by the Green revolution led to grievances, which were utilized by communal forces like Akalis and Khalistanis.
  • Rise of Niarankari sect
  • Role of Pakistani agencies post Bangladesh formation
  • Emergence of Khalistani ideology under Sant Jarnail Singh Bhindranwala who took the path of terrorism, thus resulting in the peak of Punjab crisis.

 

Handling of the crisis

  • In the initial years, Indira Gandhi’s policy hovered between that of appeasement and tactical maneuvering instead of boldly confronting the communal and separatist challenges. Important in this respect was the failure of the government to act at the time of AS Atwal’s murder in 1983, which left the people of Punjab outraged and militancy grew by leaps and bounds.
  • After meeting with a dead end with respect to political approach, the government took to military action, code-named Operation Blue Star which turned into a full scale battle. It can be said that the operation was hastily conceived and poorly executed without any proper planning.
  • However, despite its negative repercussions, Operation Blue Star had established that Indian state was strong enough to deal with secession and terrorism.
  • In later years, government also resorted to negotiations and appeasements, but a hard policy towards terrorism was followed from mid 1991 onwards and by 1993, Punjab was virtually freed from terrorism. The Punjab experience is quite relevant to the country as a whole as it could efface similar in futures in other parts of it.

 

 

Assam Crisis

by

Table of Contents

Assam Crisis

In this article , we will  deal with topic titled ‘Assam Crisis post independence .’

 

 

Reasons

  • Underdevelopment of  Assam : Assamese had this persistent grievance that unfair treatment had been meted out to them by the center in terms of – allocation of funds, location of industrial and other economic enterprises, depriving Assam of it’s due share of revenues from crude oil, tea etc and control of its economy and resources by the outsiders
  • Historical Reason : Since the Colonial times, many Bengalis had settled in Assam and occupied position in Government services. Predominance of Bengalis in education and middle class jobs posed a threat to Assamese language and culture . Hence, a movement was started for making Assamese as the sole official language and medium of instruction
  • Illegal Migration : Demographic Profile of Assam underwent a change due to large-scale illegal migration from Bangladesh.
  • Assamese felt that the development and consolidation of wider Assamese identity was prevented by government’s decision to separate tribal areas from Assam

=> Hence, due to fear of reduction to minority, subordination of their language and culture , loss of control over economy and politics, loss of identity etc created the grounds for Assam Crisis of 1979-85

 

 

The people urged the Government to seal the Assam border and deport the illegal migrants. However, when the conditions weren’t met, there was large scale unrest.

 

Hence , with passage of Assam Accord, 1985 , the political turbulence came to an end

 

 

Assam Accord

Between Assam Gana Parishad and Rajiv Gandhi Government

  • All the migrants who have entered
    • before or between 1951-61 were to be given full citizenship rights
    • Between 1961-71 , although given other rights but denied voting rights for 10 years
    • Post 1971, all those who have entered to be deported
  • Package for economic development of Assam was announced
  • Central Government to provide legislative and administrative safeguards to protect cultural , social and linguistic identity of Assamese people

Indira Gandhi Era and Emergency

by

Indira Gandhi Era and Emergency

In this article , we will  deal with topic titled ‘Indira Gandhi Era and Emergency .’

 

 

Indira Gandhi Era

Indira Gandhi’s era has been divided into 4 phases

Phase 1 (1966-69)

 Issues

  • Official Language Issue : Solved by 1967 Amendment in Official Language Act
  • Punjabi Suba Issue  : Solved by making separate Punjab
  • Mizo Crisis : Solved by making Mizoram as separate state (from Assam) to ally their fear of being dominated by Assamese as Assamese  was declared Official language of whole Assam.
  • Economic Crisis
        • Drought
        • Food shortage
        • Inflation
        • Industrial crisis
        • Diversion of resources from Socio-Economic development due to 1962 & 1965 war
  • Law and Order Crisis : due to protests and agitations carried by people
  • Political Crisis : Fall of Parliament as an institution (groupism, factionalism) and usurping of power by Kamraj and Syndicate
  • 1967 : Loss of mandate of Congress in States
  • 1969 : Split in Congress

 

Phase 2 (1969-73)

 
  • Rise of Indira Gandhi
  • 1971 Bangladesh Libration War
  • Beginning of Crisis

 

Phase 3 (1973-77)
  • Gujarat & Bihar Crisis
  • JP Movement
  • Declaration of Emergency
  • Response & Analysis of Emergency
  • 1977 Elections

