Ancient History

• Stone & Copper Plate Inscriptions: Imperial Guptas & contemporary dynasties like Vakatakas, Kadambas & Hunas issued various stone and copper plate inscriptions providing useful information about the polity, economy and society of the region. 

• Prasastis: E.g., Allahabad Prasasti describes the personality and achievements of Emperor Samudragupta in 33 lines composed by Harisena and engraved in Sanskrit & Nagari script.

• Royal Land Grant Charters: Provides information about administrative structure & agrarian relations 

Guptas issued a large number of gold coins called Dinaras, which have the name of kings, metrical legends & images of deities on them.

• Sudraka wrote Mrichchhakatikam (the clay cart). 
• It is a social drama. The story follows the love affair between Charudatta, a poor Brahmin, and Vasantasena, a wealthy courtesan, involving political intrigues and social satire.
• Characters in the drama were drawn from all strata of society- thieves, gamblers, rogues, police constables, politicians etc.
• It shows various aspects of city life during the Gupta period.

• From the 3rd to 8th century, many Chinese monks travelled to India – to collect Buddhist texts, visit Buddhist pilgrimages etc. 
• Three primary records have survived in entirety – Faxian, Xuanzang & Yijang.
• Many Indian monks also travelled to China, but their accounts haven’t survived.

Faxian or Fa-Hien

• Faxian travelled to India during the period 399 – 411 AD.
• He wrote an account of his travels in a book titled ‘Gaoseng Faxian Zhaun’ (Record of Buddhist Kingdoms).
• Although his book didn’t mention who was the reigning King (who must be Chandragupta II), it contained several observations about the life of people (some erroneous and others useful). 

About Political System

• Faxian tells about a region south of Mathura called the Middle Kingdom (Malwa)
  • The region was a stronghold of Brahmanism. 
  • The government was efficient & people were happy. 
  • People don’t have to register their households. 
• Only those who cultivate royal land have to pay a portion of their grain as tax.
• King ruled without corporal punishments. Criminals were simply fined high or low. Even in case of repeated attempts at rebellion, only their right hands were cut off. 
• Kings, elders & gentry build shrines and gave lands.  
• Royal officers were paid fixed salaries.  

About Social Life

• People didn’t kill any living creature nor drink intoxicating liquor, except Chandalas. 
• Chandalas lived separately, and their contact was considered polluting. 
• Numerous charitable institutions were built by wealthy people. For example
  • shelter for travellers and wandering monks     
  • free hospitals for poor patients, & cripples 
• He didn’t comment on SATI. Sati was commented upon by travellers like Ibn Battuta, Bernier etc. It may be considered that it was not practised on a larger scale.  

About Religion & Religious life

• Rooms with beds & mattresses, food and cloth were provided to residents and travelling monks. Monks only spend their time in meditation & reciting scriptures.
• Pagodas were built in honour of Sariputta & Ananda.   
• Pious families made offerings to monks. Kings endowed Monasteries with fields, gardens & cattle. 
• During the months after the rain rest, the pious collect a united offering for the priesthood and priests, in turn, hold a great assembly and preach the law.

About Towns and Cities

• Faxian was impressed by the city of Pataliputra & also by  Ashoka Palace with its various halls, which according to him, were built by spirits. It shows Ashoka’s palace was still in existence.  
• Faxian saw two monasteries, one occupied by followers of the Mahayana school & other by Hinayana. Faxian spent three years studying Sanskrit there. 
• Faxian tells about 
  • The city of Gaya, which was empty and desolate. 
  • The holy places of Bodhgaya were surrounded by jungle. 
  • Only 200 families lived in Sravasti.

The above instances show signs of Urban decay in some places.

Using Faxian’s Accounts as a Source

• The main aim of pilgrims like Faxian was to provide Buddhists in China an opportunity to visualise places connected to Buddha’s life. Hence, references to details concerning the lifestyle of Indians are few & cursory.
• Faxian present an idyllic & idealised picture of society in the 5th century. Many things written about taxes and punishment were incorrect. Faxian wrote some observations because he wanted Chinese rulers to follow those things in China. 

• Examples of Western accounts include Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Christian Topography written in the 6th century.     
• The author was a merchant who travelled India before becoming a monk.
• The book mentions Christians in India & Sri Lanka and well developed Horse Trade. 

Different scholars suggest different ancestry of the Guptas.

Vaishya

• The suffix ‘Gupta’ in their name suggests the Vaishya lineage of the Guptas. 

Kshatriyas

• Guptas had a matrimonial alliance with Lichchhavis & Nagas (both Kshatriyas). 
• Further, the marriage of Prabhavati Gupta with Brahmin Vakatakas falls within the Dharmashastra norm of Anuloma marriage. 

Brahmins

• The marriage of the Brahmin Kadamba family with the Gupta kings points towards the fact that Guptas were Brahmins.
• Inscription of Prabhavatigupta describes herself as belonging to Dharana gotra. Since Vakatakas were Vishnuvriddha, Dharana was the gotra of the Gupta dynasty. 

• Srigupta founded the Gupta Dynasty.

• Ghatokacha succeeded Srigupta.

The primary source of Information about Samudragupta’s reign is Prayaga Prasasti, composed by Harisena (who was an important official). Samudragupta is described as Lichchhavi Dauhitra in the Prayaga Prasasti. 

The Kacha Controversy

The coins with the name KACHA have generated controversy. 

• Kacha’s coins are similar to that of Samudragupta’s coins. But the name Kacha does not appear in official lists of Gupta rulers. 

Various interpretations have been provided regarding this. 

• 1st Interpretation: Samudragupta’s brothers revolted & placed Kacha, the eldest brother, on the throne. But Kacha died in the war. 
• 2nd Interpretation: Samudragupta issued these coins in memory of his brother. 
• 3rd Interpretation: Kacha was the initial name of Samudragupta. The name ‘Samudragupta’ was adopted after the conquest of the South.

Expansion & Consolidation

• Samudragupta was a great conqueror like Mahapadmananda & Chandragupta Maurya and aimed at the political unification of India.
• He followed an aggressive and multifaceted expansion policy consisting of
  1. Battles & Wars 
  2. Matrimonial Alliances
• From Allahabad Pillar, we get the following information about the expansion.

Campaigns in Aryavarta

• According to Prayaga Prasasti, Samudragupta undertook 12 campaigns in Aryavarta. 

Campaigns in South

• Prayagaprashasti mentions 12 rulers from Dakshinapatha or south India who were defeated by Samudragupta, like Hastivarman of Vengi (in the Krishna-Godavari delta).
• According to Prayaga Prasasti, Samudragupta treated the Dakshinapatha rulers favourably by first capturing them (grahana) and then releasing them (moksha). Samudragupta realised the practical problem of controlling the southern rulers. Hence, defeated rulers were allowed to rule in return for acknowledging their suzerainty & periodic tributes.

Self Surrender by other rulers

• Other rulers pleased him by self-surrender, offering (their own) daughters in marriage & accepting the suzerainty of Samudragupta. Later Kushanas, Sakas and the ruler of Sri Lanka were included in this category.

Control over Oversea Colonies

• It is possible that Samudragupta exercised some control over the Hindu colonies in the Malay Peninsula, Java, and Sumatra (hence, the name Samudragupta)

He celebrated all his victories with the performance of Ashvamedha Yajana. 

Side Topic: Allahabad Prasasti 

• Allahabad Prasasti was composed by Harisena consisting of 33 lines inscribed on the pre-existing Ashokan pillar.  
• He used highly sophisticated ornate Sanskrit, suggesting it was meant for elite consumption.
• Samudragupta emerges as RESTLESS CONQUEROR in Prasasti. It tells about the expansion of the Gupta Empire by Samudragupta (as mentioned above – 12 wins in Aryavarta & 12 in Dakshinapatha) 
• Curiously, he chose a pillar carrying the Pillar Edicts of Ashoka, suggesting either that he was claiming some historical continuity or, if earlier inscriptions could be read, taking a contrary stand to the views of Ashoka. Although the Mauryan king controlled far more territory, yet was modest in his claims to power.  
• But Samudragupta’s military successes were just one aspect of Harisena’s portrait of the King. He is described as 
  • An able, compassionate ruler concerned with the welfare of his subjects 
  • He is described as having put to shame the Brihaspati with his sharp intellect and Tumburu & Narada with musical performances.
  • Kaviraja (King among poets ), whose poetry surpassed the glory of genius poets 

Coins of Samudragupta

• The coins of Samudragupta represent him in various poses suggesting his prowess & martial skills. These include 
  1. Archer-type Coin: Holding bow in one & arrow in the other hand 
  2. Tiger-slayer-type Coin: Trampling & killing a tiger  
  3. Lyricist-type Coin  
• Ashvamedha/Yupa Type of coins suggests that he performed Ashvamedha Yajanas proclaiming suzerainty over large areas.  
• Legends on Samudragupta’s coins include various epithets such as
  • Parakramah (brave)
  • Ashvamedha – Parakramah (performer of Ashvamedha) 
  • Vyagra – Parakramah (brave as tiger)  

Sources for Chandragupta II

• King Chandra’s exploits are mentioned in Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription (currently situated in the Qutab-Minar complex). Chandra is believed to be Chandragupta 2
• He is identified as the hero of Kalidasa’s Raghuvamasa.  
• Account of Fa-Hien (Faxian)  (although he did not mention the name of the king, which without a doubt was Chandragupta II) 
• Coins like the Lion Slayer Type Coin of Chandragupta II.

