Last Updated: July 2025 (Numismatics (UPSC Notes – Ancient History))
Numismatics (UPSC Notes – Ancient History)
This article deals with ‘Numismatics (UPSC Notes – Ancient History)’ . This is part of our series on ‘Ancient History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you canclick here.
Relevance to UPSC Syllabus
Prelims: Ancient History – factual details like coin types, dynasties, symbols, trade links.
GS Paper I – Mains:
Art & Culture – artistic quality of coins (Gupta coins = golden age of numismatics).
Ancient Indian History – political, social, economic, and religious developments.
Essay or Optional History Paper: Coins as material evidence to build historical narratives.
In this article, we will study the overview and basic concepts related to Numismatics in Ancient India, including the origin, evolution, and significance of coinage. The detailed analysis of coinage systems of individual dynasties—such as the Mauryas, Satavahanas, Kushanas, Guptas, and others—will be covered separately in their respective articles.
Introduction
Numismatics is the study of coins.
Coins are more than just currency, they are tiny time capsules offering deep insights into our history, politics, economy, religion, and art. Numismatics turns coins into storytellers.
Coins weren’t always around. So let’s begin at the beginning—when India had no coins at all.
Indian Coinage history
1. The Pre-Coin Era: Barter & Beginnings
1.1 Stone Age
No coins or currency.
Exchange of goods occurred via barter system.
1.2 Chalcolithic Cultures (Copper Age)
Continued reliance on barter trade.
1.3 Harappan Civilization (~2600–1900 BCE)
Had extensive trade, including overseas (Mesopotamia), but no coinage.
Trade was still barter-based, possibly aided by weighing stones and seals.
1.4 Vedic Period (1500–600 BCE)
Early Vedic texts like the Rigveda mention Nishka and Nishka-Griva—gold ornaments—but these cannot be equated with coins.
2. Birth of Coinage: 6th Century BCE
The emergence of states (Mahajanapadas) and urban centres in the 6th century BCE created the need for a standard medium of exchange—thus began Indian coinage.
3. Evolution of Indian Coins
3.1 Punch-Marked Coins (from 6th Century BCE)
These were the first coins used in India.
Mostly made of silver, but a few were of copper.
The metal was cut into pieces, and then different symbols were stamped (punched) onto them using tools.
These coins had no writing or names—only symbols like sun, animals, or trees.
They are called Karshapanas in old Buddhist texts written in Pali.
These coins were used widely in North India, and in some parts of South India, they were used for an even longer time.
3.2 Uninscribed Cast Coins
These came soon after punch-marked coins.
The method changed: instead of cutting and punching, metal was melted and poured into clay or metal moulds to make the coins.
These coins were also without writing—they had shapes or symbols, but no names or words.
Found in most parts of India, except the deep South.
3.3 Die-Struck Coins (from 2nd Century BCE)
This was a new and advanced way of making coins.
Metal pieces were pressed (struck) using dies to create clear designs and images on both sides of the coin.
Indo-Greek Coins
These were the first coins made using the die-struck method in India.
Usually round and made of silver.
One side (front) had the portrait (face) of the king, and the other side (back) had religious or cultural symbols.
These coins were the first to have writing—they included the king’s name and titles.
Showed realistic artwork, with clear details on the king’s face and dress.
Kushana Coins (1st to 4th Century CE)
The Kushana kings were the first in India to issue gold coins on a large scale.
They also made silver and big copper coins.
One side of the coin had the image, name, and title of the king.
The other side showed gods and goddesses from many religions—Hindu, Buddhist, Greek, and Zoroastrian. This tells us that India was a religiously diverse land, and people followed different faiths peacefully.
The large number of coins shows there was a strong money-based economy, and India had active trade with other regions.
Satavahana, Western Kshatrapa, and Roman Coins in the Deccan (Central-South India)
Satavahana coins had local symbols, and some even had the picture of a ship, which shows that sea trade was important in the Deccan region.
Western Kshatrapa coins also followed the die-struck method and had bilingual inscriptions.
Roman coins were found in large numbers in South India. These were not made in India but came here through foreign trade, especially with the Roman Empire. This proves that India had active trade relations with Europe, even 2000 years ago.
Imperial Gupta Coins (4th to 6th Century CE)
The Guptas issued some of the most beautiful gold coins in Indian history.
These coins had images of kings performing rituals, especially the Ashvamedha Yajna (horse sacrifice).
They also had mythological scenes, such as gods and goddesses.
The coins had clear writing in Sanskrit, showing that the language and script had become standardized.
Gupta coins are often called the golden age of Indian numismatics because of their beauty and artistic value.
Coins as Source of History
Coins may look small and ordinary, but they tell us a lot about ancient India. Historians treat coins like puzzle pieces that help build the picture of our past.
Language and Script
The writing on coins helps us understand which languages and scripts were used during that time. For example, Greek, Brahmi, and Kharosthi scripts appear on Indo-Greek coins.
Coins help us track the development of scripts like Brahmi into later Indian languages.
Economy and Trade
The number and spread of coins show how much trade happened in that period. For example, a large number of Kushana gold coins tells us that trade was booming.
Satavahana coins with pictures of ships prove that people were doing sea trade, especially in the Deccan region.
Roman coins found in India show that India had strong trade links with the Roman Empire.
Archaeology and Dating
When archaeologists find coins while digging, they use them to determine the age of the layers (strata) where they are found.
Political History and Empire Boundaries
Coins tell us about kings and rulers—even those who are not mentioned in texts. For example, many Indo-Greek kings are known only through their coins.
Coins also show the area of circulation, which helps us guess the size of their kingdom. But we have to be careful—since coins travel through trade, they can reach places beyond the king’s control.
Type of Government (Polity)
Some coins mention the word “Gana”, which means republic or group. For example, Yaudheya and Malava coins mention “Gana”, so historians believe these were republican states, not monarchies.
Some coins are named after cities like Ujjayini or Taxila.This shows that certain cities had power to issue coins, meaning they might have had some local self-governance.
Biographical Details
Sometimes coins give us personal details about rulers that we don’t find in texts.
For example:
Chandragupta I’s marriage to a Lichchhavi princess is known only through a commemorative coin.
Samudragupta and Kumaragupta I issued coins showing them performing the Ashvamedha Yajna (horse sacrifice)—telling us about their ritual practices and power.
Religious Beliefs and Practices
Many coins show deities (gods and goddesses). This helps us understand what religion the king followed and what religious symbols were popular at that time.
For example:
Kushana coins show gods from Hinduism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, and Greek mythology.
Indo-Greek king Agathocles issued coins showing Krishna and Balarama, proving that the cult of these deities was active in that region (present-day Afghanistan) in the 2nd century BCE.
Military Insights
Some coins show kings with weapons, bows, or in battle poses. This helps us understand how rulers wanted to project themselves as strong warriors or military leaders.
For example, some Gupta coins show Samudragupta playing the Veena (symbol of culture) while others show him performing rituals and holding weapons—showing a balanced image of a king.
Last Update: July 2025 (Neolithic Age (UPSC Notes – Ancient History))
Neolithic Age (UPSC Notes – Ancient History)
This article deals with ‘Neolithic Age (UPSC Notes – Ancient History)’ . This is part of our series on ‘Ancient History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you canclick here.
Introduction
The Neolithic Age, or New Stone Age, marks a major turning point in human history. It was a time when humans transitioned from hunting and gathering to agriculture and settlement, leading to the rise of villages, crafts, pottery, and eventually civilizations.
Early evidence of Neolithic culture is found in the Fertile Crescent region of Egypt and Mesopotamia, the Indus region, the Ganges valley of India, and China.
Relative Chronology: In the Indian Subcontinent, Neolithic period can be placed between 5,000 BCE to 1,500 BCE.
The oldest Neolithic cultures are found in the north-western part dating c. 7000 BCE. One of the most important site is Mehrgarh.
The Neolithic sites of the central India can be traced back to 4000 to 5000 BC.
In the other parts like Northern Neolithic (Kashmir), Eastern Neolithic (Assam, Bihar) and Southern Neolithic, it can be traced back to 2500 to 1500 BC.
Neolithic Age in India is generally associated with:
Food production
Pottery
Sedentary village life
Neolithic Revolution
The Neolithic Revolution refers to the profound changes brought about by the shift from a nomadic and hunter-gatherer lifestyle to a settled and agricultural way of life.
Key developments:
Domestication of plants (like wheat, barley, rice) and animals (like cattle, sheep, goats).
Art and decoration flourished (e.g., figurines, decorated pots)
This period set the foundation for all future human civilizations.
Tools Associated
Neolithic tools were more advanced than those of the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods.
Grinding and polishing of tools started. Grounded and polished tools are known as Celts.
Types of tools included
Agricultural Tools: Sickles, hoes, and ploughs for farming.
Grinding Tools: Mortars and pestles for processing grains.
Weapons: Axes, spears, and arrows for hunting and protection.
Climate
The Neolithic period coincided with the Holocene epoch, characterized by a relatively stable and warm climate.
Subsistence Pattern
Domestication of Plants and Animals: The Neolithic Age marked the beginning of agriculture in India, with the domestication of plants and animals.
Hunting and Gathering Continued: While agriculture became dominant, hunting, gathering, and fishing continued as supplementary subsistence activities.
Side Topic: What is Domestication
Domestication can happen in both plants and animals.
Plant collection means gathering wild grains and eating them all. Plant domestication begins when some grains are saved and planted for the next season.
Animal keeping is when people capture and keep wild animals. Animal domestication happens when animals are bred and raised by humans under controlled conditions for use or profit.
Settlement Patterns
Permanent Habitations: People built permanent houses using materials like mud bricks, wood, and stone.
Rural Settlements: The Neolithic Age saw the emergence of rural settlements, which later evolved into urban centers during the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages.
Important Neolithic Cultures
The Neolithic cultures of India are divided into various regional cultures and they flourished in different time periods
1. North-Western India
The earliest evidence of the domestication of plants and animals is found in North-Western India.
Important Neolithic Sites include Mehrgarh, Sarai Khola, Rana Ghundai, and Jalilpur (all in Pakistan now)
The site of Mehrgarh (located in the Bolan Valley of Baluchistan) is the most important as
The earliest evidence of Neolithic times dating c. 7000 BCE comes from this site.
Evidence suggests that cattle, sheep and goats were domesticated, and wheat and barley were cultivated.
Pottery (both handmade and wheel made) was used.
Beadmaking was practiced. Beads were made from semi-precious stones such as lapis lazuli, turquoise, and agate, as well as of terracotta and shell.
Evidence of Lapis Lazuli, a semi-precious stone not found locally, points toward presence of trade.
People buried the dead and grave goods such as ornaments have been found.
2. Kashmir
Neolithic culture of Kashmir was contemporary to the Indus Valley Civilization.
The sites include Burzahom, Gufkral and Pampora which lies in the Karewa zone.
Most important site is Burzahom with following characteristics
Pit Houses: People lived in Pit Houses below the earth to escape the cold weather.
Domestication: Sheep and goats were domesticated, and plants were cultivated.
Trade with Harappans: They traded with Harappans.
Pottery: Mostly, handmade pottery was used.
Tools: Wide variety of stone and bone tools were used including perforated ‘harvesters.’
Burials: Humans were sometimes buried with animals such as deer, leopard, sheep, goat etc. An interesting find is the dog buried with humans suggesting dog might have been buried with his master.
3. Ganga Valley and Central India
Neolithic Cultures of Ganga Valley and Central India are found at Lehuradeva, Chopani Mando, Mahagara and Damdama
Important characteristics of Neolithic sites in Ganga Valley and Central India include
Evidence of plant and animal domestication.
Early evidence of rice cultivation is also found.
Pottery with cord impression was used.
4. South India
Important Neolithic sites in South India include
Karnataka: Brahmagiri, Maski, Piklihal and Hallur
Andhra Pradesh: Utnur, Nagarjunakonda and Ramapuram
Tamil Nadu: Paiyyampalli
Important feature of Neolithic sites in South India include ash mounds in the centre with settlements around them. Studies have revealed that ash is of burnt cow dung (but the exact function remains unknown).
5. Other
Kucha (Odisha), Sarutaru, Daojali Hading, and Marakdola (Assam) show early Neolithic settlements in the East and North-East India.
