Jainism (Ancient History-UPSC Notes)

In c. 300 BCE, the Jaina community was split into two main sects i.e. Digambara (“sky-clad”) and Shvetambara (“white-clad”). Both sects developed different hagiographies (life stories) of Mahavira. They agree on some aspects but differ on others.

Birth and Early Life

• Year: 599 BCE (agreed by both sects)
• Place: Kundagrama, near Vaishali (capital of Videha)
• Father: Siddhartha – Chief of the Jnatri clan
• Mother: Trishala – Sister of the king of Videha
• Shvetambara version: Mahavira was originally conceived by a Brahmana woman named Devananda, but Indra (Shakra) transferred the embryo to Trishala’s womb, because a Brahman woman or one from low family was not worthy of giving birth to future Tirathankara . The significance lies in the interpretation, not the story itself.

Renunciation

Both sects have their own versions

• Shvetambara:
  • He had extraordinary concern for ahimsa even before his birth. Hence, he laid absolutely still in Trishala’s womb so as to not cause her any pain & discomfort
  • He realised that how easy it is to cause parents pain & anxiety, Vardhamana vowed  there and then not to renounce world as long as his parents are alive
  • He renounced when he was aged 30 after his parents death 
• Digambara:
  • Renounced the world at 30 while his parents were still alive, but with their permission.

Marriage

Both sects have differences

• Shvetambara: Married Yashoda and had a daughter, Priyadarshana.
• Digambara: Never married.

Enlightenment

Both sects agree on the Enlightenment.

• He practiced severe austerities for 12 years.
• Attained Kevalajnana (infinite knowledge) near Jambhikagrama, on the banks of the Rijupalika river.

Post-Enlightenment Life

Both sects have differences here

• Digambara:
  • Mahavira freed from defects of ordinary human existence such as hunger, thirst, sleep & disease. He no longer engaged in mundane activities & sat fixed
  • Task of teaching was that of Gandharas (chief disciples ) . First disciples were Brahmin named Indrabhuti Gautama  & his two brothers. Hence, sangha was created & later it expanded
• Shvetambara:
  • Mahavira actively travelled and taught his doctrine himself.

Death

• Both traditions agree that he died at Pava/Papapuri (near modern-day Patna) at the age of 72 in 527 BCE.
• This marks the start of the Vira-nirvana Era (used as a calendar by Jainas).

The evolution of Jainism was not just spiritual but also institutional. Key efforts to preserve and organize the vast oral teachings of Jainism culminated in two major Jain councils, each marking a turning point in the development of the religion’s doctrinal framework.

First Jain Council (c. 300 BCE) – Pataliputra

• Venue: Pataliputra (modern-day Patna, Bihar)
• Presided by: Sthulabhadra, a senior monk and contemporary of Bhadrabahu
• Royal Patronage: Likely convened under the auspices of Chandragupta Maurya, who had embraced Jainism late in life under Bhadrabahu’s influence

The council was held in the aftermath of a devastating famine that had caused a major migration of monks to southern India. When the monastic community regrouped, there were concerns about the dilution of teachings. As a response, Sthulabhadra and his associates compiled the Jaina canon into 12 Angas (primary sections). However, this codification was accepted only by the Shvetambara sect. The Digambaras did not recognize it, maintaining that the original teachings were lost during the migration and famine.

Second Jain Council (c. 512 CE) – Vallabhi

• Venue: Vallabhi (in present-day Gujarat)
• Presided by: Devardhigani Kshemasramana, a prominent monk of the Shvetambara sect
• Royal Patronage: Not clearly documented, though it likely had the support of regional monarchs of western India

This council was exclusively Shvetambara and was called to further compile and preserve Jain scriptures that were at risk of being forgotten. The existing canon was reaffirmed, and additional texts, known as Upangas (secondary texts), were appended to the main corpus. These texts offered interpretations, narratives, and commentaries crucial for ritual and philosophical understanding.

• Triratna (three gems) of Jainism consists of
  • Right Faith (Samyag-Darshana)
  • Right Knowledge (Samyag-Jnana)
  • Right Conduct (Samyag-Charitra)

• Ahimsa is central to Jainism, and it is the first vow for renunciants as well as the laity. The extent to which Jainas carry this principle is connected to their idea of different forms of life.
  • Jaina doctrine recognizes four main forms of existence—of gods (deva), humans (manushya), hell beings (naraki), and animals and plants (tiryancha).
  • Animal and plant category is further sub-divided into smaller sub-categories on the basis of their sense faculties. The lowest category comprises the single-sense bodies (ekendriya).

• Renunciant is supposed to take the observation of ahimsa to a higher level in his daily living.
  • Laypersons are supposed to avoid harming beings with two or more senses
  • But the renunciant is supposed to refrain from harming even single-sense beings (ekendriya) and element bodies (sthavara). Monks and nuns must not dig the earth, lest they kill earth bodies. They must avoid bathing, swimming, or walking in the rain, lest they kill water bodies. They must not light or extinguish flames, to avoid harming fire bodies. They must not fan themselves, to avoid harming air bodies

• Of the differences in daily practices between Digambara and Shvetambara monks, the most important relates to clothing. Both traditions agree that Mahavira and his early disciples had moved around naked. The Digambaras follow that tradition strictly. According to them, a monk must renounce all possessions, including clothes. The only things a monk can carry are a small broom for brushing insects away before sitting down and a water gourd (kamandalu) for toilet hygiene. The Shvetambaras, on the other hand, wear white robes; they view nudity as a practice that had fallen into abeyance and was now unnecessary.