Ramagupta Controversy

Gupta inscriptions mention Chandragupta II as Samudragupta’s successor, but based on literary sources, some copper coins and inscriptions, the successor was Samudragupta’s other son Ramagupta. 

• Visakhadatta’s drama Devi Chandraguptam mentions that Chandragupta-II killed his elder brother Ramagupta because Ramagupta was facing defeat by Sakas and agreed to surrender his wife (Queen Dhruvadevi) to Saka king. Hence, he killed Ramagupta & married Dhruvadevi.
• Sanjan Plates of Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha I  also narrate the above story. 
• The same story was enumerated in the Persian work by Abdul Hussain Ali in 1226.  

But there is much criticism of this theory as this tradition found its way from the 9th century with no evidence before that.

• It is hard to agree that the ruler of the mighty Gupta Empire was so weak that Sakas defeated him in such a way that he had to surrender his wife. The code of honour of the Guptas was much higher than even later Hindus when women performed Johar. Hence, it is suggested that Rama Gupta was a local ruler who was subjugated by the Saka King of Ujjain. That Saka king was killed by Chandragupta II. There is nothing to show that Rama Gupta was the elder brother of Chandragupta II   
• According to Romila Thapar, the heroic tenor of the story may have been an attempt to hide an unsavoury event of killing his brother, which is often the case in courtly literature. 

It is rightly pointed out that while the story of Rama Gupta can’t be dismissed as a figment of imagination, we can’t also accept it as a historical fact. 

Matrimonial Alliances 

• Matrimonial alliances with the Nagas: Chandragupta II married Princess Kuberanaga. 
• Chandragupta II married his daughter Prabhavati to Vakataka ruler Rudrasena II.

Sakas Subjugated

He defeated the Saka king Rudrasimha-III and annexed his kingdom ending Saka Kshatrapa rule. Conquest is proven by

• No Saka coins were minted after this period 
• Guptas started minting Saka-type silver coins for this region => just the symbol changed; the rest remaining the same

Title of Vikramaditya

• Chandragupta II took the title of Vikramaditya/’ sun of prowess’ and has therefore been linked with the legendary king of that name, associated with a strong sense of justice. 

• Kumaragupta I succeeded his father, Chandragupta II. 
• He performed Ashvamedha Yajana. 
• The primary source of information include coins, inscriptions & literary sources. 
  • His coins have representations of Kartikeya.
  • Mandsor Stone Inscription (436 A.D.) mentions Kumaragupta as ruler of the whole earth.

Hunas Invasion started

Towards the last years of his reign, they faced a foreign invasion of Ye-Tha/ Hepthalites (White Huns), which was checked by the efforts of his son Skandagupta. 

• Skandagupta might not have been the rightful heir to the Gupta throne and therefore had to fight with other contenders (a seal inscription traces a line of Gupta rulers after Kumaragupta-I to his son Purugupta and not Skandagupta)
• Guptas continued to rule till about 550 A.D., but by then, their power had already become very insignificant. 

• Guptas followed the policy of administrative decentralization. Defeated rulers were subjugated but were not incorporated. They were allowed to function independently in return for tribute.
• But in areas under direct Gupta control, there was an elaborate administrative system  

Role of King

• King remained a central figure in the whole administrative setup and embodiment of all powers. The Gupta ruler was the Commander-in-Chief of the Army, the Supreme Judge, and the owner of all land. 
• Kings were projected as divine. For instance, Samudragupta is considered equal to Kubera, Varuna, Indra etc., in Allahabad Prasasti.
• But in practice, the Gupta kings were not absolute despots. Various checks in the form of Brahmins, Vassals, Corporate bodies and Shastras were present. 

Council of Ministers

• Allahabad Prasasti refers to the Sabha or Council of Ministers. But Inscriptions are not clear about the hierarchy of ministers.  
• King used to consult his Ministers having various designations like Mantrin, Amatya, Kumaramatya etc.
• Kumaramatya seems to be eminent among Amatyas & equivalent in status to princes of royal blood.  
• Minister’s office was perhaps hereditary. E.g., Composer of Allahabad Prasasti, Harisena, a Mahadandanayaka was the son of Mahadandanayaka. 

Gupta Army

• There must be an enormous army organization to control such a vast empire.
• Gupta Kings maintained a standing army that was supplemented by the Army of Vassals. 
• During Gupta times, Cavalry rose to prominence & Archery became important.
• King was de-jure head of the Army. But a minister called ‘Sandhi-Vigrahika’ (Minister of Peace and War) was in charge of the Army. A group of high officials helped him.

• Ranabhandagarika‘ or ‘Incharge of Stores‘ looked after the needs of soldiers. 

Other Officials

Elaborate & methodical bureaucratic structure was absent due to the presence of 

• Feudatories 
• Involvement of professional bodies in administration (explained later in article)
• The state was indifferent towards the regulation of economic activities.

But important Officials were present. 

Justice Department

• Although supreme judicial powers were vested in the King, Mahadandanayaka acted as the Chief Justice and he also assisted the King in delivering justice. 
• In Provinces, Uparikas and in Districts, Vishayapatis were responsible for dispensing the justice. 
• In villages, headman and village elders used to decide the petty cases. 
• Further, Chinese traveller Fa-Hien stated that capital punishment was not given at all. 

Maha-Pratihara

• Maha-Pratihara was the chief of the palace guards.
• He regulated ceremonies and granted the necessary permits for admission to the royal presence. 

Espionage system

• In Gupta Empire, there was an elaborate Espionage System (which was a continuation of the earlier period)

Dutakas

• Land grant inscriptions often mention Dutakas 
• Dutakas were probably associated with the task of land grants to Brahmanas and others.

Governance in Provinces

• The Gupta Empire was divided into Rashtras (provinces), which were further divided into Vishayas (Districts) 
• Rashtras were governed by Uparikas/Kumaraamtyas directly appointed by the King.

Governance in Districts

• Vishayas were administered by an official called Vishayapatis. They were appointed by the Provincial governor. 
• Some districts were also governed by Samantas/Feudatories. 
• Pustapalas-officials whose work was to manage and keep records
• Representation of Major Local Bodies was an essential aspect of district administration. Heads of Local Bodies were taken in District Council. These include 
  • Nagarsethi (Head of City Merchants)
  • Sarthavaha (Representative of Guild of Merchants)
  • Pratham Kayastha (Head of Scribes)
  • Pratham Kulika (head of artisan community)

Village Governance

• During village governance, the villages assumed greater autonomy. 
• Headman, called Gramapati or Gramadhayaksha, managed affairs with the help of elders (called Gramavriddhas)

Urban Governance

• Representation of Local Bodies was the characteristic feature of Urban Governance.
• Each city had a council consisting of 
  • Nagarsethi 
  • Sarthavaha  
  • Prathama Kulika 
  • Prathama Kayastha  
• This council was different than described by Megasthenes 
  • In Maurya Empire, Members of the City Council were appointed by the government 
  • In Gupta Empire, the council consisted of local representatives, among whom commercial interests often predominated. 

Agriculture Expansion

• Agriculture expansion continued during Gupta Empire. Forest lands were cleared & brought under cultivation. 
• But there was a difference between Mauryas and Guptas in Agriculture Expansion.
  • Mauryas:  Agriculture expansion was through State intervention
  • Guptas: Gupta Kings gave land grants to individuals who were expected to act as catalysts 
• Using Land Grants, Peripheral areas could be brought into the agrarian economy. Initial grants tended not to be in the Ganges heartland but in the regions beyond. (Although the granting of land was at first marginal, by about the eighth century AD, it had expanded)

Agriculture Taxes

Agriculture taxes were the main financial source of the Gupta Empire. But there is a problem in interpreting the precise meaning of some of the fiscal terms. 

Main agricultural taxes during the Gupta period included

Irrigation

• Various types of waterworks used for irrigation, like wells, canals, tanks & embankments, are mentioned in texts. 
• The role of the state in building & maintaining some of these is indicated in Junahgarh inscriptions.
• Ghati Yantra / Araghatta was the method to draw water from wells for irrigation (tie a number of pots (= ghati) to a chain and rotate the chain to ensure that the pots would continuously fill with water and empty it.)

Royal Land Grants

• Agrahara/Brahmadeya System started during this period. It means donation of revenue-free plots in favour of Brahmans or religious institutions (Temples, Buddhist Vihara or Jaina Monastery) by the royal class or ordinary people under Copper Plate charters with Royal Consent (.ie generally made by the ruling class but can also be made by ordinary people with royal consent)
• The earliest inscription recording land grants & privileges were Naneghat & Nashik (by Satavahanas and Sakas). Imperial Guptas were not big donors. Only one inscription recording land grant, i.e. Bhitari Pillar inscription of Skandagupta in favour of Vishnu temple. But Vakatakas were great donees of land to Brahmanas. A total of 35 villages were donated & greatest during the reign of Parvasena II (he made 20 land grants). 
• Later, there was an increase in the 4th century as by then the number of ruling families had vastly increased. 

The security offered by the strong Gupta Rule facilitated the easy movement of men and merchandise. Faxian was very much impressed by the freedom of movement.

Internal Trade

• Internal trade was carried on by both land and rivers.
• The state arranged security for travellers and traders. 
• The campaigns of Samudra Gupta improved the means of communication, which facilitated trade.
• There were references to Nauyoga (a boat parking station) in inscriptions from Bihar & Bengal, suggesting riverine transportation of goods.  