Last Updated: July 2025 (Jainism (Ancient History-UPSC Notes))
Jainism (Ancient History-UPSC Notes)
This article deals with ‘Jainism (Ancient History-UPSC Notes)’ . This is part of our series on ‘Ancient History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you canclick here.
Introduction
Jainism, one of the oldest philosophical and religious traditions of India, offers a rich and deeply ethical worldview grounded in non-violence, self-realization, and the pursuit of liberation (moksha). For UPSC aspirants, understanding Jainism is crucial, particularly for the Prelims under Ancient and Medieval History, and for Mains under Indian Philosophy, Society, and Religion.
Mahavira: Life and Legacies
In c. 300 BCE, the Jaina community was split into two main sects i.e. Digambara (“sky-clad”) and Shvetambara (“white-clad”). Both sects developed different hagiographies (life stories) of Mahavira. They agree on some aspects but differ on others.
Birth and Early Life
Year: 599 BCE (agreed by both sects)
Place: Kundagrama, near Vaishali (capital of Videha)
Father: Siddhartha – Chief of the Jnatri clan
Mother: Trishala – Sister of the king of Videha
Shvetambara version: Mahavira was originally conceived by a Brahmana woman named Devananda, but Indra (Shakra) transferred the embryo to Trishala’s womb, because a Brahman woman or one from low family was not worthy of giving birth to future Tirathankara . The significance lies in the interpretation, not the story itself.
Renunciation
Both sects have their own versions
Shvetambara:
He had extraordinary concern for ahimsa even before his birth. Hence, he laid absolutely still in Trishala’s womb so as to not cause her any pain & discomfort
He realised that how easy it is to cause parents pain & anxiety, Vardhamana vowed there and then not to renounce world as long as his parents are alive
He renounced when he was aged 30 after his parents death
Digambara:
Renounced the world at 30 while his parents were still alive, but with their permission.
Marriage
Both sects have differences
Shvetambara: Married Yashoda and had a daughter, Priyadarshana.
Digambara: Never married.
Enlightenment
Both sects agree on the Enlightenment.
He practiced severe austerities for 12 years.
Attained Kevalajnana (infinite knowledge) near Jambhikagrama, on the banks of the Rijupalika river.
Post-Enlightenment Life
Both sects have differences here
Digambara:
Mahavira freed from defects of ordinary human existence such as hunger, thirst, sleep & disease. He no longer engaged in mundane activities & sat fixed
Task of teaching was that of Gandharas (chief disciples ) . First disciples were Brahmin named Indrabhuti Gautama & his two brothers. Hence, sangha was created & later it expanded
Shvetambara:
Mahavira actively travelled and taught his doctrine himself.
Death
Both traditions agree that he died at Pava/Papapuri (near modern-day Patna) at the age of 72 in 527 BCE.
This marks the start of the Vira-nirvana Era (used as a calendar by Jainas).
Jain Councils: Codifying the Faith
The evolution of Jainism was not just spiritual but also institutional. Key efforts to preserve and organize the vast oral teachings of Jainism culminated in two major Jain councils, each marking a turning point in the development of the religion’s doctrinal framework.
First Jain Council (c. 300 BCE) – Pataliputra
Venue: Pataliputra (modern-day Patna, Bihar)
Presided by: Sthulabhadra, a senior monk and contemporary of Bhadrabahu
Royal Patronage: Likely convened under the auspices of Chandragupta Maurya, who had embraced Jainism late in life under Bhadrabahu’s influence
The council was held in the aftermath of a devastating famine that had caused a major migration of monks to southern India. When the monastic community regrouped, there were concerns about the dilution of teachings. As a response, Sthulabhadra and his associates compiled the Jaina canon into 12 Angas (primary sections). However, this codification was accepted only by the Shvetambara sect. The Digambaras did not recognize it, maintaining that the original teachings were lost during the migration and famine.
Second Jain Council (c. 512 CE) – Vallabhi
Venue: Vallabhi (in present-day Gujarat)
Presided by: Devardhigani Kshemasramana, a prominent monk of the Shvetambara sect
Royal Patronage: Not clearly documented, though it likely had the support of regional monarchs of western India
This council was exclusively Shvetambara and was called to further compile and preserve Jain scriptures that were at risk of being forgotten. The existing canon was reaffirmed, and additional texts, known as Upangas (secondary texts), were appended to the main corpus. These texts offered interpretations, narratives, and commentaries crucial for ritual and philosophical understanding.
Jainism Philosophy
Jaina Doctrine is much older than Buddhist Doctrine (but difficult to ascertain exact dates). Buddha & Mahavira were contemporaries & there are similarities in some of their teachings e.g. rejection of authority of Vedas , emphasis on renunciation & human efforts to attain salvation, establishment of monastic order for men & women.
Pancha Mahavratas
Mahavira accepted most of the religious doctrines laid down by Parsvanatha. However, he made some alterations and additions to them. The five doctrines of Jainism (five vows), known as Panchamahavratas, are for the monks.
4 doctrines advocated by Parsvanatha
Ahimsa (Non-violence) – Absolute abstention from causing harm to any living being, in thought, word, or deed.
Satya (Truthfulness) – Commitment to speaking the truth without distortion or deceit.
Asteya (Non-stealing) – Refraining from taking anything that is not willingly given.
Aparigraha (Non-possession) – Renunciation of material wealth and attachments.
5th Doctrine: Mahavira retained all four of Parsvanatha’s vows but introduced a fifth and more rigorous vow:
Brahmacharya (Celibacy or Chastity) – This went beyond mere control of desires and required complete celibacy, even in thought. For Mahavira, spiritual progress was impossible without strict restraint over sensory pleasures.
These were to be observed in their strictest form by Jaina monks and nuns, while lay followers were expected to follow Anuvratas—less intense versions of the same vows adapted to household life.
Doctrines of Truth and Perception
Anekantavada: Reality is manifold and complex. Different perspectives reveal different facets of truth.
Syadavada: No statement is absolutely true. Truth depends on context, condition, and perspective. Thus, every statement is qualified by the phrase “syat” (maybe).
Together, these doctrines reject absolutism and advocate for intellectual tolerance and philosophical humility.
Nature of the Jiva (Soul)
Jainism posits an infinite number of jivas (souls), each with inherent qualities:
Chaitanya (consciousness)
Sukha (bliss)
Virya (energy or power)
Jiva has no fixed shape and becomes co-extensive with the body it inhabits—like light filling a room.
Karma and Transmigration
Karma in Jainism is a physical substance—minute particles that attach to the jiva due to passions (kasayas) like anger, pride, deceit, and greed.
The most harmful karmas are mohaniya karmas (deluding karmas), which obscure the true nature of the jiva.
These karmas distort the soul’s inherent qualities and lead to bandha (bondage).
Liberation Process
Some jivas possess bhavyatva—an innate potential to attain liberation.
Liberation involves two main steps:
Samvara: Blocking the influx of new karma through right conduct and restraint.
Nirjara: Gradual shedding of existing karma through austerity and self-purification.
When all karmic particles are removed, the jiva attains moksha—a state of pure knowledge, bliss, and infinite energy.
Jina & Tirthankara
Jaina means follower of Jina which means victor, a person who has attained infinite knowledge and teaches others how to attain moksha, i.e., liberation from the cycle of rebirth.
Tirthankara is another word for jina and means ‘ford builder,’ i.e., one who builds fords that help people across the ocean of suffering.
Concept of Time
Time is cyclic and divided into two half-cycles:
Utsarpini: Ascending arc – a progressive phase where happiness increases.
Avasarpini: Descending arc – a regressive phase with increasing sorrow.
These half cycles last vast span of time & further divided into 6 stages known as Kalas
There are supposed to be 24 Tirathankaras in each half cycle to guide beings to liberation.
Jaina Tirathankaras in present half cycle
Present half cycle is Avasarpani ie regressive happiness period
First tirathankara of this age => Rishabadeva
Historicity of most of the tirathankaras are not easy to ascertain .
22
Neminatha
Belong to Saurahtra region of Gujarat
23
Parshavanatha
Lived in Benaras
24
Vardhamana aka Mahavira
the most historically verifiable and prominent Tirthankara.
Jaina Discipline
Triratna (three gems) of Jainism consists of
Right Faith (Samyag-Darshana)
Right Knowledge (Samyag-Jnana)
Right Conduct (Samyag-Charitra)
Ahimsa is central to Jainism, and it is the first vow for renunciants as well as the laity. The extent to which Jainas carry this principle is connected to their idea of different forms of life.
Jaina doctrine recognizes four main forms of existence—of gods (deva), humans (manushya), hell beings (naraki), and animals and plants (tiryancha).
Animal and plant category is further sub-divided into smaller sub-categories on the basis of their sense faculties. The lowest category comprises the single-sense bodies (ekendriya).
Renunciant is supposed to take the observation of ahimsa to a higher level in his daily living.
Laypersons are supposed to avoid harming beings with two or more senses
But the renunciant is supposed to refrain from harming even single-sense beings (ekendriya) and element bodies (sthavara). Monks and nuns must not dig the earth, lest they kill earth bodies. They must avoid bathing, swimming, or walking in the rain, lest they kill water bodies. They must not light or extinguish flames, to avoid harming fire bodies. They must not fan themselves, to avoid harming air bodies
Of the differences in daily practices between Digambara and Shvetambara monks, the most important relates to clothing. Both traditions agree that Mahavira and his early disciples had moved around naked. The Digambaras follow that tradition strictly. According to them, a monk must renounce all possessions, including clothes. The only things a monk can carry are a small broom for brushing insects away before sitting down and a water gourd (kamandalu) for toilet hygiene. The Shvetambaras, on the other hand, wear white robes; they view nudity as a practice that had fallen into abeyance and was now unnecessary.
Jaina texts list six occupations—governing (asi), writing (mashi), farming (krishi), the arts (vidya), trade (vanijya), and the practice of various crafts (shilpa). Of these, governing and agriculture potentially involve injuring life (insects are destroyed while tilling the soil, while governing can involve warfare) and therefore tend to get ruled out. Trade is likely to cause less injury and it remains a preferred occupation for Jainas even today.
Social Composition of Jaina Sangha & Laity
Kshatriya Superiority
Jaina texts reflect the idea of Kshatriya varna’s superiority over others.
These texts criticize Brahmanas, their rituals, and their arrogance.
Caste Inclusivity and Practice
Theoretically, people from all varnas could enter the sangha. For instance, Uttaradhyayana Sutra narrates story of Harikeshiya—a monk from a Chandala background.
Notwithstanding the theoretical position, key disciples of Mahavira were Brahmanas.
Among laypersons, Jainism had strongest following among the urban merchant class.
Women in Jainism
Jaina texts, like Buddhist ones, depict women as obstacles to monk celibacy.
Despite this, a monastic order for women was established.
According to the Kalpa Sutra, when Mahavira died, there were 14,000 monks and 36,000 nuns, 159,000 laymen, and 318,000 laywomen.
The Digambara–Shvetambara Schism
The schism between the Digambara and Shvetambara sects is explained differently by both groups:
Digambara tradition: Attributes the split to a migration led by Bhadrabahu during a famine. The monks spent 12 years in the Karnataka region. Upon returning to Pataliputra, they found that local monks under Sthulabhadra had started wearing clothes and had codified the Jaina canon. The Digambaras rejected both practices, leading to the formation of the two sects. The Digambaras saw the Shvetambaras as having deviated from the original path.
Shvetambara tradition: Claims the Digambara sect originated from a monk named Shivabhuti, who revived the old practice of nudity on his own initiative. According to them, there was no forced migration or famine-related schism.
Modern historians regard both these explanations as doctrinal rather than historical. Archaeological and inscriptional evidence indicates a gradual transition among Jaina monks from complete nudity to wearing clothes.
The Council of Valabhi in the 5th century CE played a significant role in institutionalizing the division. This council, attended only by Shvetambara monks, formally compiled their canon. Digambara monks did not participate and rejected the textual compilation.
Geographical separation further cemented the division:
Shvetambaras became prominent in western India.
Digambaras established their stronghold in the south.
Over time, these differences evolved into distinct theological, ritualistic, and cultural practices.