 

Phase 4 (1980-84)
  • Punjab Crisis
  • Assam Crisis
  • Kashmir Issue
  • Operation Blue Star
  • Assassination of Indira Gandhi

 

1971 War

Challenge of Bangladesh

Immediately after 1971 elections, Politico-Military Crisis broke out in East Pakistan. Reasons were

  • Difference between Punjabi speaking West Pakistan and Bengali Speaking East Pakistan
  • Domination of West Pakistan elite in army, bureaucracy and polity resulted into feeling of relative deprivation
  • In the absence of political democracy, there was no mechanism to remedy the situation. Hence, the movement was started for autonomy in East Pakistan. As a result, elections were announced and Awami League under Sheikh Mujibur Rehman won with absolute majority.

However, they were refused to form government and Civil Disobedience Movement was launched in East Pakistan. To contain the movement , Operation Searchlight was launched (military crackdown and political murders) . As a result, leaders of Awami League escaped to Eastern India and Civil Liberation Army known as Mukti Vahini was formed

 

 

 

India’s reaction

Although there was a strong wave of sympathy , but the leadership restrained itself from any intervension because

  • They didn’t want to strengthen the Pakistan propaganda that the entire movement in East Pakistan for autonomy is an Indian conspiracy
  • The leadership wanted to take some time so as to attack during winters making it impossible for China to intervene
  • To ensure that Mukti Vahini has gained enough strength to counter Pakistani Forces
  • To educate international opinion over the cause of Bangladesh and position of India wrt Refugee crisis and consequent burden on our limited resources

 

 

 

Hence our leadership followed the following approach

  • To give place to the Bangladesh Government in exile
  • Military training to Mukti Vahini
  • Food , clothing and shelter to refugees
  • To secure itself from US -China intervension, India signed Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation

=> Finally on 3rd Dec 1971, official war was declared and on 16th Dec Pakistan surrendered

 

 

 

It was followed by Shimla Declaration 1972

  • India agreed to return the territories occupied except some strategic locations in Kashmir
  • Pakistan agreed to respect Line of Control in Kashmir
  • Both the countries agreed to settle disputes through Bilateral negotiations without mediation of Third party
  • India agreed to return Prisoners of War provided Pakistan recognise Bangladesh

=> August 1973, Pakistan recognised Bangladesh .

 

 

Question: It has been argued that unlike the wars of 1962 and 1971, the war in 1965 was indecisive and brought neither victory nor peace to India. Critically analyse the statement and also highlight how the experience of 1965 was helpful in war of 1971.

 

Towards Emergency

Issues during 1973-77
Economic Crisis
  • Drought : 1972 & 73 were consecutive years of drought
  • War of 1971 : resources meant to address socio-economic issue diverted to war
  • Pressure created by refugees
  • Food Shortage => Rise in prices of essential goods => Inflation
  • Low agricultural productivity
  • Global price of oil increased
  • Decline in demand of manufactured goods => Industrial Recession => Unemployment and Poverty

 
Social Unrest Disenchantment among

  • Middle class : due to price rise
  • Rich and Middle Peasants : Fear of loss of social hegemony due to populist measures of Congress Government (eg: Land Ceiling)
  • Capitalist Class : Due to efforts such as Nationalisation Drives and prevention of Concentration of wealth in the hands of few elite
  • Students & Educated Intelligentsia : due to rising unemployment and chaos in the society

 
Political Crisis
  • Due to corruption among party members
  • Inability of government to redress the grievances of Citizens

 

 

These crisis created situation for Gujarat unrest where students protested and agitated on the issue of price rise of essential commodities . As a result , the Government was forced to suspend the assembly and announce fresh elections. Based on the success of Gujarat unrest, similar agitation was started by the students in Bihar. However, the Bihar unrest was characterised by two new features ie

  • Leadership was taken over by JP Narayan who gave a call for total revolution ie struggle against the system which has compelled everyone to go corrupt and demanding the government to resign and setup people’s parallel government all over the state
  • Firm refusal of Indira Gandhi to dissolve the Assembly

 

JP Movement
  • Objective :
        • To raise voice against the corruption
        • To defend democracy against the authoritative practices of leadership

 

  • Action repertoires
        • Protest + Band + Gherao
        • It was non-violent movement with purpose of crippling the government and forcing it to resign (Insurrection without Revolution)