External Trade

• Red Sea trade declined due to the fall of the Roman Empire. But there was simultaneous activation of the Persian Sea trade route due to impetus provided by the Byzantine and Sassanid Empires.
• Cosmos, in his accounts, mentions various ports on the western coast like Calliena (Kalyan), Sibor (Chaul) etc.
• Faxian refers to the port of Tamralipti in Bengal. 
• Overland routes present too used by Caravan Traders. 
• Silk Trade with China continued. Kalidasa refers to rich people wearing garments made of Chinamshuka. 
• There was an appreciable rise in the import of horses (as in Gupta Army, the importance of the Cavalry was high), coming overland from Iran and Bactria & from Arabia by sea to the western coast.  

• RS Sharma has argued that Gupta & Post-Gupta periods saw a decline in the money economy because Gupta issued many gold coins but comparatively few Silver & Copper coins.  
• Most of the Gupta rulers issued only gold coins. Chandragupta II issued silver coins for the first time & copper coins were first issued by Kumaragupta. As pointed out earlier, the reason for not issuing copper coins might be copper coins were issued by Guilds. 
• Money lending was present. Narada Smriti mentions that person will be born as a slave in the house of his creditor to pay off the debt.  

There is a debate among historians that the historic towns & cities that had developed during the second phase of Indian Urbanization between the 6th Century BC and 4th Century AD appeared to have lost their vitality & importance from the Gupta period. It was a phase of Urban Decay and village sufficiency. 

The main proponent of this theory is RS Sharma. He gave the following reasons to back his proposition 

• Archaeological evidence point towards urban decline. 
• A gloomy prophecy made in Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita that various towns will fall on evil days, Valmiki Ramayana’s description of Ayodhya after Rama’s exile, & picture of the city’s desolation in Kalidasa’s Raghuvamsha
• Faxian’s account depicting the desolation of Bodhgaya, Gaya, Kusinagara etc 

The main role played in this was the fall of the Roman Empire and the subsequent decline in long-distance trade  

But there are counterarguments.

• Historians are divided, arguing that the volume of Roman Trade was never so great as imagined by early historians  
• Red Sea trade declined due to the fall of the Roman Empire, but there was simultaneous activation of the Persian sea trade route due to impetus by the Byzantine and Sassanid Empires.
• Mrichchhakatika gives a vivid description of heroine Vasantasena’s magnificent house in Ujjayini & magnificent city life
• Descriptions of the wealthy, educated, and sophisticated man referred to in the Kamasutra  

Conclusion: Some of the earlier cities, like Ujjain, Mathura, and Varanasi, showed signs of decay and less revenue generation. But other cities were coming up. Trade was changing its dimension. Hence, some cities showed decay, but to take their place and to make good the loss due to them, other cities came up 

The position of women declined. According to Smritis and Inscriptions

• Girls were not allowed to perform ‘Upanayana Samskara’ & pursue Vedic Studies. 
• Early marriage for women, i.e. marriage before puberty, was recommended
• Intercaste marriage was disapproved  
• Women were denied any right to the property except Stridhana
• Women were considered property which could be lent or loaned to any other person at the pleasure of her husband.
•  A widow should lead celibate & austere life. Brihaspati Smriti offers an alternative that she burns herself on her husband’s funeral pyre   (the first inscription mentioning Sati belongs to this period, dated 510 AD from MP) 

But Sources present different pictures wrt Royal women

• Royal women are visible on coins & seals. For instance, the King & Queen type of coins of Chandragupta I & Kumaradevi
• Matrimonial alliances were an important part of politics. Gupta, Vakatakas, Nagas etc used it
• Some royal household women took the initiative in gift-giving. Prabhavati Gupta made grants in her own right 
• Kamasutra suggests polygyny was also prevalent among the royal & non- royal elite.

Ganikas & Prostitutes

• Kamasutra mention Ganikas (i.e. prostitute of nobles). Ganika was admired & celebrated for her beauty, but at the same time, due to fact that anyone for money could buy her sexual favours meant that she could never hope to attain social respectability 
• The position of the ordinary prostitute was miserable as she was devoid of the glamour & wealth associated with Ganika. 
• Epitome of Ganika is Vasantasena in Mricchakatikam

• Narada Smriti has a detailed discussion on slavery & mentions 15 types of slaves, including war captives, debt enslavement & voluntary enslavement
• A child born of a woman slave in a master’s house was considered a slave as well. 
• Slaves can be pledged or mortgaged   
• The ceremony of manumission is mentioned in Smritis, with which the master could free slaves. 

• The practice of untouchability became more intense  
• According to Faxian – Chandalas had to live outside the towns & marketplaces and were expected to strike pieces of timber when they approached so that others could get out of their way to avoid their presence. 

Nationalist historians called this age as Golden Age (i.e. age when every manifestation of life reaches a peak of excellence). They tried to prove this using political centralisation, high-quality literature, sculpture & architecture. Apart from the elite, ordinary people were materially well off, with little to complain about. 

Arguments in favour 

• Foreign rule was completely removed, and peace and prosperity prevailed (According to HC Raychaudary)
•  The enlightened character of the government, i.e. taxes were light, punishment mild, etc. (according to Faxian accounts) 
• Revival of Hinduism, but all other religions were tolerant.
• The use of Sanskrit developed, and art and literature flourished during the period
• Great personalities like Kalidasa, Amarsimha, Dhanavantri, Ayabhatta, Varahamihira etc., lived during this period
• Temple forms and cave architecture of the highest merit developed.

But in the 1960s & 70s, Marxist Historians refuted this claim. They studied the socio-economic structures and concluded that the main features of feudalism were present, which intensified in subsequent centuries.

Arguments against

• Existence of too many feudatories
• Absence of a large Central Bureaucracy 
• Development of Feudal elements (like Increasing land grants, Serfdom, Sub infeudation etc.) 
• Decline in trade   
• Decline of urban centres 
•  Increasing Varna distinction and social disorder.
•  The decline in the status of women.

• Silk Route extended was 4,350 km long stretching from Lo-yang on Hwang – He in China to Cteisiphon on Tigris in West Asia.
• There was flourishing long-distance trade during this period corroborated by
  • Texts: Jataka Stories has stories of trade with Suvarnadvipa (South East Asia) and Ratnadvipa (LANKA) , Sangam Poetry (Indo-Roman trade)  , Periplus Maris Erythraei etc.
  • Archaeology: Dwarka & Bet Dwarka in Gujarat, Kaveripattinam, Muziris etc.
• A major stimulus to trade was due to
  • The demand for Chinese silk in the Mediterranean Region. Chinese silk was traded through India rather than being sent directly. The reason was the political situation. Parthians were powerful rulers along the North-Western boundary of the Indian subcontinent. There was constant hostility between them & the Roman Empire. Hence, trade routes between China & the Roman Empire were disturbed. (Route : China TO India via Silk Route => Indian Ports of Barbaricum (on Indus) & Baroach => Alexandria)
  • Existence of Kushana rule which provided stability  & safety to trade + reduction in tariffs.
  • Traders started to take advantage of Monsoon winds. Periplus speaks about Hippalus’s discovery of Monsoon winds.
• Trade with China was disturbed at the end of the 3rd century because of certain reasons like Han Dynasty ended in 220 AD, the Byzantine Empire broke away from Rome and  Kushana Empire collapsed. However trade didn’t end altogether, there were some changes in routes. Trade shifted southward with the main emphasis on oceanic trade (i.e. earlier Silk to India was brought overland and then from India went to the Mediterranean world by Sea but now whole supply route shifted to Sea Route).

• Earlier, the relation between India & South-East Asia seen as political & cultural colonisation of the latter. But that perception has changed now as there were reciprocal links between India & South  Asia.
• Ancient Sanskrit & Pali Text refer to South Asia as  Suvarnadvipa & Suvarnabhumi i.e. land of gold and associated with riches.
• Since coinage was absent in SE Asia – trade must have been Barter or with the use of cowrie shells .

Major imports & exports included

Trade increased during this period  because 

1. By the end of the last century BCE, Rome emerged as the superpower of the Mediterranean world, displacing the Greek kingdoms, and the republic became an empire in 27 BCE under Emperor Augustus. Rome was the largest and wealthiest city in the world and wealth of Rome greatly increased the demand for various products from India, especially the spices and textiles of the Tamil country, resulting in a great expansion of trade.
2. Discovery of the pattern of monsoon winds in the Arabian Sea in the first century CE by Hippalus, an Egyptian sailor. Till then, only Arabs had the knowledge of these winds giving them monopoly of trade between India and Mediterranean world.
3. Overland route between India and Roman Empire became vulnerable to attacks by Parthians in Iran due enmity between Romans and Parthians.

Items of Export

1. Spices (especially Pepper) 
2. Fragrant woods
3. Silk came from China to India and from India send to Roman World
4. Cotton fabric from Madurai
5. Pearls

Items of Import

1. Roman wine 
2. Yavana lamp 
3. Coins
4. Coral
5. wheat for the Graeco-Romans in the Tamil ports.

Roman Coins

• Indians imported very few goods but were eager to get precious metal, so quest for Roman gold was driving force behind India’s International trade.
• Large number of Roman coins have been discovered, especially in South India .
• Roman Kings whose coins found

• Issue of Drain of Gold from the Roman Empire
  • Roman Gold was the main item of demand in return for Indian Exports (especially spices) .
  • Periplus  & Sangam poems tell us about the ships of Yavannas coming with gold & returning with black pepper.
  • Romilla Thappar has called Black Pepper as Black Gold of India due to gold India was getting in return for pepper 
  • In fact drain of wealth was so much that Romans became anxious. Roman historian Pliny complained of the trade with the east being a serious drain on the income of Rome. 1/5th of gold used in trade was being sent to India for Spice Trade

1 . Impact on Science

Two branches  of science were surely impacted

1.1 Astronomy

• Deep-sea navigation required reliable study of stars. Hence, it received a mercantile patronage.
• Astronomy also developed due to the exchange of ideas with West Asia where this field was already very much developed.