Image Worship & Temple starts
Early Image Evidence: One of the earliest archaeological findings linked to Jainism is a naked and headless stone torso found at Lohanipur near Patna, believed to belong to the Maurya period. Scholars have tentatively identified it as a depiction of a Jaina Tirthankara, though this remains debated.
Inscriptions and References: The Hathigumpha inscription of King Kharavela (1st century BCE) refers to the retrieval of a Jina image, making it the earliest known epigraphic reference to image worship in Jainism.
Development of Temple Cult: From around 200 BCE onwards, Jaina image worship became more prominent. However, Jainism followed a distinct path in temple development compared to Buddhism. While Buddhist monastic orders held authority over shrines, Jainism saw the temple tradition grow outside the direct control of the monastic order. Instead, lay followers and wealthy patrons often managed temple activities and maintenance.
Sectarian Influence: Despite doctrinal differences between Digambaras and Shvetambaras, both sects embraced the practice of building temples and worshipping Tirthankara images, though with variations in iconography and ritual emphasis.
Jaina Literature
Jainism boasts a rich literary tradition that has played a crucial role in preserving its philosophy, history, and culture. Most of the early Jaina canonical texts were composed in Prakrit, and they were systematically compiled during the 6th century CE at the Valabhi Council in Gujarat.
Canonical Texts
The core canonical scriptures of Jainism are primarily written in an eastern dialect of Prakrit called Ardhamagadhi. – These include the
Angas, which form the principal sections of the Jaina canon
Upangas, which are supplementary texts expanding on various doctrines.
Non-Canonical Literature
Beyond the canonical works, Jainism developed a vast body of non-canonical literature composed partly in various Prakrit dialects—especially Maharashtri Prakrit—and partly in Sanskrit. This corpus includes:
Commentaries on canonical texts, such as the Churnis, which help explain and elaborate the original scriptures.
The Jaina Puranas, which are hagiographical narratives detailing the lives and deeds of the 24 Tirthankaras. A notable example is the Adi Purana, which chronicles the life of the first Tirthankara, Rishabhanatha (Adinatha).
However, Jaina texts arent studied as extensively as Buddhist sources.
Relevance of Jain Ideology in today’s World
The core principles of Jainism remain profoundly relevant in addressing the ethical, environmental, and social challenges of the modern era. Rooted in peace, restraint, and holistic understanding, Jain doctrines offer timeless guidance to bring about harmony in both individual lives and society at large.
Anekantavada (Multiplicity of Views): In an increasingly polarized and ideologically fragmented world, Anekantavada fosters intellectual tolerance and social harmony. It teaches that truth is multi-faceted, encouraging dialogue over dogma and helping societies embrace diversity of thought.
Ahimsa (Non-violence): In today’s world threatened by nuclear weapons, terrorism, and violent conflicts, the Jain emphasis on absolute non-violence promotes peace-building and conflict resolution. It also extends to environmental ethics and animal rights, making it deeply aligned with current global concerns.
Aparigraha (Non-possession/Non-attachment): Amid rising consumerism, climate crisis, and mental stress from material excess, this principle encourages minimalism and mindful consumption. It can serve as a philosophical tool to curb greed, reduce ecological footprints, and promote sustainable development.
Triratna (Three Jewels: Right Faith, Right Knowledge, Right Conduct): The Triratnas offer a universal framework for personal transformation. In a world facing ethical degradation, these can guide individuals—irrespective of gender or background—towards moral living, self-discipline, and liberation from societal subjugation.
Practice Questions
Which language is primarily associated with the canonical Jaina texts compiled at the Council of Valabhi? a) Sanskrit b) Pali c) Ardha-Magadhi d) Prakrit Maharashtri Answer: c) Ardha-Magadhi (Explanation: The canonical Jaina scriptures were composed in Ardha-Magadhi, an eastern dialect of Prakrit.)
The Jain canonical scriptures include which of the following?
Angas
Upangas
Vedas
Agamas Select the correct answer: a) 1 and 2 only b) 1, 2 and 4 only c) 2 and 3 only d) All of the above Answer: a) 1 and 2 only (Explanation: Jain canonical texts include Angas and Upangas. Agamas are Buddhist scriptures, and Vedas are Hindu texts.)
Which council is credited with compiling and preserving the Jaina canonical texts? a) First Buddhist Council b) Council of Valabhi c) Fourth Buddhist Council d) Synod of Kalinga Answer: b) Council of Valabhi (Explanation: The Valabhi council in Gujarat during the 6th century CE compiled the Jain canonical texts.)
Which of the following languages is NOT commonly found in Jaina non-canonical literature? a) Sanskrit b) Prakrit Maharashtri c) Tamil d) Pali Answer: d) Pali (Explanation: Jaina non-canonical texts are in Sanskrit, various Prakrit dialects, and regional languages like Kannada and Tamil, but not Pali which is primarily associated with Buddhist texts.)
The ‘Adi Purana’ is a Jaina text that primarily deals with: a) The life of Mahavira b) The history of Jain monastic orders c) The life of the first Tirthankara, Rishabhanatha d) Rules of Jain temple worship Answer: c) The life of the first Tirthankara, Rishabhanatha
This article deals with ‘Mesolithic Age’ . This is part of our series on ‘Ancient History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you canclick here.
What is Mesolithic Age?
Mesolithic is a transitional stage between Palaeolithic and Neolithic, falling between hunting-gathering and food-producing societies.
Relative Chronology
In the Indian Subcontinent, the Mesolithic period can be placed between 10,000 BP and 5,000 BP.
It is also known as Epipalaeolithic. For a time, the Mesolithic was not considered a separate phase as it is perceived as a transition phase between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic.
Outside the Indian Subcontinent, the Mesolithic Phase is often absent, with cultures transitioning directly from Palaeolithic to Neolithic.
Among the prehistoric periods, it is the shortest phase.
Tools
At the end of the Pleistocene and the start of the Holocene, a major shift was observed in the toolkit of prehistoric people. They started using very small tools known as Microliths.
Mesolithic tools are known as Microliths because they are tools of very small stones. Microliths range in length from under 1 cm to 5 cm.
Some of these tools are miniature versions of Palaeolithic tools like burins, points, and scrapers. But tools in regular geometric shapes, like crescents, triangles, lunates etc., also came to the scene.
For the first time, we find bone tools as part of the Mesolithic tool kit.
For the first time, we also find composite tools, i.e. tools hafted, singly or in large numbers, onto wooden or bone handles to make spearheads, arrowheads, sickles, etc.
Climate
Around 10,000 years Before Present, the climate changed to the Holocene from Pleistocene.
The characteristics of the Holocene include
Warm and wet climate
More space was available for human habitation (as ice melted)
Availability of new resources like new crops (in wild form) and small and swift animals (fit for human consumption).
Expansion of forests and grasslands into previously arid areas
Human groups became highly mobile and began to occupy various ecozones.
Subsistence Pattern
During Mesolithic Phase
Hunting and scavenging continued
Food gathering continued
Fishing as a subsistence strategy started
Domestication of animals started
People used fire and perhaps roasted food.
Settlement Pattern
The period saw the spread of settlements to new ecological niches. There were many sites in the Ganga Valley and lesser sites in Peninsular India. This was the result of
An increase in population due to favourable environmental conditions
Due to smaller tools, they require stones in small amounts, which they get using various transport channels.
Some evidence of artificial habitational structures associated with the Mesolithic Age has been found in Belan Valley. However, the evidence is indirect, as the structures have not survived.
Burials
This period saw the beginning of the Burial System.
Grave goods were also placed in the burials.
Double burials, i.e. a man and a woman were buried together, have also been found.
Sites
Mesolithic sites in India include
Other developments
Population Growth: The population started to increase, mainly due to increased resources.
Pottery is absent at most sites except Langhnaj in Gujarat & Kaimur Region in Mirzapur (UP).
Mesolithic Art
Portable Art
Mesolithic people created small and easily movable objects with artistic or decorative significance. These included
Engraved bones found at Bhimbetka
Human teeth with geometric marks on it
Hole in teeth, possibly to be used as pendants or amulets.
Ostrich shell with designs on it
Paintings
Famous Sites: Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh) is the most famous and extensively studied site of Mesolithic rock paintings. Mesolithic paintings are also found in Ezuthu Guha (Kerala) and various sites in Odisha.
Material Used:
Colours were created by grinding minerals found in the region (like Ochre, Charcoal, etc.)
Brush was made out of squirrel tail and animal fur.
Things shown in the painting include
Animals like leopards, tigers, panthers, and rhinoceroses dominate the scene.
Hunting scenes depicting both individual and group hunting activities.
Women are depicted as gathering and preparing food.
This article deals with ‘Palaeolithic Age’ . This is part of our series on ‘Ancient History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you canclick here.
Classifying Indian Stone Age
In the 19th Century, a three-age system was used, which is based on the idea that the age of stone tools was followed by Bronze & then Iron.
The next step was to identify changes within the Stone Age.
Indian stone age can be divided into
Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age): 2 Million Years (MYA) to 10,000 Before Present (BP)
Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age)
Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)
Relative Chronology of Palaeolithic Age
It is the oldest part of the human past. It ranges from 2 Million Years Ago (MYA) to 10,000 BP in India.
Broadly, Palaeolithic age can be further divided into Lower, Middle & Upper Palaeolithic ages.
Lower Palaeolithic Age: 2 MYA to 1,00,000 Before Present (BP)
Middle Palaeolithic Age: 1,00,000 Before Present (BP) to 40,000 Before Present (BP)
Upper Palaeolithic Age: 40,000 Before Present (BP) to 10,000 Before Present (BP)
However, there is a great deal of variation in the dates for different sites.
Sources
Ethnographic Studies: Ethnographic studies of modern Hunter-Gatherers to observe and study their behaviours, tools, and lifestyle and get insights into subsistence strategies, social structures, and use of natural resources during the Palaeolithic period. Ethnographic studies are to be used cautiously as their interaction with modern societies might have significantly changed their strategies.
Archaeology: Animal bones and fossils, stone tools, bone tools, rock paintings and artefacts
Study of Human Genes: Study of Mitochondrial DNA (mt-DNA) provides information on pre-historic migrations.
Tools Associated
The division into 3 sub-phases is based on the differences in the tools
Lower Palaeolithic: Used tools known as ‘Core Tools’ like Chopper Tools, Hand Axes and Cleavers
Middle Palaeolithic: Used tools known as Flakes
Upper Palaeolithic: More sophisticated tools called blades and burins were used
These tools were used for hunting, butchering, skinning the animals, recovering tubers and plant foods and processing the food. This can be ascertained by microwave analysis as tools develop different wear marks when they are used for specific purposes.
Notes
Tools were made at sites known as Factory Sites. These are generally located close to the sources of raw materials.
The oldest tools in the Indian subcontinent are found in Riwat in the Soan or Sohan river basin (now in Pakistan). It is known as Sohan or Soan Industry.
For the first time, the Palaeolithic tools were found in Pallavaram (near Chennai in Tamil Nadu) by Sir Robert Bruce Foote in 1863. They are known as Madrasian Industry.
Climate
All three phases of the Palaeolithic Age are associated with the Pleistocene (or Ice Age).
The characteristics of this age were
Cold and dry climate
Most parts of the earth were not fit for human habitation
However, there were alternate phases of glaciation and inter-glaciation.
About 10,000 years ago, the Pleistocene era gave way to the Holocene era (which continues to the present day), and climatic patterns that exist today came into being.
Human Species
The evolution of the human species was observed
Lower Palaeolithic: Homo Erectus
Middle Palaeolithic: Homo Sapiens
Upper Palaeolithic: Homo Sapiens Sapiens (Modern Man)
Note: Human ancestors are likely to have first evolved in Africa and later migrated to different parts of the world. The earliest human ancestor species to migrate out of Africa was the Homo Erectus.
Band Society
Palaeolithic societies consisted of what is known as Band Societies.
Key features of Band Societies include
Very Small Groups (typically between 20-50 persons)
Flexible Membership that allows for adaptability based on environmental and social needs.
Band societies were egalitarian, with only two kinds of social units.
Families: Foraging activities were performed by the family
Bands: Hunting of large game involved a group of males from several families. Membership of groups changed from hunt to hunt.
