Neolithic Age (UPSC Notes – Ancient History)

• The Neolithic Age, or New Stone Age, marks a major turning point in human history. It was a time when humans transitioned from hunting and gathering to agriculture and settlement, leading to the rise of villages, crafts, pottery, and eventually civilizations.
• Early evidence of Neolithic culture is found in the Fertile Crescent region of Egypt and Mesopotamia, the Indus region, the Ganges valley of India, and China.

• Relative Chronology: In the Indian Subcontinent, Neolithic period can be placed between 5,000 BCE to 1,500 BCE.
  • The oldest Neolithic cultures are found in the north-western part dating c. 7000 BCE. One of the most important site is Mehrgarh.
  • The Neolithic sites of the central India can be traced back to 4000 to 5000 BC.
  • In the other parts like Northern Neolithic (Kashmir), Eastern Neolithic (Assam, Bihar) and Southern Neolithic, it can be traced back to 2500 to 1500 BC.
• Neolithic Age in India is generally associated with:
  • Food production
  • Pottery
  • Sedentary village life

The Neolithic Revolution refers to the profound changes brought about by the shift from a nomadic and hunter-gatherer lifestyle to a settled and agricultural way of life.

Key developments:

• Domestication of plants (like wheat, barley, rice) and animals (like cattle, sheep, goats).
• Surplus food allowed permanent settlement.
• Pottery was invented to store grain and water.
• Specialized professions (like artisans, traders) emerged.
• Art and decoration flourished (e.g., figurines, decorated pots)

This period set the foundation for all future human civilizations.

• Neolithic tools were more advanced than those of the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods.
• Grinding and polishing of tools started. Grounded and polished tools are known as Celts.
• Types of tools included
  • Agricultural Tools: Sickles, hoes, and ploughs for farming.
  • Grinding Tools: Mortars and pestles for processing grains.
  • Weapons: Axes, spears, and arrows for hunting and protection.

• Domestication of Plants and Animals: The Neolithic Age marked the beginning of agriculture in India, with the domestication of plants and animals.
• Hunting and Gathering Continued: While agriculture became dominant, hunting, gathering, and fishing continued as supplementary subsistence activities.

Side Topic: What is Domestication

• Domestication can happen in both plants and animals.
• Plant collection means gathering wild grains and eating them all. Plant domestication begins when some grains are saved and planted for the next season.
• Animal keeping is when people capture and keep wild animals. Animal domestication happens when animals are bred and raised by humans under controlled conditions for use or profit.

The Neolithic cultures of India are divided into various regional cultures and they flourished in different time periods

1. North-Western India

• The earliest evidence of the domestication of plants and animals is found in North-Western India.
• Important Neolithic Sites include  Mehrgarh,  Sarai Khola, Rana Ghundai, and Jalilpur (all in Pakistan now)
• The site of Mehrgarh (located in the Bolan Valley of Baluchistan) is the most important as
  • The earliest evidence of Neolithic times dating c. 7000 BCE comes from this site.
  • Evidence suggests that cattle, sheep and goats were domesticated, and wheat and barley were cultivated. 
  • Pottery (both handmade and wheel made) was used.
  • Beadmaking was practiced. Beads were made from semi-precious stones such as lapis lazuli, turquoise, and agate, as well as of terracotta and shell.
  • Evidence of Lapis Lazuli, a semi-precious stone not found locally, points toward presence of trade.
  • People buried the dead and grave goods such as ornaments have been found.

2. Kashmir

• Neolithic culture of Kashmir was contemporary to the Indus Valley Civilization.
• The sites include Burzahom, Gufkral and Pampora which lies in the Karewa zone.
• Most important site is Burzahom with following characteristics
  • Pit Houses: People lived in Pit Houses below the earth to escape the cold weather.
  • Domestication: Sheep and goats were domesticated, and plants were cultivated.
  • Trade with Harappans: They traded with Harappans.
  • Pottery: Mostly, handmade pottery was used.
  • Tools: Wide variety of stone and bone tools were used including perforated ‘harvesters.’
  • Burials: Humans were sometimes buried with animals such as deer, leopard, sheep, goat etc. An interesting find is the dog buried with humans suggesting dog might have been buried with his master.

3. Ganga Valley and Central India

• Neolithic Cultures of Ganga Valley and Central India are found at  Lehuradeva, Chopani Mando, Mahagara and Damdama
• Important characteristics of Neolithic sites in Ganga Valley and Central India include
  • Evidence of plant and animal domestication.
  • Early evidence of rice cultivation is also found.
  • Pottery with cord impression was used.

4. South India

• Important Neolithic sites in South India include
  • Karnataka: Brahmagiri, Maski, Piklihal and Hallur 
  • Andhra Pradesh: Utnur, Nagarjunakonda and Ramapuram 
  • Tamil Nadu: Paiyyampalli 
• Important feature of Neolithic sites in South India include ash mounds in the centre with settlements around them. Studies have revealed that ash is of burnt cow dung (but the exact function remains unknown).

5. Other

• Kucha (Odisha), Sarutaru, Daojali Hading, and Marakdola (Assam)  show early Neolithic settlements in the East and North-East India.