1.2 Medicine

• Indian herbal knowledge reached the western world.
• Greek botanist Theophrastus in ‘History of Plants’ tells about the medicinal use of various Indian plants and herbs  .

2. Impact on Culture

2.1 Western World

North India was very much impacted by Hellenistic ideas as

• The emergence of Gandhara art.
• Indian folk-tales and fables travelled westwards (Panchatantra)  .
• Chaturanga –  chess using four traditional wings of army & played by 4 players reached Persia.   
• Certain aspects of the life of Christ-like supernatural birth & temptation by Devil influenced by legends of life of Buddha .

2.2 Central Asia

• Buddhism reached to Central Asia through Traders. 
• Indian traders patronised Buddhist Monasteries at places like Kashgar, Kucha, Khotan etc.

2.3 China

• Goods of Chinese origin started to be used in India. Bamboo, Chinese Patta etc. clearly show that they were Chinese. 
• Buddhist missionaries arrived in China & established themselves at Famous White House Monastery at Lo Yang (starting point of Silk Route) .

2.4 South East Asia

• Legends about the origin of kingdoms in south-east Asia trace the story back to Indian princes and merchants. Eg: Indian brahman, Kaundinya, is said to have married a Cambodian princess, & introduced Indian culture to Cambodia. 
• Indian literature narrates the adventures of Indian travellers in these part .

• The Mauryan Empire is the first largest empires that were ever established on Indian soil.

1.1 Arthashastra

• Arthashastra means ‘science of statecraft‘.
• It was written by Kautilya / Chanakya in the 4th century BCE during the reigns of Chandragupta Maurya (although there is debate about the authorship).
• It consists of 15 books dealing with Internal Administration, Inter-state relations and miscellaneous topics.
• It gives us information like the administrative system, officers, the role of King etc.
• However, it must be remembered that the Arthashastra was a prescriptive text, which laid down the guidelines for good administration.

1.2 Megasthenes Indica

• Megasthenes was the Ambassador of Seleucus Nikator (Indo-Greek king) in the court of Chandragupta Maurya.
• Megasthenes wrote the book INDICA. Although the original book has not survived & fragments are preserved in later Greek works (of Diodorus, Strabo, Arrian, Plutarch & Pliny ).
• But we have to keep in mind that India is seen through a double filter – first through Megasthenes interpretation of what he saw or heard & second Graeco-Roman writers interpretations of Megasthenes accounts.

1.3 Puranas

• Puranas include a list of Mauryan Kings.
• Eg: “Vishnu Purana’ throws light on the origin of Nandas and their overthrow by Chandragupta with the assistance of Kautilya.

1.4 Buddhist Texts

• Ashoka was a celebrated figure in Buddhist texts because he was a patron of Buddhism.
• He figures in later Buddhist texts like Divyavadana, Ashokavadhana, Mahavamsa and Deepavamsa.
• But all the information from Buddhist texts can’t be accepted at face value because these books tend to exaggerate the accomplishments of Ashoka as he was their patron.

1.5 Jaina Texts

• Jaina text named ‘Parisisthaparvan‘ by Hemachandra throws light on the early life of Chandragupta, the conquest of Magadha, his conversion to Jainism and famine during the later part of his reign.

1.6 Patanjali’s Mahabhashya

• It was written in the last phase of the Maurya Period.
• Mahabhashya is a major commentary on Panini’s Grammar by Patanjali.

1.7 Mudrarakshasa

• Mudrarakshasa is a 5th-century historical drama written by  Vishakhadatta.
• It revolves around a clever plot of Chanakya against Rakshasa, minister of Nanda.
• In the drama, Vishakhadatta referred to Chandragupta as ‘Vrishala’ and ‘Kulahina’ which means he was a person of humble origin.
• But the historicity of this drama remains uncertain.

There are 14 Major Rock Edicts, 7 Pillar Edicts and some Minor Rock Inscriptions. 

The geographical spread of the edicts essentially defines the extent of the vast empire over which Ashoka ruled.

What do these inscriptions contain

• Explanation of Dhamma.
• King’s efforts to propagate it.
• Own assessment of his success in doing so.
• His allegiance to Buddha’s teachings & a close relationship with Sangha.
• They also offer insights into Ashoka’s idea about his role as king, his administration and various social & economic aspects.

Content of Rock Edicts

Language and script used in Inscriptions

These inscriptions were written in

Mystery of name Devampiya & Priyadarsi

• James Princep decoded Brahmi script but the mystery remained regarding the king to which these inscriptions were referring. Name Ashoka doesn’t appear in the inscriptions. Ashoka was mentioned as Devampiya (beloved of Gods) & Priyadarsi (pleasant to behold).
• This mystery was solved when a minor edict at Masaki (Karnataka) was found containing the personal name of Ashoka along with the prefix Devampiya and Priyadarsi.

• The remains of the palaces of Chandragupta have been excavated at  Kumrahar and Bulandibagh.
• Number of caves of Mauryan period have been found in the ranges of Barabar Hills and Nagarjuna.
• Stupas have been found at Banaras, Prayag, Kannauj etc. which were built during Mauryan period and give  us detailed information on the religious condition during the Mauryan period.
• Middle & late Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) pottery belong to Mauryan period .
• Statues like that of a woman at Besnagar and the elephant statue at Dhauli reveal an indigenous technique in sculpture during the Mauryan times.

According to various sources, the origin of Mauryas was as follows

• Chandragupta Maurya had ruled during the period of 324-297 BCE.
• Chandragupta, with the help of Chanakya, defeated the last Nanda King and captured his empire. In this, Chandragupta took the advantage of the disturbances caused by the invasion of Alexander and his sudden death in 323 BCE in Babylon. With the help of Kautilya, Chandragupta raised a large army
  1. First of all, Chandragupta launched campaigns against the Nandas.
  2. Later, he shifted his concentration against Indo-Greek Governors / Kshatrapas ruling over north-western India.
  3. In 305 BCE, he defeated the army of Seleucus Nikator who was ruling the eastern part of Alexander’s empire after his death. After the defeat of Seleucus, a treaty was signed between Chandragupta Maurya and Seleucus Nikator under which territories of Kandahar, Kabul, Herat and Baluchistan was given to Chandragupta. Chandragupta presented 500 elephants to Seleucus. Apart from this, a matrimonial alliance was also signed and Seleucus married his daughter to Chandragupta Maurya. An ambassador named Megasthenes was also sent to the court of Chandragupta Maurya.
  4. Chandragupta expanded his empire westward as far as Gujarat corroborated by the Junahgarh / Girnar inscription.

• Detailed information about the rule of Chandragupta Maurya is obtained from Kautilya’s Arthashastra. Kautilya was the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya and is considered the real architect of the Mauryan Empire.
• Megasthenes came in the court of Chandragupta Maurya as an ambassador of the Seleucus Nikator (an Indo-Greek King).
• The “Sandrakottus” or “Sandrakoptus”, mentioned in the Greek literature has been identified as Chandragupta Maurya.
• According to Plutarch, he had an army of 600,000.
• According to Jaina tradition, Chandragupta Maurya abdicated his throne and retired to Shravanabelagola in Karnataka with his teacher Bhadrabahu (Jain ascetic) where he committed Sallekhana.

More about Chanakya

• Chanakya = renowned teacher at Taxila University. 
• He saw Chandragupta when he was passing by his village. He was attracted by his personality and trained him for 8 years for war against Greeks & overthrowing Dhanananda. Earlier, Dhanananda insulted Chanakya when he approached him for help against the Greeks.
• Contemporary Jain and Buddhist texts hardly have mention Chanakya. But popular oral tradition ascribes the greatness of Chandragupta and his reign to the wisdom and genius of Chanakya.
• Chanakya, also known as Kautilya and Vishnugupta, was a Brahmin and a sworn adversary of the Nandas. He is credited with having devised the strategy for overthrowing the Nandas and helping Chandragupta to become the emperor of Magadha.
• He is celebrated as the author of the Arthashastra, a treatise on political strategy and governance.
• His intrigues and brilliant strategy to subvert the intended invasion of Magadha is the theme of the play, Mudrarakshasa.

• He was the son of Chandragupta Maurya and ascended the throne after his father.
• He is also known as ‘Amitraghata’ in Indian texts or ‘Amitrochates’ in Greek texts.
• According to Tibetan historian named Taranath and Jain scholar named Hemachandra,  Chanakya continued as the minister of Bindusara after the death of Chandragupta Maurya as well.
• During his reign, a revolt broke out in Taxila. Ashoka was sent to suppress the revolt and restore peace.
• Greek Texts refer to his diplomatic relations with western kings.
  • Antiochus (king of Syria) sent an ambassador named Deimachus to his court.
  • Ptolemy II (ruler of Egypt) sent an ambassador named Dionysius.
  • Famous Story: Bindusara requested Antiochus (king of Syria) to buy & send some sweet wine, dried figs & sophist (philosopher specialised in debate & argumentation). He sends wine & dried figs & replied that Greek laws didn’t permit sophist to be bought.
• He died in 273 BCE.