There was no formal, permanent or hereditary leadership – the leader was either
A Skilled Hunter acted as a leader during the hunt.
Elders led while giving advice or informal guidance due to their experience.
Resources, such as food or land, were not privately owned.
Subsistence
Hunting-Gathering: Palaeolithic societies depended on wild plants and animals for sustenance.
Whatever was collected or hunted was consumed immediately. The absence of surplus resources meant these societies operated on a subsistence economy.
Division of Labour: There was a division of labour based on gender roles
Men = Hunters (of Animals)
Women = Gatherers (of edible plants, fruits, nuts, roots, and seeds)
Settlement Patterns
They were spread all over the subcontinent except valleys of Ganga and Indus, coastal areas and north-eastern India. Heavy rainfall, uncongenial conditions and lack of raw materials might have prevented the occupation of these areas. Or perhaps there was no necessity for the pre-historic people to move into these areas.
Palaeolithic people lived in open air and shelters made of rocks, grass, leaves or reeds.
Occupation sites could be
Continuous: Bhimbetka & Hunsgi give evidence of continuous occupation
Temporary sites where people came, lived for some part of the year & moved on.
Totemistic Beliefs
Totemism refers to the belief system in which specific plants, animals, or objects are considered sacred or spiritually significant and often regarded as protectors.
Totemistic beliefs existed among Palaeolithic communities.
Palaeolithic Arts
The Palaeolithic period marks the beginning of the history of art. Examples of Palaeolithic art include
Bhimbetka Paintings: Bhimbetka (40 km from Bhopal) is the most important place where most paintings are found. It has about eight hundred rock shelters, five hundred of which have paintings.
Animal Teeth as Ornaments: Animal teeth with grooves have been found in Kurnool cave, suggesting they were attached to strings and worn as adornments.
Engraved Ostrich Eggshells: A piece of ostrich eggshell engraved with crisscross designs has been found in Ken River Basin, Patne and Bhimbetka
This article deals with ‘Pre-History, Proto-History and Historical Age’ . This is part of our series on ‘Ancient History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you canclick here.
Introduction
First, we will look into the meaning of Pre-History, Proto-History and Historical age to clarify these words.
Pre-History
Pre-History deals with the pre-historic cultures, which are identified as illiterate cultures of the past without the development of the art of writing. For this reason, we don’t find written records or literary resources for their historical reconstruction, which is solely based on archaeological resources like tools, pottery, cave paintings, bones, and other material remains.
Pre-Historic Cultures of India
In the Indian subcontinent, all Stone Age cultures, such as
Neolithic (like Burzahom (Kashmir) and Mehrgarh (Baluchistan))
Some metal age cultures, such as Chalcolithic (Jorwe (Maharashtra)) and Megalithic (Brahmagiri (Karnataka) and Adichanallur (Tamil Nadu))
are considered as Pre-Historic cultures.
Proto-History
Proto-History deals with proto-historic cultures or proto-historic times.
Proto-historic cultures are supposed to be literate, but their scripts remain undeciphered. In the absence of the decipherment of the script, the reconstruction of the protohistoric cultures is based on archaeological resources.
At times, even some illiterate cultures are considered proto-historic, provided that they are mentioned in the literary sources of some contemporary literate societies.
Indus Valley Civilization or Harappan Civilization mainly represents the Proto-Historic Age in the Indian subcontinent.
Historical Age
The historical phase starts when we find both literary and archaeological resources for the historical reconstruction.
In north India, it began with the Vedic literature or Vedic civilization, whereas, in South India, it started with the Sangam literature.
This article deals with ‘The Gupta Empire ’ . This is part of our series on ‘Ancient History’ which is an important pillar of GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you canclick here.
Introduction
Numerous small kingdoms rose and collapsed after the fall of the Mauryan empire. Finally, the Gupta Dynasty became a major political force and successfully brought about the political unity of much of the Indian subcontinent between 300 and 700 CE.
Sources for Gupta Period
1. Inscriptions
Stone & Copper Plate Inscriptions: Imperial Guptas & contemporary dynasties like Vakatakas, Kadambas & Hunas issued various stone and copper plate inscriptions providing useful information about the polity, economy and society of the region.
Prasastis: E.g., Allahabad Prasasti describes the personality and achievements of Emperor Samudragupta in 33 lines composed by Harisena and engraved in Sanskrit & Nagari script.
Royal Land Grant Charters: Provides information about administrative structure & agrarian relations
2. Coins & Seals
Guptas issued a large number of gold coins called Dinaras, which have the name of kings, metrical
legends & images of deities on them.
3. Literature
During this period, Sanskrit entirely replaced Prakrit as the court language.
Epics & major Puranas were given final shape during this period.
Smritis belonging to this time include
Narada Smriti
Vishnu Smriti
Brihaspati Smriti
Katyayana Smriti
Kamandaka’s Nitisara: Written during Gupta Age, it is awork on polity addressed to King (like Arthashastra during Mauryas).
Other Books
Kamasutra
Written by
Vātsyāyana
Amarakosha (a lexicon)
Sanskrit lexicon
compiled by the ancient Indian scholar Amarasimha
Devi Chandragupta
Drama written by Visakhadatta
Mudrarakshasa
Silapadikaram & Manimekalai
Source of South
Indian History
4. Mrichchhakatikam
Sudraka wrote Mrichchhakatikam (the clay cart).
It is a social drama. The story follows the love affair between Charudatta, a poor Brahmin, and Vasantasena, a wealthy courtesan, involving political intrigues and social satire.
Characters in the drama were drawn from all strata of society- thieves, gamblers, rogues, police constables, politicians etc.
It shows various aspects of city life during the Gupta period.
5. Buddhist Accounts- Faxian
From the 3rd to 8th century, many Chinese monks travelled to India – to collect Buddhist texts, visit Buddhist pilgrimages etc.
Three primary records have survived in entirety – Faxian, Xuanzang & Yijang.
Many Indian monks also travelled to China, but their accounts haven’t survived.
Faxian or Fa-Hien
Faxian travelled to India during the period 399 – 411 AD.
He wrote an account of his travels in a book titled ‘Gaoseng Faxian Zhaun’ (Record of Buddhist Kingdoms).
Although his book didn’t mention who was the reigning King (who must be Chandragupta II), it contained several observations about the life of people (some erroneous and others useful).
About Political System
Faxian tells about a region south of Mathura called the Middle Kingdom (Malwa)
The region was a stronghold of Brahmanism.
The government was efficient & people werehappy.
People don’t have to register their households.
Only those who cultivate royal land have to pay a portion of their grain as tax.
King ruled without corporal punishments. Criminals were simply fined high or low. Even in case of repeated attempts at rebellion, only their right hands were cut off.
Kings, elders & gentry build shrines and gave lands.
Royal officers were paid fixed salaries.
About Social Life
People didn’t kill any living creature nor drink intoxicating liquor, except Chandalas.
Chandalas lived separately, and their contact was considered polluting.
Numerous charitable institutions were built by wealthy people. For example
shelter for travellers and wandering monks
free hospitals for poor patients, & cripples
He didn’t comment on SATI. Sati was commented upon by travellers like Ibn Battuta, Bernier etc. It may be considered that it was not practised on a larger scale.
About Religion & Religious life
Rooms with beds & mattresses, food and cloth were provided to residents and travelling monks. Monks only spend their time in meditation & reciting scriptures.
Pagodas were built in honour of Sariputta & Ananda.
Pious families made offerings to monks. Kings endowed Monasteries with fields, gardens & cattle.
During the months after the rain rest, the pious collect a united offering for the priesthood and priests, in turn, hold a great assembly and preach the law.
About Towns and Cities
Faxian was impressed by the city of Pataliputra & also by Ashoka Palace with its various halls, which according to him, were built by spirits. It shows Ashoka’s palace was still in existence.
Faxian saw two monasteries, one occupied by followers of the Mahayana school & other by Hinayana. Faxian spent three years studying Sanskrit there.
Faxian tells about
The city of Gaya, which was empty and desolate.
The holy places of Bodhgaya were surrounded by jungle.
Only 200 families lived in Sravasti.
The above instances show signs of Urban decay in some places.
Using Faxian’s Accounts as a Source
The main aim of pilgrims like Faxian was to provide Buddhists in China an opportunity to visualise places connected to Buddha’s life. Hence, references to details concerning the lifestyle of Indians are few & cursory.
Faxian present an idyllic & idealised picture of society in the 5th century. Many things written about taxes and punishment were incorrect. Faxian wrote some observations because he wanted Chinese rulers to follow those things in China.
6. Western Accounts
Examples of Western accounts include CosmasIndicopleustes, a Christian Topography written in the 6th century.
The author was a merchant who travelled India before becoming a monk.
The book mentions Christians in India & Sri Lanka and well developed Horse Trade.
7. Archaeological Sources
Gupta sites like Purana Qila, Ahichchhatra, Basarh, Bhita & Kaveripattinam provide essential data to reconstruct the history of that period.
Debate: Origin of Guptas
Different scholars suggest different ancestry of the Guptas.
Vaishya
The suffix ‘Gupta’ in their name suggests the Vaishya lineage of the Guptas.
Kshatriyas
Guptas had a matrimonial alliance with Lichchhavis & Nagas (both Kshatriyas).
Further, the marriage of Prabhavati Gupta with Brahmin Vakatakas falls within the Dharmashastra norm of Anuloma marriage.
Brahmins
The marriage of the Brahmin Kadamba family with the Gupta kings points towards the fact that Guptas were Brahmins.
Inscription of Prabhavatigupta describes herself as belonging to Dharana gotra. Since Vakatakas were Vishnuvriddha, Dharana was the gotra of the Gupta dynasty.
Gupta Rulers
1. Srigupta
Srigupta founded the Gupta Dynasty.
2. Ghatokacha
Ghatokacha succeeded Srigupta.
3. Chandragupta I
Chandragupta Iwas the first independent Gupta King with the title Maharajadhiraja.
He increased his power with the help of a matrimonial alliance with the Lichchhavis (known through coins => Chandragupta & Kumaradevi were engraved on the coin with the legend Lichchhavayah (i.e. the Lichchhavis).)
Chandragupta I started a new era from 319-320 A.D known as Gupta Era.
4. Samudragupta
The primary source of Information about Samudragupta’s reign is Prayaga Prasasti, composed by Harisena (who was an important official). Samudragupta is described as Lichchhavi Dauhitra in the Prayaga Prasasti.
The Kacha Controversy
The coins with the name KACHA have generated
controversy.
Kacha’s coins are similar to that of Samudragupta’s coins. But the name Kacha does not appear in official lists of Gupta rulers.
Various interpretations have been provided
regarding this.
1st Interpretation: Samudragupta’s brothers revolted & placed Kacha, the eldest brother, on the throne. But Kacha died in the war.
2nd Interpretation: Samudragupta issued these coins in memory of his brother.
3rd Interpretation: Kacha was the initial name of Samudragupta. The name ‘Samudragupta’ was adopted after the conquest of the South.
Expansion & Consolidation
Samudragupta was a great conqueror like Mahapadmananda & Chandragupta Maurya and aimed at the political unification of India.
He followed an aggressive and multifaceted expansion policy consisting of
Battles & Wars
Matrimonial Alliances
From Allahabad Pillar, we get the following information about the expansion.
Campaigns in Aryavarta
According to Prayaga Prasasti, Samudragupta undertook 12 campaigns in Aryavarta.
Campaigns in South
Prayagaprashasti mentions 12 rulers from Dakshinapatha or south India who were defeated by Samudragupta, like Hastivarman of Vengi (in the Krishna-Godavari delta).
According to Prayaga Prasasti, Samudragupta treated the Dakshinapatha rulers favourably by first capturing them (grahana) and then releasing them (moksha). Samudragupta realised the practical problem of controlling the southern rulers. Hence, defeated rulers were allowed to rule in return for acknowledging their suzerainty & periodic tributes.
Self Surrender by other rulers
Other rulers pleased him by self-surrender, offering (their own) daughters in marriage & accepting the suzerainty of Samudragupta. Later Kushanas, Sakas and the ruler of Sri Lanka were included in this category.