 

  • Social Constituency
        • Students movement led by Jaiprakash Narayan based on the ideology of total revolution
        • It failed to establish a connect with rural and urban poor

 

However , the movement lost vigour due to loss of student support. But was  revived due to Allahabad High Court’s Raj Narayan Judgement which declared the  election of Indira Gandhi as illegal due to corrupt practices

 

 

In the second phase of JP Movement , the objective was Anti-Congressism ie to topple Indira Gandhi’s Government at any cost. In later phases , it came to be governed by RSS & Jana Sangh which completely changed the political character of the movement. Moreover, the agitational methods adopted were also undemocratic. Finally, it lost it’s organisational structure and reduced to mere amalgamation of all opposition parties with incompatible ideologies

 

On 25th June 1975, JP Narayan conducted a rally in Delhi where he requested all the police personnels , army as well as Bureaucracy  to not to adhere to the diktats of Indira Gandhi as she has lost legitimacy to rule this nation. They also declared that from 29th June, they would start Civil Disobedience Movement throughout the nation  with an intension to topple the government.

=> On 26th June 1975, Indira Gandhi imposed emergency

 

 

 

Question : Critically analyse to what extent JP Movement was successful in meeting it’s objectives

Question : Discuss the factors which led to imposition of emergency in 1975. Why it is considered a dark period in India’s democracy ? Briefly discuss the initial response to the emergency.

 

Emergency
Imposition of emergency according to Indira Gandhi was the most apt response to the situation existing that time

  • India’s stability, security , integrity and democracy was in danger due to disruptive character of JP Movemen
  • The leadership accused opposition of inciting armed forces and police to rebel
  • There was a need to implement rapid economic programs in the interest of poor
  • The leadership feared against the intervension from the external forces with the aim to weaken and destabilise India

=> Hence, Emergency was declared on 26th June 1975

 

Why it was a dark period in Indian Democracy

  • Suspension of federal provisions of Constitutions, Fundamental Rights, imposition of strict censorship on press , arrest of main leaders under MISA , internal democracy within the congress was crippled
  • Youth congress led by Sanjay Gandhi emerged as alternate centre of power .
  • Religious and cultural organisation like R.S.S., Jamait-E-Islami were banned on the apprehension of disturbance to social and communal harmony
  • Torture and custodial deaths occurred during Emergency, arbitrary relocation of poor people, imposition of compulsory sterilisation to control population.
  • The power of Judicial Review was undermined with the passage of 42nd Amendment Act

 

 

Public Response to emergency

There was a delayed reaction among the masses . In the initial phase of emergency it was popularly accepted because

  • Return of normal life after so many disruptions was appreciated
  • Action against Anti-Social Elements was applauded
  • Efficiency in the administration was restored
  • There was significant improvement in the economic situation and the prices of essential commodities reduced
  • Most importantly , the 20 Point Program announced by Indira Gandhi for the upliftment of poor

 

However , towards the later stages , people became disillusioned because

  • Economic growth was not sustained
  • Congress failed to create new agencies of social change
  • Abuse of power by bureaucracy and police
  • No channel for redressal of grievances
  • Fear of Authoritarianism began to be generated
  • Forced sterlisation campaign led to large scale disenchantment

=> Hence, the surprised elections of 1977 were announced

 

 

Shastri Era

by

Shastri Era

In this article , we will  deal with topic titled ‘Shastri Era .’

After death of Nehru, there was confusion that who would succeed him. There were two main contenders

        • Morarji Desai
        • Lal Bahadur Shastri

Shastri didn’t want to become PM and he advised that either Jaiprakash Narayan or Indira Gandhi should be made PM. On the other hand, Morarji Desai wasn’t enjoying backing of majority of Congress.

In 1963, Syndicate was formed (when No Confidence Motion was moved, Kamraj plan was prepared to make Congress strong again. Syndicate was part of that plan) . Syndicate supported the candidature of Shastri and he became PM.

Shastri’s Era

  • Challenges when Shastri became PM
        • Official Language Issue
        • Punjabi Suba Issue
        • Goa’s merger with Maharashtra
        • Unrest created in Kashmir by Sheikh Abdullah
        • Economic Crisis when PL 480 was suspended resulting in food shortages
  • Initially, Shastri wasn’t able to take major decisions to handle these crisis .
  • It was only during 1965 war that he started to assert himself and took bold measures often bypassing the decision of Syndicate to won that war. But he suddenly died at Tashkant and wasn’t able to reap benefit .