• There is a general agreement that  Ashoka was not the crown prince (Yuvaraja). He sat on the throne after winning 4 years-long war of succession following Bindusara’s death.
• According to various texts,  Susima was the crown prince but Ashoka was supported by Ministers especially Radhagupta. Ashoka killed 99 brothers sparing only one named Tissa.
• During Bindusara’s reign
  • He served as a Viceroy at Ujjain and also at Taxila.
  • He was sent to Taxila to quell a revolt.
  • In Ujjain, he married the daughter of the merchant of  Vidisha. Two children i.e. Mahinda and Sanghamita were born out of this union. His stay at Ujjain is described in the Sri Lankan chronicles as his son Mahinda introduced Buddhism in Sri Lanka.

• Until hundred years ago in India, Ashoka was merely one of the many kings mentioned in the Mauryan dynastic list. In 1837, James Princep deciphered an inscription written in Brahmi but King was referred to as Devampiya Piyadassi (the beloved of the gods, pleasant to behold). We came to know about Ashoka in 1915, from Masaki Edict where King calls himself Devampiya Ashoka.

Kalinga War and its impact

• Rock Edict XIII describes the horrors and miseries of the Kalinga war.
• Although Ashoka’s predecessors brought Deccan and South under control Kalinga was still outside Mauryan control.
• Kalinga had strategic importance as it controlled the routes to South India both by land and sea.
• Kalinga war took place eight years after Ashoka’s consecration.
• According to the inscription, one lakh people were slain in the war. These figures are likely to be exaggerated, nevertheless, war was very devastating. Although on the battlefield Asoka, was victorious, the inscription goes on to describe his remorse. The violence of the war completely changed the personality of Ashoka and he left the policy of aggression. The policy of conquest through the war was given up and replaced by a policy of conquest through Dharma/Dhamma i.e. Dhammavijaya.

Ashoka and Buddhism

• Ashoka had close connection with Buddhism . Buddhist tradition considers him exemplary king & devout Upasaka .
• His generosity as patron of Sangha is reflected in following things
  • He is credited with redistributing relics of Buddha & enshrining them in stupas in important towns .
  • 84,000 Stupas were built by him .
  • He undertook pilgrimage to all major places connected with Buddha’s life . 

• Ashoka was ardent follower of Buddha’s teachings
  • He had position of influence vis-a-vis Sangha  .
  • In Bairat Edict , Ashoka greets Sangha & profess his deep faith in Buddha , Dhamma & Sangha  .
  • Schism Edict  warns members of the order against causing any division in the ranks .
  • Rummindei & Nigali Sagar inscriptions point towards fact that  Ashoka visited Lumbini & announced tax concessions .

• Ashoka in Buddhist texts
  • Buddhist texts present Ashoka as vile & evil man until he came under influence of Buddha’s dhamma & represent Ashoka’s following of Buddhism as sudden transformative event .

Ashoka & 3rd Buddhist Council

• According to Theravada Chronicles,  Ashoka convened great (3rd) Buddhist council in 250 BCE at Pataliputra presided by Moggaliputta Tissa in order to purge Sangha of certain unacceptable practices .
• An important outcome of this Council was the decision to expand the reach of Buddhism to other parts of the region and to send missions to convert people to the religion. Buddhism thus became a proselytizing religion.
• Buddhist Missions by Ashoka were sent to following places

Ashoka’s Dhamma

• Contents of Dhamma were selected in a way that it should be acceptable to majority of people of different communities .
• It stressed on 
  • Showing consideration towards slaves and servants .
  • Obedience to elders .
  • Generosity towards needy Brahmanas and Sramanas.
  • Tolerance of different religious sects to create harmony.
  • Non-violence was to be practised by giving up war and conquests and restraint on  killing of animals.
  • Welfare measures, like planting of trees, digging of wells, etc.
  • Attack on ceremonies and sacrifices practised regularly on various occasions like birth, marriage etc .
• Officers known as Dhamma Mahamattah were instituted to implement & publicise various aspects of Dhamma.

Interpretations of Dhamma

• Ashokan policy of Dhamma has been issue of  debate & controversy .
• Buddhist records credit him with the propagation of Buddhism in India and abroad. But one cannot, however, lay the charge of being partisan against Ashoka. There are two strong arguments to prove that Ashoka, as an Emperor, did not favoured Buddhism at  expense of other  faiths.
  1. Creation of institution of  Dhammamahamattas – Had it been to promote Buddhism ,  organisation of Sangha could be used to propagate Dhamma.
  2. Careful study of Rock Edicts depicts that Ashoka wanted to promote tolerance & duty of  Dhammamahamattas included working for the Brahmanas and the Sramans.

• Some historians believe that
  • Ashoka’s banning of sacrifices and the favour that he showed to the Buddhists led to a Brahmanical reaction. This in turn led to the decline of the Mauryan Empire (HC RAYCHAUDARY) .
  • Others believe that the stopping of wars and emphasis on non-violence crippled the military might of the Empire. This led to the collapse of the empire, after the death of Ashoka.

• It has been shown by Romila Thapar that Ashoka’s Dhamma, apart from being a superb document of his essential humaneness was also an answer to the socio-political needs of the contemporary situation.
  • That it was not anti-Brahmanical is proved by the fact that respect for the Brahmanas and Sramans was an integral part of his Dhamma.
  • His emphasis on non-violence did not blind him to the needs of the state. Thus, addressing the forest tribes he warns them that although he hates to use coercion he may be required to resort to force if they continue to create trouble.

By the time Ashoka stopped war, the entire Indian sub-continent was under his control. In deep south he was on friendly terms with the Cholas and Pandyas. Sri Lanka was an admiring ally. Thus, Ashoka’s no to war came at a time when his empire had reached its natural boundaries.

• Mauryan state was an Empire. Empire is a political system which has  vast expanse of territories under it’s control, not all of which is culturally homogeneous . They are different from the Kingdoms in following ways  :-
  • Kingdoms  draw maximum profit from existing resources and do not make  attempt at restructuring access to resources.
  • Pressures on the Empire are many as administrating a large empire with vast administrative machinery requires huge financial resources . According to the Arthasastra, the salary of chief minister, the purohita and the army commander was 48,000 panas, and the soldiers received 500 panas. If we multiply this by the number of infantry and cavalry, we get an idea of the enormous resources needed to maintain the army and the administrative staff. Hence, Empires try to restructure economy in order to increase the revenue base of the state .
• Mauryan Empire tried to increase their revenue base by 
  • Extension of agriculture 
  • Setting new cities
  • Promoting trade
• Although they rarely succeed, Imperial Systems attempt to erase variation in favour of homogeneity . Ashoka’s dhamma was an attempt to bring homogeneity .

1 . Central Administration

King

• Maurya Empire was a Monarchy with king as Supreme authority  .
• He took all important decisions concerning the empire.
• He was assisted by a council of ministers who acted as the king’s advisors.
• King started to have  paternal attitude towards his subjects. In the Dhauli inscription Asoka states , “All men are my children and just as I desire for my children that they should obtain welfare and happiness both in this world and the next, the same do I desire for all men.”
• By adoption of the title Devanampiya (beloved of the Gods) by Asoka; according to Romila Thapar,  “an attempt was made to emphasize the connection between kingship and divine power.”

Council of Ministers

• Arthashastra & Ashokan inscriptions mention Council of Minister. Megasthenes also mentioned  SUMBOULAI .
• Arthashastra quotes that it was impossible for King to rule single handedly (like Single Spoke cant turn  wheel) .
• Primary role of Council of Minister was that of an advisory body. Final authority was vested with the King.
• We do get references about 18 departments  of the central government in the Arthasastra. 

2. Regional Administration

• After its territorial expansion , state established administrative control at the Provincial and Local Levels.

Provincial Administration

• Each province was headed by – Kumara (Royal Prince) , who was King’s representative in Province .  Eg Ashoka was Kumara of Ujjain & Taxila  .
• Kumara was assisted by Mahamatyas & a Council of Ministers.
• From Asokan edicts –  names of four provincial capitals were
  • Tosali (in the east)
  • Ujjain (in the west)
  • Suvarnagiri (in the south)
  • Taxila (in the north)

District  Administration

• Province was further divided to Districts .
• Officials listed at the level of district during this period were
  • Pradeshta (overall incharge of district), 
  • Rajuka : Survey of lands (rajuka derived from rajju, meaning rope)
  • Yukta
• King was in direct touch with these officers. In the 4th Pillar Edict -Ashoka grants to the Rajuka  “independent authority” to carry out some of his instructions in relation to public welfare.

Village Administration

• Local people were involved in the Village Administration.
• Village head was known as Gramani. He was assisted by Gram Sabha .
• Apart from that, there were intermediaries between district and village administration . These were Gopa (administer 5-10 villages) and Sthanika (administers 800 villages)  .

3. City Administration

City Administration according to Megasthenes

• Megasthenes has described administration in Palibothra (Patliputra). 
• According to Megasthenes, there was 30 membered city council  divided into six committees of 5 members each  to administer city. These were
  1. 1st committee looked after industry  and crafts. 
  2. 2nd Committee looked after  foreigners ( arranging food,stay & comfort,security, etc.)
  1. 3rd Committee looked after registration of births and deaths.
  1. 4th Committee looked after inspection of weights and measures .
  2. 5th Committee looked after inspection of  manufactured goods .
  3. 6th Committee collected taxes on goods sold at rate of 1/10th.