Control over Oversea Colonies
It is possible that Samudragupta exercised some control over the Hindu colonies in the Malay Peninsula, Java, and Sumatra (hence, the name Samudragupta)
He celebrated all his victories with the performance of Ashvamedha Yajana.
Side Topic: Allahabad Prasasti
Allahabad Prasasti was composed by Harisena consisting of 33 lines inscribed on the pre-existing Ashokan pillar.
He used highly sophisticated ornate Sanskrit, suggesting it was meant for elite consumption.
Samudragupta emerges as RESTLESS CONQUEROR in Prasasti. It tells about the expansion of the Gupta Empire by Samudragupta (as mentioned above – 12 wins in Aryavarta & 12 in Dakshinapatha)
Curiously, he chose a pillar carrying the Pillar Edicts of Ashoka, suggesting either that he was claiming some historical continuity or, if earlier inscriptions could be read, taking a contrary stand to the views of Ashoka. Although the Mauryan king controlled far more territory, yet was modest in his claims to power.
But Samudragupta’s military successes were just one aspect of Harisena’s portrait of the King. He is described as
An able, compassionate ruler concerned with the welfare of his subjects
He is described as having put to shame the Brihaspati with his sharp intellect and Tumburu & Narada with musical performances.
Kaviraja (King among poets ), whose poetry surpassed the glory of genius poets
Coins of Samudragupta
The coins of Samudragupta represent him in various poses suggesting his prowess & martial skills. These include
Archer-type Coin: Holding bow in one & arrow in the other hand
Tiger-slayer-type Coin: Trampling & killing a tiger
Lyricist-type Coin
Ashvamedha/Yupa Type of coins suggests that he performed Ashvamedha Yajanas proclaiming suzerainty over large areas.
Legends on Samudragupta’s coins include various epithets such as
Parakramah (brave)
Ashvamedha – Parakramah (performer of Ashvamedha)
Vyagra – Parakramah (brave as tiger)
5. Chandragupta II / Chandragupta Vikramaditya
Sources for Chandragupta II
King Chandra’s exploits are mentioned in Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription (currently situated in the Qutab-Minar complex). Chandra is believed to be Chandragupta 2
He is identified as the hero of Kalidasa’s Raghuvamasa.
Account of Fa-Hien (Faxian) (although he did not mention the name of the king, which without a doubt was Chandragupta II)
Coins like the Lion Slayer Type Coin of Chandragupta II.
Ramagupta Controversy
Gupta
inscriptions mention Chandragupta II as Samudragupta’s successor, but based on
literary sources, some copper coins and inscriptions, the successor was
Samudragupta’s other son Ramagupta.
Visakhadatta’s drama Devi Chandraguptam mentions that Chandragupta-II killed his elder brother Ramagupta because Ramagupta was facing defeat by Sakas and agreed to surrender his wife (Queen Dhruvadevi) to Saka king. Hence, he killed Ramagupta & married Dhruvadevi.
Sanjan Plates of Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha I also narrate the above story.
The same story was enumerated in the Persian work by Abdul Hussain Ali in 1226.
But
there is much criticism of this
theory as this tradition found its way from
the 9th century with no evidence before that.
It is hard to agree that the ruler of the mighty Gupta Empire was so weak that Sakas defeated him in such a way that he had to surrender his wife. The code of honour of the Guptas was much higher than even later Hindus when women performed Johar. Hence, it is suggested that Rama Gupta was a local ruler who was subjugated by the Saka King of Ujjain. That Saka king was killed by Chandragupta II. There is nothing to show that Rama Gupta was the elder brother of Chandragupta II
According to Romila Thapar, the heroic tenor of the story may have been an attempt to hide an unsavoury event of killing his brother, which is often the case in courtly literature.
It is
rightly pointed out that while the story of Rama Gupta can’t be dismissed as a
figment of imagination, we can’t also accept it as a historical fact.
Matrimonial Alliances
Matrimonial alliances with the Nagas: Chandragupta II married Princess Kuberanaga.
Chandragupta II married his daughter Prabhavati to Vakataka ruler Rudrasena II.
Sakas Subjugated
He defeated the Saka king Rudrasimha-III and
annexed his kingdom ending Saka Kshatrapa rule.
Conquest is proven by
No Saka coins were minted after this period
Guptas started minting Saka-type silver coins for this region => just the symbol changed; the rest remaining the same
Title of Vikramaditya
Chandragupta II took the title of Vikramaditya/’ sun of prowess’ and has therefore been linked with the legendary king of that name, associated with a strong sense of justice.
6. Kumargupta I
Kumaragupta I succeeded his father, Chandragupta II.
He performed Ashvamedha Yajana.
The primary source of information include coins, inscriptions & literary sources.
His coins have representations of Kartikeya.
Mandsor Stone Inscription (436 A.D.) mentions Kumaragupta as ruler of the whole earth.
Hunas Invasion started
Towards the last years of his reign, they faced a foreign invasion of Ye-Tha/ Hepthalites (White Huns), which was checked by the efforts of his son Skandagupta.
7. Skandagupta
Skandagupta was the last powerful Gupta monarch.
Hunas weakened the Gupta Empire
Huna invasions intensified during Skandagupta’s reign. Although he successfully threw them back, wars adversely affected the economy, as shown by the deterioration of gold coinage (coins had less gold than earlier coins).
Junagarh Inscription
During Skandagupta’s reign, Sudarsana Lake (built initially during the Maurya period) burst due to excessive rains. Hence, governor Pranadatta got it repaired. It indicates that the state undertook the task of public works.
Later Gupta Rulers
Skandagupta might not have been the rightful heir to the Gupta throne and therefore had to fight with other contenders (a seal inscription traces a line of Gupta rulers after Kumaragupta-I to his son Purugupta and not Skandagupta)
Guptas continued to rule till about 550 A.D., but by then, their power had already become very insignificant.
Administration under Guptas
Guptas followed the policy of administrative decentralization. Defeated rulers were subjugated but were not incorporated. They were allowed to function independently in return for tribute.
But in areas under direct Gupta control, there was an elaborate administrative system
Role of King
King remained a central figure in the whole administrative setup and embodiment of all powers. The Gupta ruler was the Commander-in-Chief of the Army, the Supreme Judge, and the owner of all land.
Kings were projected as divine. For instance, Samudragupta is considered equal to Kubera, Varuna, Indra etc., in Allahabad Prasasti.
But in practice, the Gupta kings were not absolute despots. Various checks in the form of Brahmins, Vassals, Corporate bodies and Shastras were present.
Council of Ministers
Allahabad Prasasti refers to the Sabha or Council of Ministers. But Inscriptions are not clear about the hierarchy of ministers.
King used to consult his Ministers having various designations like Mantrin, Amatya, Kumaramatya etc.
Kumaramatya seems to be eminent among Amatyas & equivalent in status to princes of royal blood.
Minister’s office was perhaps hereditary. E.g., Composer of Allahabad Prasasti, Harisena, a Mahadandanayaka was the son of Mahadandanayaka.
Gupta Army
There must be an enormousarmy organization to control
such a vast empire.
Gupta Kings maintained
a standing army that
was supplemented by the Army of Vassals.
During Gupta times, Cavalry rose to prominence & Archery became important.
King was de-jure head
of the Army. But
a minister called ‘Sandhi-Vigrahika’ (Minister of Peace and War) was in charge
of the Army. A group of high officials helped him.
Pilupati
Head of
Elephants
Asvapati
Head of
Horses
Narapati
Head of
Footsoldiers
Ranabhandagarika‘ or ‘Incharge of Stores‘ looked after the needs of soldiers.
Other Officials
Elaborate
& methodical bureaucratic structure was absent due to the presence of
Feudatories
Involvement of professional bodies in administration (explained later in article)
The state was indifferent towards the regulation of economic activities.
But
important Officials were present.
Justice Department
Although supreme judicial powers were vested in the King, Mahadandanayaka acted as the Chief Justice and he also assisted the King in delivering justice.
In Provinces, Uparikas and in Districts, Vishayapatis were responsible for dispensing the justice.
In villages, headman and village elders used to decide the petty cases.
Further, Chinese traveller Fa-Hien stated that capital punishment was not given at all.
Maha-Pratihara
Maha-Pratihara was the chief of the palace guards.
He regulated ceremonies and granted the necessary permits for admission to the royal presence.
Espionage system
In Gupta Empire, there was an elaborate Espionage System (which was a continuation of the earlier period)
Dutakas
Land grant inscriptions often mention Dutakas
Dutakas were probably associated with the task of land grants to Brahmanas and others.
Governance in Provinces
The Gupta Empire was divided into Rashtras (provinces), which were further divided into Vishayas (Districts)
Rashtras were governed by Uparikas/Kumaraamtyas directly appointed by the King.
Governance in Districts
Vishayas were administered by an official called Vishayapatis. They were appointed by the Provincial governor.
Some districts were also governed by Samantas/Feudatories.
Pustapalas-officials whose work was to manage and keep records
Representation of Major Local Bodies was an essential aspect of district administration. Heads of Local Bodies were taken in District Council. These include
Nagarsethi (Head of City Merchants)
Sarthavaha (Representative of Guild of Merchants)
Pratham Kayastha (Head of Scribes)
Pratham Kulika (head of artisan community)
Village Governance
During village governance, the villages assumed greater autonomy.
Headman, called Gramapati or Gramadhayaksha, managed affairs with the help of elders (called Gramavriddhas)
Urban Governance
Representation of Local Bodies was the characteristic feature of Urban Governance.
Each city had a council consisting of
Nagarsethi
Sarthavaha
Prathama Kulika
Prathama Kayastha
This council was different than described by Megasthenes
In Maurya Empire, Members of the City Council were appointed by the government
In Gupta Empire, the council consisted of local representatives, among whom commercial interests often predominated.
Economy under Guptas
1. Agriculture during Gupta Empire
Agriculture Expansion
Agriculture expansion continued during Gupta Empire. Forest lands were cleared & brought under cultivation.
But there was a difference between Mauryas and Guptas in Agriculture Expansion.
Mauryas: Agriculture expansion was through State intervention
Guptas: Gupta Kings gave land grants to individuals who were expected to act as catalysts
Using Land Grants, Peripheral areas could be brought into the agrarian economy. Initial grants tended not to be in the Ganges heartland but in the regions beyond. (Although the granting of land was at first marginal, by about the eighth century AD, it had expanded)
Agriculture Taxes
Agriculture
taxes were the main financial source of
the Gupta Empire. But there is a problem in interpreting the precise meaning of
some of the fiscal terms.
Main agricultural taxes during the Gupta period included
Bhaga
Bhaga was the King’s
grain share.
According to Narada Smriti,
it was 1/6th of agricultural produce. But 1/6th seems to be a
conventional figure.
Bhoga
It was the supplies
of fruit, timber, flowers etc. that villagers were obliged to give to King.
Kara
Kara was the generic term
used for taxes
Upari-Kara
The tax imposed on farmers
without any proprietary rights
Udranga
The exact meaning of tax is uncertain. It mightbe police tax levied for maintenance
of the local police station
Hiranya
Hiranya is the king’s
share in
agricultural produce in cash
Irrigation
Various types of waterworks used for irrigation, like wells, canals, tanks & embankments, are mentioned in texts.
The role of the state in building & maintaining some of these is indicated in Junahgarh inscriptions.
Ghati Yantra / Araghatta was themethod to draw water from wells for irrigation (tie a number of pots (= ghati) to a chain and rotate the chain to ensure that the pots would continuously fill with water and empty it.)
Royal Land Grants
Agrahara/Brahmadeya System started during this period. It means donation of revenue-free plots in favour of Brahmans or religious institutions (Temples, Buddhist Vihara or Jaina Monastery) by the royal class or ordinary people under Copper Plate charters with Royal Consent (.ie generally made by the ruling class but can also be made by ordinary people with royal consent)
The earliest inscription recording land grants & privileges were Naneghat & Nashik (by Satavahanas and Sakas). Imperial Guptas were not big donors. Only one inscription recording land grant, i.e. Bhitari Pillar inscription of Skandagupta in favour of Vishnu temple. But Vakatakas were great donees of land to Brahmanas. A total of 35 villages were donated & greatest during the reign of Parvasena II (he made 20 land grants).