Question : Lal Bahadur Shastri was criticised as suffering from lack of decision making abilities in the initial period . However, it was overturned in 1965 war.

Indo-Pak War , 1965

  • Sheikh Abdullah and other leaders created a great deal of unrest in Kashmir valley.
  • Indian loss in 1962 war emboldened Pakistan
  • Pakistan attacked India as situation was vulnerable and Pakistan has also acquired military aid from US.
  • Pakistan first attacked the territory in Rann of Kutch . But due to the nature of terrain, military response of India was weak. This sent wrong signal to Pakistan that Indian forces are ill-equipped for war . As a result two operations were launched
        • Operation Gibralter : Pakistan sent infiltrators in the valley to generate Pro Pakistan uprising and creating conditions for it’s military intervension
        • Operation Grandslam : Pakistan planned to create unrest in Akhnoor so as to cut Kashmir’s link to rest of India
  • When India retaliated , China declared India to be initial aggressor. However, Soviet Union discouraged China to support Pakistan.
  • Under the pressure from UNSC, both countries aggreed to ceasefire. It was followed by signing of Tashkant Agreement which stated to return to pre-war situation (status quo ante)

Analysis

  • Despite being in a better situation, India aggreed to unfavourable terms because
      • The resumption of war would have been disasterous
      • India didn’t want to antagonise Soviet Union
  • It showed that secular principles have taken deep root in India since Pakistan attempts to flare up communal disharmony through Operation Gibralter remained unsuccessful.
  • Experience of 1965 war helped India to win 1971 war

Linguistic Re-organisation of States

by

Linguistic Re-organisation of States

In this article , we will  deal with topic titled ‘Linguistic Re-organisation of States after Independence.’

 

 

India is a land of many languages, each with its distinct script, grammar, vocabulary and literary tradition.

 

 

Pre Independence

  • In 1917,  Congress Party had committed itself to the creation of linguistic provinces in a Free India.
  • Nagpur Session in 1920, principle was formalized with the creation of provincial Congress Committees of linguistic zones.

 

At time of Independence
After the bitter partition on the basis of religion the then PM Nehru was apprehensive of dividing country further on the basis of language.

 

Post Independence

Dhar Commission

  • Why :  Marathi speaking Congress members raised the pitch for separate Maharashtra State. Following this demand, other language speaking people too demands a separate state for them.
  • Hence, Constituent Assembly in 1948 appointed the Linguistic Provinces Commission, headed by Justice S.K. Dhar, to enquire into the desirability of linguistic provinces.
  • Dhar Commission advised against this at that time reason being it might threaten national unity and also be administratively inconvenient.

 

 

JVP Committee

  • Why : Clamor for linguistic states again got momentum. To appease the vocal votaries of linguistic states, the congress appoints a committee (JVP) in December 1948 consisting of Nehru, Sardar Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramayya to examine the question afresh.
  • Recommendation : Language can’t be considered basis for State Reorganisation

 

 

Post JVP Committee + Formation of Andhra Pradesh

  • The demands for separate state on the linguistic basis didn’t subside.
  • Speakers of Telugu asked the congress to implement its old resolution in favour of linguistic states.  Madras CM T Parkasam resigned from Congress + various street marches, petitions & hartals carried out
  • On 19 October 1952, a popular freedom fighter, Potti Sriramulu undertook a fast unto death over the demand for a separate Andhra and expired after 58 days. After his death people were agitated and it was followed by rioting, demonstrations, hartals and violence all over Andhra.  Vishalandhra movement turned violent.
  • Finally, the then PM, Nehru announced the formation of a separate Andhra State in December 1952.

 

 

State Re-organisation Commission (SRC), 1953

  • Why : formation of Andhra Pradesh spurred the struggle for making of other states on linguistic lines . Hence SRC was made with justice Fazl Ali, K.M. Panikkar and Hridaynath Kunzru as members
  • Recommendation – Accepted language as basis for reorganisation of states. But rejected the theory of ‘one language one state. ‘ + Financial, economic & administrative considerations,  planning & welfare of people should also to be taken into account
  • States Reorganization Act was passed by parliament in November 1956. It provided for 14 states and 6 centrally administered territories.
  • SRC opposed the splitting of Bombay & Punjab.