City Administration according to Arthashastra

• No mention of such committees is found  in the Arthashastra . But reference of equivalent Officers in Arthashastra were present . Eg :
  • Work of 4th  committee  was performed by Pautavadhyaksa .
  • Collection of taxes (Sixth Committee) was performed by Sulkadhyaksha  .
• According to Arthashastra
  • Head of the urban administration was Nagariaka.
  • He was assisted by two subordinate officials called Gopa and Sthanika.
• Law enforcers in the city were called Rakshina .

4. Army

• Retreat of Seleucus, descriptive account of army administration in Arthashastra and the violent Kalinga war   point towards a large and well organized military of Mauryas.
• According to Pliny’s account  , Chandragupta’s army consisted of 9,000 elephants, 30,000 cavalry and 6,00,000 infantry.
• According to Megasthenes 
  • There were 6 Branches of army – infantry, cavalry, elephants, chariots, transport & admiral of  fleet .
  • Each branch was looked after by a committee of 5 members.
• Kautilya has referred to Chaturangabala (i.e. infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants) as the main components of the army –each under a commander . Eg
  • Rathadhyaksha headed chariots .
  • Hastyadhyaksha headed elephant force.

5. Espionage System

• Espionage was important part of Mauryan Administration.
• Main tasks of the spies recruited involved:
  • Keeping an eye over  ministers
  • Reporting on government officials
  • Collecting impressions regarding the feelings of citizens
  • Know the secrets of foreign rulers, etc.

• Arthashastra  divided Spies (Gudhapurusha) into three type

6. Law & Justice

• Arthasastra is full of codes listing punishments for various offences.
• There were various kinds of courts to settle disputes at various levels.

• Punishment for crimes range from fines to mutilation of limbs to death.
• Ashokan edicts mention that each 5th year king would despatch a gentle officer , neither fierce nor harsh on a tour to ensure that justice was being done  .

7. Revenue Administration

• According to Arthashastra ,  different resources from where revenue flowed into the state treasury (Kosa) were rural areas, cities, roads , pastures , plantations, forests and mines.

• Tax on agricultural produce constituted the most important source of revenue. Usually, the king was entitled to one-sixth of the produce.
• Kosa/ Treasury was looked after by an official Sannidhata (Chief Accountant) .
• The state was also empowered to impose taxes in case of emergency for increasing its earnings.
• King had the right of granting remission of land revenue as Ashoka reduced the Bhaga of the village Lumbini to 1/8 and scrapped Bali altogether.

8. Public Works

State took keen interest in public works. Account  of Megasthenes and  Arthasastra corroborate this

• Irrigation  : Tanks like Sudarshan Tadaga in Junahgarh .
• Medical facilities were available to both men and animals.
• State also helped its citizens during natural calamities like floods, famines, etc.
• Laying down and repair of roads and opening of inns.

• Arthashastra recommended 4 fold varna system in society but how far that was followed is debatable. Eg : Pushymitra Shunga , a Brahmin who overthrew Mauryan Empire was Commander in Chief of Mauryas .

• Megasthenes divided Indian people into 7 strata  i.e. Philosophers, Farmers, Herdsmen & Hunter, Artisans & Traders, Soldiers, Overseers & King’s Counsellors . It seems Megasthenes’s own creation although it is possible to be modelled on Herodotus’s classification of Egyptian  society into similar 7 strata.

• Untouchability
  • There was significant hardening of Brahmanical position on untouchability .
  • Well of Chandalas could only be used by them & none else .Chandalas  were known as Antavasayin (living at end) suggesting that they lived on margins of settlement .

• Women
  • There reference of king’s women bodyguard in Arthashastra .
  • Women were also  employed by the state as spies and performers.
  • Women of the upper castes who had become widowed, deserted wives  or ageing prostitutes could get work from the state, such as spinning yarn .
  • Female ascetics were known, but were few and far between .
  • Kautilya in his Arthashastra argued that prostitutes should also be taxed  .

• Surprisingly, there is no mention of either varna or jati in the Ashokan edicts, which may suggest that they were not yet so prominent as social categories. 

• Tensions in Society
  • Ashoka’s emphatic plea for social harmony and repeated calls for equal respect towards brahmans and shramanas suggest that there were social tensions.

1. Agriculture

• Mauryan State was producing substantial agriculture surplus because of use of iron  in agriculture started  and start of paddy cultivation in North India   .
• The Greeks noted with wonder that two crops could be raised annually in India because of the fertility of the soil.
• Due to growth in agriculture, cultivator  assumed  important role. Megasthenes in his seven classes mentions the farmers as the second class suggesting it was numerically large class .
• Essential resources needed for Mauryan State could only be got from land revenue. Hence, Arthasastra is careful in designing efficient revenue system of the State.

• Lumbini(Rummindei)  Edict states that when Ashoka visited Lumbini i.e. birthplace of the Buddha, he exempted payment of Bali and reduced the payment of Bhaga to 1/8. Even Asoka’s great respect for the Buddha did not prompt the emperor to exempt the village totally from the payment of taxes.
• State took steps to provide Irrigation . Eg:  Pushyagupta, governor of Chandragupta Maurya, built a dam in  Girnar (Saurashtra) known as Sudarshana tadaga (water tank).

2. Trade & Urban Economy

• Mauryan state wanted to expand trade and commerce . For this, they established  new state founded walled  towns and markets .

Improved Transport

• River transport was improved because forests around the Valleys were cleared .
• There was an officer called Agronomoi whose function was to maintain Royal Road and put distance markers after every 10 Stadia (10 Stadia = 0.5 Mile)  . 

State Control on Trade

• The sale of merchandise , in theory, was strictly supervised. Goods were required to be stamped (to distinguish between the old and the new) .
• According to Megasthenes , tax was one-tenth of the sale proceeds and failure to pay this tax was punishable with death.
• Arthashastra recommends  appointment of following officers related to Trade
  1. Panyadhyaksha : Superintendent of Trade to fix price of goods
  2. Pautavadyaksha : Superintendent of weights and measures
  3. Navadhyaksha : Superintendent of State boats
  4. Sulkadhyaksha : Superintendent of taxes , tolls and custom dues

Mining

• According to Arthashastra, State enjoyed a monopoly in mines and trade in mineral products.
• Arthasastra provides for a superintendent of mines called  Akara-dhyaksha   – to look for new mines & reopen old ones.

Ashoka ruled for thirty-seven years and died in about 232 BCE . Subsequently, a political decline set in and the empire began to break up. The last of the Mauryas, Brihadratha, was assassinated during an inspection of the troops by the brahman Pushyamitra, the commander of the army. Pushyamitra founded the successor Shunga dynasty .

1 . Role of Ashoka

Debate 1:  Revolt of the brahmans because of his pro-Buddhist policy ( by HP Shastri)

• But this can be challenged because
  • His general policy was not an active proselytizing in favour of Buddhism at expense of Brahmanism. 
  • Respect to both brahmans and shramanas was part of Ashoka’s Dhamma.
• Buddhism’s more extensive spread happened in post Mauryan Period due to patrons in form  of Mercantile Community and not due to Ashoka.

Debate 2 : Pacific policy of Asoka (by HC Raychaudhary)

• It is argued that his obsession with non-violence led to the emasculation of army,  laying the country open to invasion.
• But Edicts prove that this was not the case. His open threat to Tribals to mend their ways otherwise they would be crushed & his advice to his sons and grandsons on the use of violence prove that army was still powerful .

However, a long reign marked by only one military campaign in the early years may have adversely affected the preparedness of the army, and this may have been a factor responsible for the success of the Greek invasions.

More probable reasons are to be found elsewhere.

2. Pressure on Mauryan Economy (By DD KAUSAMBI)

• There was need for vast revenues to
  1. Maintain large army
  2. To finance the salaries of  upper levels of  bureaucracy
  3. Cost of establishing settlements on newly cleared land
• This  strained the treasury. Debasement of silver coins in  later Mauryan period shows severe pressure on  economy and lack of resource to maintain the structure .

3. Structure of Mauryan Administration (By Romila Thapar)

• Mauryan bureaucracy was centralized, with the ruler – or king – as the key figure towards whom loyalty was directed. A change of king meant a re-alignment of loyalty .
• Recruitment was arbitrary, with local governors choosing their officers  hence, there was  possibility of particular social groups monopolizing administrative control in certain areas  .
• Lack of representative institutions to stabilize public opinion . They used espionage to stabilise public opinion which must have created manifold tensions in the administration.

4. Invasions in North-West

• After the demise of Ashoka, North-West saw invasion by Bactrian Greeks (because they were pushed by Parthians & Scythians) which destabilized the Empire  .

Absence of nationalism, the idea of loyalty to the state rather than to a particular king, and the lack of popular representative institutions and absence of Chinese-type examination system  in Maurya India  are not very helpful in explaining the decline of the Maurya empire.

All empires rely on mechanisms of integration and control over territory, resources, and people. These mechanisms include military force, administrative infrastructure, and ideology. In the case of the Mauryas, given the vast contours of the empire, all three must have been strained to their utmost. It was just a matter of time before the distant provinces broke away from the centre.