Later, there was an increase in the 4th century as by then the number of ruling families had vastly increased.
2. Crafts and Guilds during Gupta Age
Craft production , Guilds & Trade
There are abundant inscriptions & seals mentioning artisans, merchants & guilds, which suggest thriving urban craft.
Crafts prevalent during Gupta Age were
Metal Works
Metalworking is listed in Kamasutra as one of 64 kalas (arts).
Mehrauli Pillar (of Chandra Gupta II) reflects a high level of metallurgical skill.
Sultanganj Buddha was also crafted during this period.
Textile Works
Amarakosha mentions several words connected with cotton textile.
Ajanta paintings depict elaborate garments.
Guilds
Guilds were a feature of the Indian economy since early times & continued to be so in the Gupta age as well.
Guilds were also responsible for City Administration (explained above)
Guilds in the Gupta period issued their hundis and probably even coins. It might be one reason why the Gupta rulers didn’t issue copper coins.
Guilds had their seals & military arrangements for protecting their merchandise.
3. Trade
The security offered by the strong Gupta Rule facilitated the easy movement of men and merchandise. Faxian was very much impressed by the freedom of movement.
Internal Trade
Internal trade was carried on by both land and rivers.
The state arranged security for travellers and traders.
The campaigns of Samudra Gupta improved the means of communication, which facilitated trade.
There were references to Nauyoga (a boat parking station) in inscriptions from Bihar & Bengal, suggesting riverine transportation of goods.
External Trade
Red Sea trade declined due to the fall of the Roman Empire. But there was simultaneous activation of the Persian Sea trade route due to impetus provided by the Byzantine and Sassanid Empires.
Cosmos, in his accounts, mentions various ports on the western coast like Calliena (Kalyan), Sibor (Chaul) etc.
Faxian refers to the port of Tamralipti in Bengal.
Overland routes present too used by Caravan Traders.
Silk Trade with China continued. Kalidasa refers to rich people wearing garments made of Chinamshuka.
There was an appreciable rise in the import of horses (as in Gupta Army, the importance of the Cavalry was high), coming overland from Iran and Bactria & from Arabia by sea to the western coast.
4. Money Economy
RS Sharma has argued that Gupta & Post-Gupta periods saw a decline in the money economy because Gupta issued many gold coins but comparatively few Silver & Copper coins.
Most of the Gupta rulers issued only gold coins. Chandragupta II issued silver coins for the first time & copper coins were first issued by Kumaragupta. As pointed out earlier, the reason for not issuing copper coins might be copper coins were issued by Guilds.
Money lending was present. Narada Smriti mentions that person will be born as a slave in the house of his creditor to pay off the debt.
Urban Decay Debate
There is a debate among historians that the historic towns & cities that had developed during the second phase of Indian Urbanization between the 6th Century BC and 4th Century AD appeared to have lost their vitality & importance from the Gupta period. It was a phase of Urban Decay and village sufficiency.
The main proponent of this theory is RS Sharma. He gave the following reasons to back his proposition
Archaeological evidence point towards urban decline.
A gloomy prophecy made in Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita that various towns will fall on evil days, Valmiki Ramayana’s description of Ayodhya after Rama’s exile, & picture of the city’s desolation in Kalidasa’s Raghuvamsha
Faxian’s account depicting the desolation of Bodhgaya, Gaya, Kusinagara etc
The main role played in this was the fall of the Roman Empire and the subsequent decline in long-distance trade
But there are counterarguments.
Historians are divided, arguing that the volume of Roman Trade was never so great as imagined by early historians
Red Sea trade declined due to the fall of the Roman Empire, but there was simultaneous activation of the Persian sea trade route due to impetus by the Byzantine and Sassanid Empires.
Mrichchhakatika gives a vivid description of heroine Vasantasena’s magnificent house in Ujjayini & magnificent city life
Descriptions of the wealthy, educated, and sophisticated man referred to in the Kamasutra
Conclusion: Some of the earlier cities, like Ujjain, Mathura, and
Varanasi, showed signs of decay and less revenue generation. But other cities
were coming up. Trade was changing its dimension. Hence, some cities showed
decay, but to take their place and to make good the loss due to them, other
cities came up
Social Aspects
1. Varna System
Varna distinctions became very pronounced. For instance, people belonging to different castes were charged different rates of interest.
Varna system was considerably modified due to various economic and political factors. For instance,
Kshatriya caste swelled up with the influx of Hunas & Gurjars. (Kshatriyastion of various castes)
The number of Shudras increased due to the absorption of forest tribes in Varna society as Peasants. (Peasantisation of Tribes)
The proliferation of Jatis: Guilds of craftsmen were transformed into Jatis.
But it is evident from the inscriptions of this period that some degree of mobility among jatis was accepted. For instance, the guild of silk weavers moved from Lata in western India to Mandasor (Madhya Pradesh) when they could no longer maintain themselves through the production of silk. Some of them adopted professions of a higher caste than their original ones, such as archers, soldiers, bards and scholars. Despite the change of profession, loyalty to the original guild remained for at least one generation. Being sun-worshippers, they financed the building of a temple to Surya & mentioned in an inscription dated to AD 436.
2. Position of Women
The position of women declined. According to Smritis and
Inscriptions
Girls were not allowed to perform ‘Upanayana Samskara’ & pursue Vedic Studies.
Early marriage for women, i.e. marriage before puberty, was recommended
Intercaste marriage was disapproved
Women were denied any right to the property except Stridhana
Women were considered property which could be lent or loaned to any other person at the pleasure of her husband.
A widow should lead celibate & austere life. Brihaspati Smriti offers an alternative that she burns herself on her husband’s funeral pyre (the first inscription mentioning Sati belongs to this period, dated 510 AD from MP)
But Sources present different pictures wrt Royal women
Royal women are visible on coins & seals. For instance, the King & Queen type of coins of Chandragupta I & Kumaradevi
Matrimonial alliances were an important part of politics. Gupta, Vakatakas, Nagas etc used it
Some royal household women took the initiative in gift-giving. Prabhavati Gupta made grants in her own right
Kamasutra suggests polygyny was also prevalent among the royal & non- royal elite.
Ganikas & Prostitutes
Kamasutra mention Ganikas (i.e. prostitute of nobles). Ganika was admired & celebrated for her beauty, but at the same time, due to fact that anyone for money could buy her sexual favours meant that she could never hope to attain social respectability
The position of the ordinary prostitute was miserable as she was devoid of the glamour & wealth associated with Ganika.
Epitome of Ganika is Vasantasena in Mricchakatikam
3. Slavery
Narada Smriti has a detailed discussion on slavery & mentions 15 types of slaves, including war captives, debt enslavement & voluntary enslavement
A child born of a woman slave in a master’s house was considered a slave as well.
Slaves can be pledged or mortgaged
The ceremony of manumission is mentioned in Smritis, with which the master could free slaves.
4. Untouchability
The practice of untouchability became more intense
According to Faxian – Chandalas had to live outside the towns & marketplaces and were expected to strike pieces of timber when they approached so that others could get out of their way to avoid their presence.
Reasons for the disintegration of the Gupta Empire
Huna Attacks
Huna attacks started during Kumaragupta’s reign but were repulsed at that time.
However, by the end of the 5th century A.D., Huna chief Toramana established his authority over large parts of Central and western India, further extended by his son Mihirakula. The continuous Huna attacks shook the Gupta Empire.
Administrative weaknesses/ Samanta System
Gupta rulers allowed the defeated rulers to rule once they accepted the suzerainty of the Guptas. When Gupta Empire weakened, the subdued Local Rulers asserted their independence.
Land Grants
It has been argued that the Guptas issued land grants to the Brahamana donees and surrendered the revenue and administrative rights in favour of the donees.
Gupta Period: Golden Age of Ancient India-Reality or Myth ?
Nationalist historians called this age as Golden Age (i.e. age when every manifestation of life reaches a peak of excellence). They tried to prove this using political centralisation, high-quality literature, sculpture & architecture. Apart from the elite, ordinary people were materially well off, with little to complain about.
Arguments in favour
Foreign rule was completely removed, and peace and prosperity prevailed (According to HC Raychaudary)
The enlightened character of the government, i.e. taxes were light, punishment mild, etc. (according to Faxian accounts)
Revival of Hinduism, but all other religions were tolerant.
The use of Sanskrit developed, and art and literature flourished during the period
Great personalities like Kalidasa, Amarsimha, Dhanavantri, Ayabhatta, Varahamihira etc., lived during this period
Temple forms and cave architecture of the highest merit developed.
But in the 1960s & 70s, Marxist Historians refuted this claim. Theystudied the socio-economic structures and concluded that the main features of feudalism were present, which intensified in subsequent centuries.
Arguments against
Existence of too many feudatories
Absence of a large Central Bureaucracy
Development of Feudal elements (like Increasing land grants, Serfdom, Sub infeudation etc.)
This article deals with ‘ Trade and Commerce from 200 BC to 300 AD ’. This is part of our series on ‘Ancient History’ which is an important pillar of GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you canclick here.
Silk Route
Silk Route extended was 4,350 km long stretching from Lo-yang on Hwang – He in China to Cteisiphon on Tigris in West Asia.
There was flourishing long-distance trade during this period corroborated by
Texts: Jataka Stories has stories of trade with Suvarnadvipa (South East Asia) and Ratnadvipa (LANKA) , Sangam Poetry (Indo-Roman trade) , Periplus Maris Erythraei etc.
Archaeology: Dwarka & Bet Dwarka in Gujarat, Kaveripattinam, Muziris etc.
A major stimulus to trade was due to
The demand for Chinese silk in the Mediterranean Region. Chinese silk was traded through India rather than being sent directly. The reason was the political situation. Parthians were powerful rulers along the North-Western boundary of the Indian subcontinent. There was constant hostility between them & the Roman Empire. Hence, trade routes between China & the Roman Empire were disturbed. (Route : China TO India via Silk Route => Indian Ports of Barbaricum (on Indus) & Baroach => Alexandria)
Existence of Kushana rule which provided stability & safety to trade + reduction in tariffs.
Traders started to take advantage of Monsoon winds. Periplus speaks about Hippalus’s discovery of Monsoon winds.
Trade with China was disturbed at the end of the 3rd century because of certain reasons like Han Dynasty ended in 220 AD, the Byzantine Empire broke away from Rome and Kushana Empire collapsed. However trade didn’t end altogether, there were some changes in routes. Trade shifted southward with the main emphasis on oceanic trade (i.e. earlier Silk to India was brought overland and then from India went to the Mediterranean world by Sea but now whole supply route shifted to Sea Route).
Trade with East & South-East Asia
Earlier, the relation between India & South-East Asia seen as political & cultural colonisation of the latter. But that perception has changed now as there were reciprocal links between India & South Asia.
Ancient Sanskrit & Pali Text refer to South Asia as Suvarnadvipa & Suvarnabhumi i.e. land of gold and associated with riches.
Since coinage was absent in SE Asia – trade must have been Barter or with the use of cowrie shells .
Major imports & exports included
Export
1. Cotton Cloth 2. Sugar 3. Certain kind of pottery
Some of these items especially Spices were shipped to the western world. Trade in spices was an attempt to meet the great demand of spices from the Roman world. Indian production alone couldn’t satisfy their needs.
Indo – Roman Trade
Trade increased during this period because
By the end of the last century BCE, Rome emerged
as the superpower of the Mediterranean world, displacing the Greek
kingdoms, and the republic became an empire in 27 BCE under Emperor
Augustus. Rome was the largest and wealthiest city in the world and wealth
of Rome greatly increased the demand for various products from India,
especially the spices and textiles of the Tamil country, resulting in a
great expansion of trade.
Discovery of the pattern of monsoon winds in the Arabian
Sea in the first century CE by Hippalus, an Egyptian sailor. Till then,
only Arabs had the knowledge of these winds giving them monopoly of trade
between India and Mediterranean world.
Overland route between India and Roman Empire became
vulnerable to attacks by Parthians in Iran due enmity between Romans and
Parthians.