 

 

Maharashtra & Gujarat

  • Strongest reaction against SRC‘s report came from Maharashtra, where widespread rioting took place. To fulfill their demand of separate Marathi speaking people’s state, there was the broad based Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti and on the other hand in Bombay state, there was Maha Gujarat Janata Parishad led the movement for Gujarati people.
  • Government finally agreed in May 1960 to bifurcate the state of Bombay into Maharashtra, Gujarat with Bombay city being included in Maharashtra and Ahmedabad being made the capital of Gujarat.

 

 

Punjab

  • Other state where an exception was made to the linguistic principle was Punjab as SRC concluded that Punjabi is not a language as it is not linguistically different from Hindi
  • In 1956, the state of PEPSU had been merged with Punjab, which remained a trilingual state having three language speakers-Punjab, Hindu and Pahari within its border
  • In the Punjabi speaking part of the state, there was a strong demand for carving out a separate Punjabi Suba (Punjabi Speaking State). This demand got communal overtones.
    • Akali Dal led Sikh Communalists
    • Jan Sangh led Hindu communalists.
  • Finally in 1966, Indira Gandhi agreed to the division of Punjab into two Punjabi and Hindi speaking status of Punjab and Haryana, with the Pahari speaking district of Kangra being merged with HP.

 

Sikkim Case

  • Till 1947 , Sikkim ruled by Chogyal Dynasty & after that became protectorate of India ie GoI assumed responsibility of defence , external affairs & communication of Sikkim
  • In 1974 , Sikkim expressed desire for greater association with India
  • 35th Constitutional Amendment created new class of statehood and Sikkim was given status of Associate state with inclusion of Article 2A and 10th Schedule (terms & conditions of association ) inserted
  • In 1975 , via referendum people voted for abolition of Chogyal Dynasty & Sikkim became integral part of india .
  • Under 36th Amendment , Sikkim became full state ie 22nd state of India. Amended 1st & 4th  Schedule & added Article 371F providing special provisions for Sikkim
  • The integration  of  Sikkim  to  India  was  unique  as  it  involved  a  complex  process  of  a  host  of  treaties. The  integration  followed  a  gradual  process  one  after  another.

 

Goa Case

  • Prolonged rule of British empire came to an end in 1947 but Portugal refused to withdraw from the territories of Goa, Diu and Daman
  • People of Goa were suppressed by Portuguese misrule and they were denied of basic civil rights to them, Portuguese carried out coerced religious conversions as well.
  • Initially, the Government of India, tried to convince the Portuguese to vacate these territories
  •  After denial of Portuguese to vacate the territories, the Indian army on the orders of Government of India, liberated the territories within the two days of armed action.

 

 

 

Issue post merger with India

  • After this liberation, another thorny issue emerged in Goa
      • Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party [MGP] desired that Goa should be merged with Maharashtra.
      • United Goan Party (UGP ) wanted to retain their separate identity & their culture essentially their Konkani language.
  • In 1967, Government of India initiated a move to resolve this issue. It undertook an “Opinion Poll” in Goa whether it should be merged with Maharashtra or remains separate. This was the only occasion where this kind of referendum like process was undertaken to ascertain people’s desire on a particular subject. The overwhelming majority of the people favored Goa to remain, separate from Maharashtra.
  • For a longer time, Goa remained a Union Territory, but Finally Goa became a state of the Indian Union.

 
New states Formed

(Order important for Prelims)
Andhra Pradesh 1953
Kerala 1956
Karnataka 1956
Gujarat and Bombay 1960
Nagaland 1962
Punjab and Haryana 1966
Himachal Pradesh 1970
Meghalaya 1971
Manipur and Tripura 1971
Sikkim 1974 became Associate state &

in 1975 Full state
Mizoram 1986
Arunachal Pradesh 1986
Goa 1987
Chattisgarh, Uttaranchal and Jharkhand 2000
Telengana 2 june 2014

Foreign Policy

by

Foreign Policy

In this article , we will  deal with topic titled ‘The Foreign Policy of India after Independence.’

 

  • Mainly Nehruvian Policy is part of Post Independence syllabus
  • Main pillars of Nehruvian Foreign Policy
    • World Peace
    • Help Colonies in their struggle against Imperialism
    • Securing national interests ie economic development and growth
    • Peaceful Co-existence of nations with different ideologies

 

 

 

Non Aligned Movement

Concept
  • It is misunderstood as neutrality. But in broad terms , it refers to the freedom to decide each issue on the basis of it’s merit and then to take a stand .