• Indus Valley Civilisation represents the first phase of urbanisation in India contemporaneous with the civilisations of Mesopotamia and Egypt
• This civilisation did not appear all of a sudden. It developed gradually on the foundations provided by Neolithic villages in the area.  For example, Neolithic villages in this region go back to about 7000 BCE at the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh.
• It is known by various names like
  1. Indus Valley Civilization : It was mainly spread in valley of Indus and it’s tributaries.
  2. Harappan Civilization  : As Harappa was the first site of this civilisation to be discovered.

• Civilization was spread over nearly 1.5 million sq. km area.
• Its core area was in the regions of Pakistan, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
• It is spread between
  1. Sutkagen-dor (on Pakistan-Iran border) in the west 
  2. Manda (Jammu and Kashmir) in the north
  3. Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh, India) in the east
  4. Daimabad (Maharashtra, India) in the south 

Harappan civilisation is dated between c. 2600 and 1900 BC. There were earlier and later cultures, often called Early Harappan and Late Harappan. The Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from these cultures.

Note : The urban phase was prevalent in the mature Harappan period and began to decline afterwards.

1 . Planned Towns

• Harappan Cities were well planned .   
• There was Grid Pattern of streets cutting each other at right angles . The streets were wide enough for too and fro movement of traffic.
• City was divided into two distinct parts i.e.
  • Citadel : Small , higher &  fortified (walled) which housed important  buildings like Granaries, Great Bath etc.
  • Lower Town : Bigger , lower and separately walled housing common public .  
• Since the city was walled, it meant that once the wall was built, it couldn’t be expanded. It corroborates the fact that city was first planned and then built according to the plan.

2 . Fortified Towns

• Harappan cities were fortified . 
• These fortifications could have served following purposes :-
  • Protection from attacks .
  • Exclude outsiders  .
  • Helps  to control activities inside the fortification.
  • If traders bring goods from places faraway they can demand share for allowing  access to potential buyers inside

3 . Impressive drainage system

• It was the most complete ancient drainage system  seen in any ancient civilization.   Perhaps no other Bronze civilization paid such emphasis on health and cleanliness as Harappans.
• Every house was connected to street drains.
• Main channels were made of bricks set in mortar and  covered with loose bricks that could be removed for cleaning. House drains first emptied into a sump or cesspit into which solid matter settled while waste water flowed out into the street drains.
• Drainage systems were not unique to the larger cities, but were found in smaller settlements  as  well. 

4 . Extensive use of standardised baked bricks

• Size of bricks was uniform (ratio = 4:2:1).
• Standardised size of bricks indicate that brick making was organised on large scale.
• Various brick laying techniques were used including ENGLISH BOND STYLE (for maximum strength).
• Note : In contemporary Egyptian Culture, dried bricks were used . Although, baked bricks were used in Mesopotamia but they were used much widely in Harappan culture.

5 . Houses

• People lived in houses of different sizes showing that stratification was present in the society.
• Staircases were present in some houses which might have led to roof .
• Although most of houses were single storied . But two and three storied houses were also present.
• Floors were made of high packed earth. 
• Small houses attached to large ones might have been quarters of service groups  .
• Toilets & Bathrooms : Houses  had separate bathing & toilet areas . Floor of these was made of tightly fitted bricks .
• Houses were without much decoration showing utilitarian outlook of Harappan people .

Harappan sewage & drainage was far more advanced than any other  found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East.

Sewage  System

• Every house was connected to street drains.
• Main channels  was made of bricks set in mortar and was covered with loose bricks that could be removed for cleaning.
• House drains emptied into cesspit where solid matter settled and waste water flowed into street drains

Water Management in various cities

• Harappans were producing enough food to sustain urban population which was engaged in activities other than agriculture. Their subsistence base was wide and diverse as it was situated on alluvial plains , mountains , plateaus & sea coasts .

• Today the rainfall in Sindh is about 15 cm, but in the fourth century BCE , one of the historians of Alexander informs us, that Sindh was a fertile part of India. In earlier times, the Indus region had more natural vegetation which contributed to rainfall. Along with that , annual inundation of Indus made the region very fertile. Just as the Nile created Egypt and ​supported its people, so too the Indus created Sindh and fed its people

• Crops : Harappans cultivated diverse crops such as
  • Wheat
  • Barley
  • Lentil
  • Chickpea
  • Sesame
  • various millets
  • Note : although rice husk has been found at sites like Rangpur but it wasn’t the main crop of Harappan civilisation.

• Cotton : Cotton was cultivated in Harappan civilisation . Following evidences prove this fact
  • Figurines wearing clothes (eg : Priest King, Mother Goddess).
  • Mesopotamian texts state that cotton was important import from Meluha .

• Ploughing :  Harappans used ploughs. They ploughed the land and then sowed the seeds increasing the agricultural output. Ploughed fields have been found at Kalibangan. Terracotta models of the plough have been found at at Banawali (Haryana).

• Irrigation : Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was probably required for agriculture. Harappans built embankments and dams for irrigation. For example :-
  • Irrigation canals have been found at Shortughai .
  • Water drawn from wells was also used for irrigation.
  • Water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat).

• Animals were domesticated by the Harappans for meat, milk and draught purposes.
• They domesticated  sheep, goat, buffalo , fowl etc.
• They also ate fish . In states like Gujarat, Molluscs were widely consumed. Marine catfish bones have been found at Harappa showing coastal community traded in dried fish  .
• Evidence from seals show region also housed humped bulls, rhinoceros, ibexes , boar, deer and gharial .
• Issue of Horse is controversial
  • Horse remains have been reported from  Harappa , Lothal, Surkotda & Kalibangan . But analysis of bones is questioned by other scholars .  
  • In any case, the Harappan culture was not horse-centered. Representation of horse has not been found  on seals or pottery .
  • For UPSC exam, we can say that horse was not known to them.

• Harappans did not use metal money, and in all probability carried exchanges through a barter system.
• Two types of trade was going on

External Trade

• Evidences showing External Trade are as follows
  1. Harappan seals and materials  found in the Sumerian and Mesopotamian sites as well as  in Oman, Bahrain and Iran.
  2. Mesopotamian  inscriptions mention the trade between Mesopotamia and Harappans. The mention of “Meluha” in the Mesopotamian  inscriptions refers to the Indus region.
• Important exports were
  • Carnelian beads – found even in Mesopotamian Royal Graves
  • Textile – Mesopotamian Records of King Sargon mention this
  • Ivory & Ivory objects 
  • Lapis Lazuli,Gold, Silver , copper, tortoiseshell , chicken like bird
• Import imports were
  • Fish, grain , wool, woollen garments & silver from Mesopotamia

Internal Trade

• Harappans also interacted with various regions of India and acquired raw materials and processed them.
• These regions were as follows

• Harappans had developed proper weights and measures. Since they were involved in commercial transactions, they needed standard measures.
• Cubical weights made of chert, chalcedony, black stone etc. have been found at excavated sites.
• Weights exhibit a binary system. The ratio of weight is doubled as 1:2:4:8:16:32.
• They also used a measuring scale in which one inch was around 1.75 cm. Sticks inscribed with measure marks have been found, and one of these is made of bronze.

Harappan people had wide faiths and belief systems.

1 . Nature worship

• Harappan seals, sealings, amulets & copper tablets depict number of trees , plants & animals . Some might have cultic significance as well and these include
  • Pipal (Ficus Religosa) 
  • Bull which is symbol of male virility . Seal from Chanhu-daro depict a bull bison with erect penis, fecundating a supine human figure. 
  • One horned animal probably Unicorn.
  • Composite animals like Tiger-Human. Conception of composite gods like Narsimha can be traced back to this .

2 . Mother Goddess

• Worship of female goddesses is historically associated with fertility  .
• Mother Goddess is slim female with  fan shaped headdress & wearing short skirt . She is heavily ornamented with necklaces and  earrings. 

3 . Proto Shiva

• Harappans also worshipped male god represented on  seal discovered at Mohenjodaro known as Pashupati Seal. The god is surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, and below his throne there is a buffalo, and at his feet two deer.
• Note : It resembles with Shiva who is Mahayogi (the great yogi) & Pashupati( lord of animals)

4 . Priest King

• Found at Mohenjo Daro known as Priest king. 
• He was called Priest King because archaeologists were familiar with Mesopotamian history and its “priest-kings” .

5 . Fire Alters

• Citadel at Kalibangan consists of  fire alters where offerings were made into fire.
• Fire Alters have also been reported at Banawali, Lothal, Amri & Rakhigarhi .
• Fire ritual was central to Vedic religion . These evidences indicate that Aryans might have adopted this from Harappans when they came & settled down in these areas .

6 . The Great Bath

• The Great Bath found at Mohenjodaro might have  religious significance as well.
• The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank with two staircases  on the north and south leading into the tank. There were rooms on three sides, in one of which was a large well. Water from the tank flowed into Great Bath . Across  a lane to the north lay a smaller building with eight bathrooms. The uniqueness of the structure and fact that it was found on citadel  led scholars to suggest that it was meant for some kind of a special ritual bath.

• The biggest mystery  about the Harappans is which language(s) they spoke.
• Harappan script consists of 400-450 basic signs.
• Harappan script was pictographic in nature (i.e. picture used to represent a word).   
• It was written from right to left corroborated by the fact that some seals show a wider spacing on the right and cramping on the left. 
• Although larger inscriptions were rare. In large inscriptions , they followed Boustrophedon Style (i.e. first line in right to left , then next line in left to right)

• Nature of Language 
  • Some scholars argue that Harappan script and language belonged to Dravidian family . Father Heras  was strong advocate of this view . He argued that Brahui , language  still spoken in this region , belongs to Dravidian family .
  • Others historians believe that  it belonged to Indo-Aryan languages .
  • Yet others believe that it belonged to the Sumerian language.