Items of Export
Spices (especially Pepper)
Fragrant woods
Silk came from China to India and from India send to Roman World
Cotton fabric from Madurai
Pearls
Items of Import
Roman wine
Yavana lamp
Coins
Coral
wheat for the Graeco-Romans in the Tamil ports.
Roman Coins
Indians imported very few goods but were eager to get precious metal, so quest for Roman gold was driving force behind India’s International trade.
Large number of Roman coins have been discovered, especially in South India .
Roman Kings whose coins found
Maximum
– Maximum coins belonged to the reign of Augustus (31 BC -14 AD) and Tiberius (14 AD – 37 AD) . \ – Interestingly , their local imitations also found .
Post-Nero
Post-Nero (64AD) due to debasement of Roman currency shortage of Roman Coins seen.
Issue of Drain of Gold from the Roman Empire
Roman Gold was the main item of demand in return for Indian Exports (especially spices) .
Periplus & Sangam poems tell us about the ships of Yavannas coming with gold & returning with black pepper.
Romilla Thappar has called Black Pepper as Black Gold of India due to gold India was getting in return for pepper
In fact drain of wealth was so much that Romans became anxious. Roman historian Pliny complained of the trade with the east being a serious drain on the income of Rome. 1/5th of gold used in trade was being sent to India for Spice Trade
Impact of Trade on other fields
1 . Impact on Science
Two branches of science were surely impacted
1.1 Astronomy
Deep-sea navigation required reliable study of stars. Hence, it received a mercantile patronage.
Astronomy also developed due to the exchange of ideas with West Asia where this field was already very much developed.
1.2 Medicine
Indian herbal knowledge reached the western world.
Greek botanist Theophrastus in ‘History of Plants’ tells about the medicinal use of various Indian plants and herbs .
2. Impact on Culture
2.1 Western World
North India was very much impacted by
Hellenistic ideas as
The emergence of Gandhara art.
Indian folk-tales and fables travelled westwards (Panchatantra) .
Chaturanga – chess using four traditional wings of army & played by 4 players reached Persia.
Certain aspects of the life of Christ-like supernatural birth & temptation by Devil influenced by legends of life of Buddha .
2.2 Central Asia
Buddhism reached to Central Asia through Traders.
Indian traders patronised Buddhist Monasteries at places like Kashgar, Kucha, Khotan etc.
2.3 China
Goods of Chinese origin started to be used in India. Bamboo, Chinese Patta etc. clearly show that they were Chinese.
Buddhist missionaries arrived in China & established themselves at Famous White House Monastery at Lo Yang (starting point of Silk Route) .
2.4 South East Asia
Legends about the origin of kingdoms in south-east Asia trace the story back to Indian princes and merchants. Eg: Indian brahman, Kaundinya, is said to have married a Cambodian princess, & introduced Indian culture to Cambodia.
Indian literature narrates the adventures of Indian travellers in these part .
This article deals with ‘ Sangam Literature ’. This is part of our series on ‘Ancient History’ which is an important pillar of GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you canclick here.
What is Sangam Literature?
Sangam literature
is oral bardic literature belonging to time period 200 BC to 300 AD.
The legend associated with Sangam Poetry
History of the Sangam is clogged in legends.
Tradition
says there were three Sangams patronised by Pandyas when Scholars assembled to
publish their works . Work of only last one survives .
Word
Sangam is of Indo Aryan Origin
and is used nowhere in Sangam Literature.
Scholars like Kamil Zvelebil argue that it should be called Classical
Literature .
In reality, Poems were not the product of Sangam. Poems
were much earlier composed in oral form by Bards between 200 BC to 300 CE. Word Sangam
was associated with them when commentaries on it were written in 12-14th
Century under Pandya patronage .
Sangam
Place
Chairman
Kingdom
Books
First
Then-madurai
Agasthya
Pandya
No book
survived
Second
Kapatapuram
Agasthya
Pandya
No book
survived
Third
Madurai
Nakirrar
Pandya
Covers
entire corpus of Sangam literature
These poems were written by
Bards who roamed about singing in praise of
their patron chiefs and heroes .
Some were also composed by scholarly poets
who followed the bardic tradition like Kapilar
and Gautamanar .
Two genre i.e. Akam and Puram
The whole text is presented in two genres
Akam
– Love poems – Deal with the inner life of people . – Love is expressed in separation & union ; before or after marriage & extramarital love .
Puram
Public or
War Poems
Deals with the outer life
of people.
Speak of public celebration of the feats of the heroes even the death of
heroes in wars .
Tinai Concept & Sangam Poems
According to the Tinai concept, Tamilaham was divided into five
landscapes or eco-regions, Aintinai namely Kurinji, Palai Mullai, Marutam and
Neital. Each region had distinct characteristics – a presiding deity, people
and cultural life according to the environmental conditions .
Tinai
Meaning
Akam Theme
Puram Theme
Kurinji
Hilly
Zone
Clandestine
meeting of the hero and the heroine
Cattle
Raid
Palai
Arid
Zone
Separation of lovers
Victory
Mullai
Pastoral
Tracts
patient
waiting on the part of wife for the return of her husband from a journey
Invasions
Marutam
Wet land
/Riverine landscape
Lover’s
quarrel due to hero’s infidelity
Seige of
enemy fort
Neital
Sea
Coast
Bemoaning
the lover’s absence
Fierce Battle
Problem in Dating
There is problem in dating as
several
periods are represented in Sangam
Literature
Period of actual composition and oral transmission : 2nd
century B.C. to A.D. 3rd century.
Period of the
codification when written form was given : 6th and 9th centuries.
Period of
the commentaries : 12th – 14th
centuries ( under Pandyan rulers of Madurai) – These commentaries
infact give name Sangam to whole corpus
it is hard to clearly sort out the earlier from the later as they
are all mixed up
Other Points
Poet in
Sangam Poetry doesn’t speak through
his / her own persona but uses various characters such as heroine , her
friend , her foster mother or hero as his mouthpiece .
Spanned over a few centuries, the poems
reflect the gradual development of the Tamil language and literature.
It is a great source of
Socio-Economic life as well . Poets have taken real life situations for similes,
metaphors etc .
Classification
Ettutokai
Consist of 8 collections of Poems (out of 8, 6 belong to Sangam Period)
Pattuppattu
– Ten songs – 9 out of 10 songs belong to Sangam Age .
Grammar
Tolkappiyam (Author –
Tolkapiyar) is a work of Tamil Grammar. Earliest parts of the first two books of Tolkappiyam
belong to Sangam Period & rest
belong to later date
corresponding to 400-500 AD .
Sangam Literature is not a homogenous corpus either in time or in style but spread over vast time of 5 centuries and later additions in main texts .
These were quite
spontaneous songs
created by bards in praise of heroes & powerful chiefs.
Side Topic : Importance of these bards
Most important basis of legitimisation of political power in south India was eulogy of poets . Poet’s praise of generosity & heroism of King that could attain lasting fame for him & conversely , poet’s anger could prove costly .
Sangam texts are secular in nature because unlike Vedic texts , they were composed by various poets in praise of heroes & heroines .
What Sangam Poems tell ?
1 . Sangam Poems are pervaded with a warrior ethic .
The goal of the hero of Puram poems was Pukal (glory , fame) and heroic death was greatly valued.
It was believed that the spirit of a warrior who died in battle dwelt in Paradise. A poem suggests that those who didn’t die in battle were cut with swords before funerary rights to simulate death in battle.
“If a child of my clan should die,
if it is born dead, a mere gob of flesh
not yet human,
They will put it to the sword, to give the thing a warrior’s death”
Losing one’s life in the
battle, and that too with wounds on the chest was considered a great
honour. On the contrary, wounds on the back were considered a sign of
cowardice or disgrace. Numerous poems speak about the delight of brave
mothers over the death of their sons in the battle with wounds on the
chest.
“Her delight
When she heard that her son fell in battle Felling an elephant,
Was greater than at his birth”
The practice of Vattakiruthal is also mentioned in which defeated king committed ritual suicide by starving himself to death.
2. Cult of Hero Worship
Chiefs needed strong warriors. To attract , warriors were rewarded with
the booty or land, if they happened to be alive. But more important was their reward if they lose their life by making
them on par with Gods through Sangam Poems .
3. Geography
In ancient Sangam poetry,
Tamilaham is portrayed as a combination of five Tinais (Aintinai) or 5
Ecozones and bards tried to correlate the activities to ecological
perceptions. (as explained above)
4. Polity
Three type of
Chiefs were mentioned in Sangam poems
Kizar
Little Chiefs
Headman of village(Ur)
Some were subjugated by
bigger chiefs and they served them in campaigns & awarded in return .
Velir
Bigger Chiefs
Intermediate chiefs who
were less powerful than Vendars .
They were many in number
and controlled the territories of varied geographical nature, mainly
hilly and forest areas, that were in between the muvendar’s fertile
territories.
Vendar
Biggest Chiefs
These were
the most powerful chiefdoms. There were
three Vendars also known as Muvendars . These included Chera, Chola and
Pandya . They
controlled the fertile territories and thus had more resources at their
disposal .
They also patronised the
bards and poets so that they glorified their name and fame.
Main concern of Vendars was subordination of
Velir chiefs
who were next in importance. For this, they adopted following ways :-
Subjugation through combats . Marriage alliances : Cholas, Cheras &
Pandyas often took daughters of Velir as wife.
5. Interaction between south and north
Sangam poems also reflect
emergence of new basis of
legitimisation by
performance
of Brahmanical sacrifices , establishing links with northern epic
traditions etc .
Certain chiefs were described
in poems to have emerged from sacrificial fire pits of northern sages like
Sage Agasthya.
Sangam poets were
familiar with the Mahabharata and Ramayana legends and infact Chola, Chera
and Pandya kings claim to have fed the warring armies on the eve of war.
6. Trade with Yavanas
Sangam Poems refers to Yavanas (Romans) coming by ships into ports of
South India bringing Gold and wine and sailing away with cargoes of Pepper from Kaveripattanam and
Muziris.
7. Social Classification
The social classification of Varna was known to Sangam Poets. There is
mention of Arashar (King) , Vaishiyar (traders) & Velalar (farmers) .
Brahmins are also mentioned .
However, 4 fold varna classification had little application to ancient Tamil Society. More relevant
basis of classification was Kuti which were clan based descent groups . Although associated with lineage and
hereditary occupation , there were no real restrictions on inter dining
and social interactions among Kuti Groups.
8. Position of Women
Interestingly there
were 30 women composers .
In these poems, women appear to be regularly labouring in the production
process along with the men in different contexts . 60% of the agricultural
process were associated with the women.
We also find that , women were
engaged in rearing of sheep and cattle (in Pasture Zone) . In Coastal Zone , they were
engaged in Salt manufacturing .
There are also references of
kings employing women bodyguards.
Women also appear in
Sangam texts as proud and glorified
mothers of heroes .
Sangam poems speak about
various types of prostitutes and illicit and stealthy love is also a
regular theme
9. Deities
These
poems also tell about the various deities worshipped by people of Tamilaham in Sangam
period . These deities were also associated with different Ecological
Zones or Tinais . Now it is considered
that seeds of Bhakti in south India lies
in Sangam age.
This article deals with ‘Indian Dynasties during 200 BC to 300 AD ’ . This is part of our series on ‘Ancient History’ which is an important pillar of GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you canclick here.
Introduction
Period between circa 200 B.C.
and A.D. 300 in conventional historical writings is called dark period because of the absence of
territorial large imperial dynasty (with the
exception of Kushanas).
But viewed differently, this
period was important due to following developments
Development of
extensive economic & cultural contacts within country
and with West and Central Asia (through silk
road , maritime etc.).
Evolution of new art forms at Mathura, Sarnath, Sanchi and Amravati.
Exalted notion of kingship developed with its pompous titles & identification with divinity .
State formation outside Northern
India happened . Eg: Kalinga
under Kharvela and
Satavahanas in Deccan.
Centre of power moved North West (from
Gangetic Plains) due to various
invasions .
City life spread ,
trade flourished and use of metallic money as medium of exchange
became widespread.
Devotional worship of images in shrines started.
Sources of Information
1 . Jataka Stories
Jatakas were written during this period.
Jataka contains many stories of ordinary people, traders & travellers .
2 . Puranas
Puranas and Epics are rich source of information on Dynasties and emergence of early Hindu cults .