• Jaina texts list six occupations—governing (asi), writing (mashi), farming (krishi), the arts (vidya), trade (vanijya), and the practice of various crafts (shilpa). Of these, governing and agriculture potentially involve injuring life (insects are destroyed while tilling the soil, while governing can involve warfare) and therefore tend to get ruled out. Trade is likely to cause less injury and it remains a preferred occupation for Jainas even today.

Kshatriya Superiority

• Jaina texts reflect the idea of Kshatriya varna’s superiority over others.
• These texts criticize Brahmanas, their rituals, and their arrogance.

Caste Inclusivity and Practice

• Theoretically, people from all varnas could enter the sangha. For instance, Uttaradhyayana Sutra narrates story of Harikeshiya—a monk from a Chandala background.
• Notwithstanding the theoretical position, key disciples of Mahavira were Brahmanas.
• Among laypersons, Jainism had strongest following among the urban merchant class.

Women in Jainism

• Jaina texts, like Buddhist ones, depict women as obstacles to monk celibacy.
• Despite this, a monastic order for women was established.
• According to the Kalpa Sutra, when Mahavira died, there were 14,000 monks and 36,000 nuns, 159,000 laymen, and 318,000 laywomen.

• The schism between the Digambara and Shvetambara sects is explained differently by both groups:
  • Digambara tradition: Attributes the split to a migration led by Bhadrabahu during a famine. The monks spent 12 years in the Karnataka region. Upon returning to Pataliputra, they found that local monks under Sthulabhadra had started wearing clothes and had codified the Jaina canon. The Digambaras rejected both practices, leading to the formation of the two sects. The Digambaras saw the Shvetambaras as having deviated from the original path.
  • Shvetambara tradition: Claims the Digambara sect originated from a monk named Shivabhuti, who revived the old practice of nudity on his own initiative. According to them, there was no forced migration or famine-related schism.
• Modern historians regard both these explanations as doctrinal rather than historical. Archaeological and inscriptional evidence indicates a gradual transition among Jaina monks from complete nudity to wearing clothes.
• The Council of Valabhi in the 5th century CE played a significant role in institutionalizing the division. This council, attended only by Shvetambara monks, formally compiled their canon. Digambara monks did not participate and rejected the textual compilation.
• Geographical separation further cemented the division:
  • Shvetambaras became prominent in western India.
  • Digambaras established their stronghold in the south.
• Over time, these differences evolved into distinct theological, ritualistic, and cultural practices.

Jainism boasts a rich literary tradition that has played a crucial role in preserving its philosophy, history, and culture. Most of the early Jaina canonical texts were composed in Prakrit, and they were systematically compiled during the 6th century CE at the Valabhi Council in Gujarat.

Canonical Texts

• The core canonical scriptures of Jainism are primarily written in an eastern dialect of Prakrit called Ardhamagadhi. – These include the
  • Angas, which form the principal sections of the Jaina canon
  • Upangas, which are supplementary texts expanding on various doctrines.

Non-Canonical Literature

Beyond the canonical works, Jainism developed a vast body of non-canonical literature composed partly in various Prakrit dialects—especially Maharashtri Prakrit—and partly in Sanskrit. This corpus includes:

• Commentaries on canonical texts, such as the Churnis, which help explain and elaborate the original scriptures.
• The Jaina Puranas, which are hagiographical narratives detailing the lives and deeds of the 24 Tirthankaras. A notable example is the Adi Purana, which chronicles the life of the first Tirthankara, Rishabhanatha (Adinatha).

However, Jaina texts arent studied as extensively as Buddhist sources.

1. Which language is primarily associated with the canonical Jaina texts compiled at the Council of Valabhi?
   a) Sanskrit
   b) Pali
   c) Ardha-Magadhi
   d) Prakrit Maharashtri
   Answer: c) Ardha-Magadhi
   (Explanation: The canonical Jaina scriptures were composed in Ardha-Magadhi, an eastern dialect of Prakrit.)
2. The Jain canonical scriptures include which of the following?
   1. Angas
   2. Upangas
   3. Vedas
   4. Agamas
      Select the correct answer:
      a) 1 and 2 only
      b) 1, 2 and 4 only
      c) 2 and 3 only
      d) All of the above
      Answer: a) 1 and 2 only
      (Explanation: Jain canonical texts include Angas and Upangas. Agamas are Buddhist scriptures, and Vedas are Hindu texts.)
3. Which council is credited with compiling and preserving the Jaina canonical texts?
   a) First Buddhist Council
   b) Council of Valabhi
   c) Fourth Buddhist Council
   d) Synod of Kalinga
   Answer: b) Council of Valabhi
   (Explanation: The Valabhi council in Gujarat during the 6th century CE compiled the Jain canonical texts.)
4. Which of the following languages is NOT commonly found in Jaina non-canonical literature?
   a) Sanskrit
   b) Prakrit Maharashtri
   c) Tamil
   d) Pali
   Answer: d) Pali
   (Explanation: Jaina non-canonical texts are in Sanskrit, various Prakrit dialects, and regional languages like Kannada and Tamil, but not Pali which is primarily associated with Buddhist texts.)
5. The ‘Adi Purana’ is a Jaina text that primarily deals with:
   a) The life of Mahavira
   b) The history of Jain monastic orders
   c) The life of the first Tirthankara, Rishabhanatha
   d) Rules of Jain temple worship
   Answer: c) The life of the first Tirthankara, Rishabhanatha