• Harappan script has not been deciphered yet .  Mortimer Wheeler writes the conditions requisite for the interpretation of the script are (1) bilingual inscriptions with known language and (2) long inscription with significant recurrent features . Both these conditions aren’t present in Harappan inscriptions.

State was present in Harappan Civilisation . Following things prove the existence of state

1. Uniform culture over such a large area wasn’t possible without central authority.
2. Granaries at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa where surplus was collected and stored , most probably by the rulers.
3. Control of labour  as indicated by elaborate drainage system, citadels and public buildings which were made by mobilising labour on large scale.   
4. Standardisation  , site specialisation  and establishment of trading outpost at Shortughai .
5. Common system of writing across wide area .
6. FORTIFICATIONS  especially imposing ones like Dholavira, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.
7. We have no clear idea of an organized force or standing army, but a heap of sling stones and the depiction of a soldier on a potsherd at Surkotda may suggest a standing army.
8. Harappan civilisation lasted for 700 years &  artefacts continued unaltered which suggests strong political stability . 

Side Topic : A Priest King 

• In ancient Mesopotamian & Egyptian civilisations,  rulers were portrayed extensively in stone reliefs & sculptures to proclaim their power . But Harappan case is strikingly different because here no such things have been found .
• Taking view from Egypt & Meso Civilisation , stone bust of Male found at Mohenjodaro is given label of  Priest King . However whether he represent priest or king or both is far from certain.

• While the Indus Civilisation was flourishing in the north-western part of India, several cultures were developing in different parts of India..

Kashmir

• Kashmir was under Neolithic culture during this phase. Sites like Burzahom belong to this phase.

Deccan and Western India

• Chalcolithic cultures were prevalent in Deccan and western India.
• Chalcolithic culture in the form of Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture was prevalent in Rajasthan. Harappans imported copper from here (Khetri copper mines).

South India

• Kerala and Sri Lanka were still under  hunting and gathering phase.
• Northern part of South India, i.e. the Karnataka and Andhra region, had Neolithic cultures, engaged in pastoralism and plough agriculture.
• Harappans used to send expeditions to South India to import gold especially from region surrounding Kolar gold fields.

1 . Mohenjo Daro

2. Harappa

3. Kalibangan

4. Lothal

5. Dholavira

6. Chanhudaro

7. Rakhigarhi

8. Banawali

9. Ropar

10 . Rangpur

11. Surkotda

12. Suktagendor

13. Shortughai

It was a gradual decline

• Roughly around 1900 BCE, there is a visible change in the material record.
  • Population seems to have either perished or moved away . Number of settlements in Core Harappan areas decreased but number of settlements in the outlying areas of Gujarat, East Punjab, Haryana and upper Doab increased (explained by the emigration of people from the core regions of Harappan Civilisation to outlying areas) .
  • In few Harappan sites that continued to be occupied after 1900 BCE, Material culture underwent a change – a far smaller, and that too more locally exploited raw materials was utilized . There was disappearance of  weights, seals, special beads, writing, long-distance trade, and craft specialisation .

Overall, artefacts and settlements indicate a rural way of life in what are called “Late Harappan”

• Mesopotamian literature stops referring to Meluha by the end of 1900 BCE . 

Many theories are given for the decline of Harappan Civilisation by various scholars

Reason 1: Aryan Invasion

• Theory was given by Ramaprasad Chanda in 1926 but elaborated by Mortimer Wheeler .
• References to various kinds of forts of Dasas & Dasyus,  attacks on fortified cities & epithet Puramdara (fort destroyer) given to Indra reflect invasion of Aryans on Harappan cities .
• Rig Veda mentions a place called Hariyupiya located on the bank of  Ravi where Aryans fought a battle . Name of the place sounds very similar to that of Harappa. Based on this, Wheeler concluded that it was the Aryan invaders who destroyed the city. 

Arguments against this theory

• Historians like George Dale & BB Lal argue that  Rig Veda is a religious text of uncertain date & taking it as evidence on face value is not correct .
• Harappans & Aryans are unlikely to have met each other. Harappan Civilisation declined around 1900 BCE whereas Aryans arrived in India around 1500 BCE.
• No evidences of military assault have been found . Earlier Deadman Lane Theory of John Marshall has been discarded . Deadman lane is a street in Mohenjodaro where dead-bodies of 17 people were excavated. But later it was found that they didn’t belong to same period.  No bodies of warriors clad in armour and surrounded by the weapons of war have been found. The citadel, the only fortified part of the city, yielded no evidence of a final defence.

Reason 2 : Fall in Mesopotamian Trade

• There was sudden end of long distance land and sea trade with Mesopotamia. Trade in luxurious items like lapis lazuli, beads etc. passed through Elam (located on eastern border of Mesopotamia) . In 2000 BC, Elam emerged as powerful state impacting Harappan exports to Mesopotamia and Mesopotamian Imports including tin to Harappa. Decline of trade led to decline of Harappan Civilisation as well.

Reason 3 : Raike’s Hypothesis – Floods 

• RL Raikes was  famous hydrologist .
• He believes that the Harappan civilization declined because of catastrophic flooding. But such flooding which could drown buildings 30 feet was not  result of normal flooding .  Geomorphologically ,  the Indus area is a disturbed seismic zone. Earthquakes might have raised the level of the flood plains of the lower Indus river along an axis roughly at right angles . This led to the ponding of the waters of the river Indus.

Reason 4 : Shifting away of Indus

• Indus was  unstable river system which altered its course many times . 
• River Indus shifted about 30 miles away from Mohenjodaro. People deserted the area because they were starved of water. 
• But this cannot explain the decline of the Harappan civilization in totality. At best, it can explains the desertion of Mohenjodaro. 

Reason 5 : Drying up of Ghaggar

• Ghaggar-Hakra area represented one of the core regions of Harappan  civilization. Ghaggar was a mighty stream . Rivers Sutlej and Yamuna used to be the tributaries of this river. Because of some tectonic disturbances, the Sutlej stream was captured by the Indus river and the Yamuna shifted east to join the Ganges. This kind of change in the river regime, which left the Ghaggar waterless, would have catastrophic implication for the towns located in this area.

Reason 6 : Increased Aridity

• This theory was given by DP Aggarwal & Sood .
• Basing their conclusions on the studies conducted in the U.S.A., Australia and Rajasthan , they have shown that there was an increase in the arid conditions by the middle of the second millennium B.C. In semi-arid regions like those of the Harappa, even a minor reduction in moisture and water availability could spell disaster. It would affect agricultural production which in turn would put the city economies under stress.

Reason 7 : Ecological Imbalance

• “Harappans were over-exploiting their environment through over-cultivation, over-grazing, and excessive cutting of trees for fuel and farming. This would have resulted in decreasing soil fertility, floods, and increasing soil salinity.”
• Deforestation was carried out on large scale for fuel to make bricks. Deforestation also reduced the rainfall in the area.
• To sustain the city population, agriculture was to be done on large scale decreasing the soil fertility . Exhaustion of the soil may have diminished cereal production and starved the urban people.
• Gradual movement away to other areas was already happening so as to reduce the pressure on the limited land. Harappan communities moved towards Gujarat and eastern areas, away from the Indus.

• Debate on Terminology : Late Harappan vs Post Harappan
  • Those historians who are in favour of decline of Harappan Civilisation prefer to call it Post Harappan Civilisation .
  • Whereas those who argue for Transformation of Harappan Civilisation call it Late Harappan. Later Harappan terminology is preferred by most historians now a days.

• Scholars working on the Indus civilization no longer look for the causes of its decline  because of the fact that the scholars who studied the Harappan civilization right upto the 1960s believed that the collapse of the civilization was sudden. It was towards the end of the 1960s  that scholars like Malik and Possehl focused their attention on various aspects of continuity of  Harappan tradition

• Archaeologically speaking some changes are observable-
  • Some of the settlements were abandoned .
  • Tradition of uniform writing, seals, weights and pottery was lost.
  • Objects showing intensive interaction among the far flung settlements were lost.

In other words the activities associated with city-centred economies were given up.

• But there was continuity as well.

• Three prominent cultures which came after Mature Harappan Phase declined & Localisation Phase started were
  1. Cemetery H
  2. Jhukar/Late Kulli
  3. Rangpur 

1 . Cemetery H

• Cemetery H is a site in Harappa . Here, large Urn Burials dateable to Post Urban Culture were found.
• Dated from 1900-1300 BCE.
• Cemetery H Culture had Black on Red pottery with similar shapes of pottery as that of Mature Harappan Culture  , although motifs on pottery differed .

2. Late Kulli / Jhukar

• Found in Southern Sindh, Chanhu–Daro , Jhukar etc .
• Some of typical Harappan elements like Stamp Seals continued but it was made of Terracotta or Faience .
• They were still staying in brick houses but they gave up the planned lay out.

3. Rangpur

• Found in Gujarat . Main sites were Rangpur & Lothal & Prabhas Patan (Somnath) .
• There were fewer number of sites and settlements were smaller.
• They were using ‘Lustrous Redware’ characterised by bright & burnished slipped surface.