 
Objectives Four broad objectives of NAM are

  • World Peace
  • Fighting against Social injustice and exploitation
  • Economic growth and development
  • To face the challenges confronting the world

 
Reasons behind emergence
  • After World War 2, world was divided into two power blocks. According to Nehru , newly independent nations would gain nothing by allying with any  block. Hence, in order to restore peace and to symbolise the struggle of nations, to ensure sovereignty and independence, NAM was introduced

 

  • NAM also served the purpose of democratization of International Relations

 
Emergence of NAM Events leading to it

Brussel Conference , 1927 It was attended by all the Colonial Countries with purpose of uniting economically and politically to raise voice wrt Right of Self Assertion

 
Delhi Conference, 1947 Purpose was to establish Asian Independence and it’s recognition at world stage .

 
Reoccupation of Indonesia by Dutch, 1948 Nehru called conference and declared that all the facilities provided to Dutch shipping would be abrogated . This created pressure and Indonesian independence was restored

 
Korean War, 1955
  • When North Korea attacked South, India gave support to US to declare Korea as aggressor . But India refused to be part of Joint Command to push back North Korean forces  due to it’s adherence to non-interference in internal affairs .

 
Bandung Conference, 1955
  • It was the first Afro-Asian Conference which took place in Indonesia where the principles of Panchsheel Policies were laid down
  1. Peaceful Co-existence
  2. Non Interference in internal matters
  3. Respect for integrity and sovereignty
  4. Equality and Mutual Benefit
  5. Non-Aggression
Suez Canal Crisis, 1956 There was a formula suggested by India which included

  • Egyptian control on Suez Canal
  • Advisory role for the users and settlement of disputes in accordance with UN Charter

 
Hungry Issue , 1958 India condemned the Soviet aggression (but refused to sign the formal condemnation)

 
Congo Conflict, 1960 India urged UN to play a decisive part , get rid of foreign troops , end the civil war and restore the Government

 
Belgrade Conference At the Belgrade Conference, NAM got politically recognised

 
Criticism by Western powers Former U.S.A. secretary of state, John Foster Dulles accused the non alignment movement with the charge of “immoral neutrality”

 

Nehru rebated the charge of Dulles, by saying that Non alignment meant having the freedom to decide each issue on its merits, to understand what was right or wrong, and then take a stand in favour of right.
Question Critically analyse the statement ‘NAM is not immoral neutrality’ in the context of the role played by India in the international affairs during Nehruvian Era.

 

 

 

 

Indo-China War, 1962

  • India was the first country to recognise People’s Republic of China and Nehru had great affliation with China due to common historical experiences and common problem of poverty and underdevelopment
  • India’s support to China was evident in Korean war and also 1954 treaty in which India recognised China’s Right over Tibet and the two countries aggreed to be gòverned in their mutual relation by Panchsheel.

 

Indo-China Issues

  • Border dispute wrt Aksai Chin and McMohan Line
  • Revolt in Tibet in 1959 and asylum to Dalai Lama (however, he was denied to carry out any political activities)
  • Forward Policy by India around McMohan Line (precipitating factor)

=> As a result, China attacked India and the war continued for One month . However, post that China declared unilateral ceasefire. But by that time, India lost the war in all the capacities.

 

 

Analysis of the war

  • It was the biggest blow to India’s self respect which affected the dynamics of politics both within India and at global level. Eg : Nehru faced the first No-Confidence Motion in 1963 and India’s relation with other countries were also impacted
  • Nehru was blamed for not being able to guard nation’s interest as against Communist betrayal . But for some , it was Nehru’s stubborness to not settle the border dispute with China and going ahead with forward policy which antagonised China.
  • Resources for the economic development and third five year plan were diverted for defence
  • However, later analysis believes that the cause of war was more related to China’s compulsion . Eg
      • Impact global stature of India as a leader of Afro-Asian newly independent nations
      • Soviet support to India
      • Border disputes with India ,
      • To topple Nehru and discredit his NAM Policy and
      • more because of Sino-Soviet differences

 

 

Relations with Pakistan

  • Kashmir Issue : Already studied

 

  • Both the government worked together to restore the abducted women to their original families

 

  • Long term dispute of river water sharing was resolved –with world Bank’s mediation and India-Pakistan Indus Water Treaty was signed by Nehru and General Ayub Khan in 1960.