3. Dharmashastras
3.1 Manava Dharmasutra aka Manu Smriti (Source for 200 BC to 200 AD)
Manu Smriti was written in 2-3rd Century BC. But the laws codified in it influenced the life from 200BC to 200AD.
Text vigorously defended Brahmanical privileges against enemies personified as Shudras & Mlechchhas & sought to strengthen the old alliance between Kings & Brahmanas .
3.2 Yajnavalkya Smriti (100 AD to 300 AD)
Yajnavalkya Smriti gives glimmers of society between circa
100 to 300 AD.
4 . Sanskrit Literature
Many
Sanskrit works were written during this time. Eg :
Later works of Mahayana thinkers such as Nagarjuna, Vasubandhu etc. are all in Sanskrit.
5 . Mahabhashya
Mahabhashya is a commentary on Panini’s Ashtadhayayi written by Patanjali .
Patanjali was contemporary of Pushyamitra Shunga .
6 . Epics
This
period witnessed
composition of the greater portions of two epics , namely,
The Ramayana
The Mahabharata
7. Sangam Literature
Sangam Literature is the name
given to Tamil literature which gives insight into the social, political,
religious etc. life in the region known as Tamilaham.
It is the main source of
knowledge about the polity and administration of early Cheras, Cholas and
Pandyas .
8. Graeco – Roman Texts
Works of Arrian, Strabo, Ptolemy & Pliny the elder were
written during this period.
Writer
Text
Strabo
Geographikon
Ptolemy
Geography
(c. AD 150)
Pliny
Naturalis
Historia (about 79 AD)
8.1 Periplus Maris Erythraei
This book was authored by an unknown Egyptian Greek involved in the trade who travelled from the Red Sea to India (around 80 BC) & wrote a book based on his experience & observation.
He left a record of its ports, harbours and merchandise. This book gives us an idea of maritime activities.
‘Periplus’ claims that Hippalus a mariner, was knowledgable about the monsoon winds that shortens the round-trip from India to the Red Sea and vice versa.
8.2 Vienna Papyrus
This document was written in the 2nd Century AD in Greek (language).
The document is presently preserved in the Vienna Museum and hence known as Vienna Papyrus.
It records terms of business deal & loan between two shippers of Alexandria & Muziri.
It also tells about the route, how commodities reached from Muziri to Alexandria.
9. Chinese Accounts
Chinese texts named Ch’ien Han-Shu & Hou Han-Shu gives us information on movement & migration of people in Central Asia.
10 . Archaeology
North India : Late NBPW & Post NBPW levels represent the period between 200 BC and 300 AD.
Deccan & South India: This period corresponds to the transition from later Megalithic Phase to Early Urban Phase.
11. Inscriptions
Range & number of inscriptions increased dramatically.
North India – Royal inscriptions reflect the transition from Prakrit towards Sanskrit.
South India – Earliest inscription made an appearance.
Royal inscriptions – Provide details dynastic histories.
Ordinary inscriptions – contain a record of pious donations made by ordinary men.
12. Coins
Expansion of state polities and the spread of urban centres led to the development of coinage.
Indo – Greeks: Almost all information about them comes from their coins.
Kushanas coins: dealt in the chapter.
Satavahana coins
Roman coins provide us with information about Indo-Roman trade interactions.
City coins issued by urban administration like Ujjain , Vidisha & Taxila etc.
1. North India Dynasties
1.1 Shungas
Shungas were Brahmins from Ujjain & worked as an official under Maurayas.
This dynasty was founded by Pushymitra Shunga.
Important rulers of Shungas
Pushyamitra Shunga
Pushyamitra assassinated the last Mauryan king Brihadratha in 180 BC (works of Banabhata corroborate this).
He was a Brahmin himself and supporter of Brahmanism. He performed Ashvameda Yajna after proclaiming the throne.
Buddhist sources like ‘Divyavadana’ depicts that he persecuted Buddhists & destroyed many Buddhist monasteries.
His kingdom extended only over Pataliputra (capital), Ayodhya & Vidisha.
From Malvikagnimitrum (of Kalidasa), we come to know that he faced various incursions of Yavanas (Bactrian Greeks) in the North West but was able to defeat them with help of his grandson (Agnimitra Shunga).
According to Puranas, he reigned for 36 years & succeeded by his grandson Agnimitra Shunga.
Agnimitra Shunga
Malvikagnimitram (of Kalidasa) presents a different picture of Shunga rule under Agnimitra than that presented by Divyavadana.
There were frequent clashes with Bactrian Greeks during his reign as well. Patanjali (2nd century BC grammarian) states that Yavanas were able to come up to Saketa .
Later kings
10 Shunga kings are supposed to have ruled 112 years.
They too became a victim of a conspiracy masterminded by Brahmana minister Vasudeva Kanava who started Kanava Dynasty.
Side Topic: Besnagar Inscription of Heliodorus
Besnagar is situated near Vidisha.
Here Heliodorus (ambassador of Greek king Antialkidas) constructed Pillar of Garuda (vehicle of Vishnu) with inscription in Prakrit.
This shows that Shungas continued the Mauryan tradition of entertaining greek ambassadors.
In the inscription, Greek ambassador describes himself to be a worshipper of God Vasudeva Krishna.
This pillar is quite different from earlier Maurya pillars. (it was small, not polished and not monolithic) .
1.2 Indo-Greeks
Indo-Greeks are known as ‘Yavanas’ in Indian sources.
They were originally Satraps (principalities) of Seleucid Empire of West Asia. Later, the Seleucid Empire started to weaken. As a result, around 250 BC, Governor of Bactria, Diodotus, revolted and started to rule as an independent ruler of Bactria with capital at Bactra (Majar-e-Sharif).
Most important Indo-Greek king was Menander who can be identified as King Milinda of book Milindapanha who poses a number of question to Buddhist Monk Nagasena and reigned between 165-130 BC. He is said to have ruled a large kingdom as his coins have been found over an extensive area ranging from the valleys of the Kabul and Indus rivers to as far as western Uttar Pradesh. The incident shown in Milindapanha is claimed to have resulted in Menander’s conversion to Buddhism. This was a period when Greeks were interested in Buddhism, so such a manual is extremely useful to know about the propagation of religion.
Another Indo-Greek king whose name is remembered is Antialcidas (or Antialkidas), (c. 110 BC). He is known to us primarily because his emissary, Heliodorus, was sent to the court of King Bhagabhadra and he erected a pillar with its capital adorned by a figure of Garuda, in honour of God Krishna (Vasudeva). Heliodorus had evidently become a follower of Vasudeva Krishna.
Coins of Indo-Greek Kings
Distinguishing feature of the reign of the Indo-Greek kings was their exquisite coinage. These coins carried the portrait of the reigning king on one side with his name and Greek or Indian deities on the other side.
Most of these coins were bilingual with Greek Language-Greek Script & Prakrit Language-Kharosthi Script.
34 out of 45 Indo Greek kings were known through the coins .
They also help us to date the rise of sects . Eg : Krishna Vasudeva and Balarama depicted on Indo-Greek coins shows that they were important deities.
Coins of Sakas , Parthians & Kushanas followed basic features of Indo-Greek coins including bilingual & bi-script .
Indo-Greek coins introduced innovations in Indian numismatics, such as
die-striking
use of legends
portraits of rulers
representation of deities.
Fall of Indo-Greeks
Attack from Scythian tribes: With the construction of the Chinese Wall, the Scythians could not move towards China and in turn attacked Greeks and Parthians. Parthians in return also started to attack Greeks. Hence, by about 165 BCE, Bactria was lost to the Parthians and Sakas. After this, the Indo-Greeks continued to rule in central and southern Afghanistan and north-western India.
The Greeks continued to be beset with internal squabbles among many claimants to power, and the names of more than thirty kings can be identified from their coins. It is possible that they all ruled small pockets as autonomous rulers and issued their own coinage.
Significance of their rule
They introduced the Hellenistic art features in north-western India which culminated in the Gandhara art style.
Coinage of Indo-Greeks was far ahead of their time in quality and aesthetics which impacted the later coinage in India .
Side Topic: Movements of the Pastoralists & building of Empires
Greek kingdoms declined in north-west due to attack on Bactria by nomadic peoples from central Asia.
Scythians/ Sakas inhabited the region around Lake Issyk-Kul and the river Jaxartes. They were attacked by Yueh-Chih/Yuezhi forcing Scythians to migrate westward.
Yueh-Chih (original home – west China) attacked Scythians because they were attacked by Xiung Nu (Hunas).
Xiung Nu were impacted because their pastures dried up and Chinese Emperor Shi Huang Ti built THE GREAT WALL restricting their movement and raids toward China.
(Source : Hou Han Shu and Chien Han Shu )
1.3 Sakas
Sakas aka Scythians were originally the inhabitants of Central Asia (the region around Lake Issyk-Kul and river Jaxartes).
Sources sometimes mention Scythians & Parthians together as Saka-Pahlawa.
Sakas destroyed the Greek suzerainty over Bactria with their continuous attacks.
There were many branches of Sakas ruling simultaneously like
1
Settled in Afghanistan
2
Settled in Punjab. Ruled with Taxila as their capital.
3
Ruled from Mathura.
4
Established themselves in Western & Central India. Their rule continued till the 4th century AD.
In India, the Sakas assimilated into the Hindu society. They began to adopt Hindu names and religious beliefs, so much so that their coins had representations of Hindu gods on one side.
Main rulers of Sakas
1 . Maues / Moga
He was the earliest Saka King in Gandhara with rule starting from circa 80 BCE.
We come to know about Maues from his coins & inscriptions.
He also established Stupa during his period.
2. Azes I
Azes I succeeded Maues.
He successfully attacked and defeated the last Indo-Greek king in North India (Hippostratos) and extended Saka rule as far as Mathura.
Inscription of Azes I has led BN Mukherjee to conclude that it was Azes I who started an era around 57 BC known as Vikram Era. Hence, a ruler who started an era in 57 BC wasn’t Vikramaditya but Saka ruler Azes I.
3 . Azilises & Azes II
Azilises succeeded Azes 1 who was further succeeded by Azes II.
They were definitely controlling Taxila and their control extended tIll Ganga Yamuna Doab.
They are largely known from their inscriptions.
Rudradaman
He is one of the most famous Saka Kshatrapas who ruled between 130–150 CE.
His exploits are celebrated in the famous rock inscription of Junagadh (in Gujarat).
According to the inscription, he had even defeated the Satavahanas in battle.
His name indicates that the process of assimilation into Indian society was complete by that time.
Title of Saka Kings
Saka Kings used Iranian title King of Kings (Shahanu Shahi)
This point towards the existence of lesser chieftains or smaller kings.
There were Provincial Governors known as Kshatrapas & Mahakshatrapas who were appointed by the king.
=> Hence, there was a confederation of chieftains headed by the Saka Kings.
But Chieftains and Governors exercised a considerable degree of autonomy.
Satrap System
Sakas along with Parthians introduced Satrap system. It was similar to Achaemenid & Seleucid systems in Iran in which
Kingdom was divided into Provinces.
Each Province was under a Provincial Governor called Mahakshatrapa (The Great Satrap).
Governors with lower status were called Kshatrapas (Satraps).
Governors enjoyed AUTONOMY. They issued their own inscriptions & minted their own coins.
Later, these Kshatrapas asserted their independence.
1.4 Parthians aka Pahlawas
Rule of Sakas & Parthians was simultaneous in North & North-West India.
Parthians originated in Iran & later moved to Indo- Iranian borderlands .
Gondophaes
Aka Guduvhara.
Most prominent Parthian King.
Ruled in first century A.D.
Area: Kabul to Panjab
St. Thomas travelled to his court for the propagation of Christianity
Other points
Their rule was marked by scarcity
of silver coins .
It is possible that silver coins of predecessors i.e. Sakas and Indo – Greeks
served their needs .
Their rule ended with rise of the
Kushanas .
Gradually,
Parthians assimilated in the Indian
society .
1.5 Kushanas
Introduction
They are mentioned in Chinese Annals as Yueh Chi living around Lake Ysyk Kol. They were attacked & defeated by Xiung Nu (Hunas) and subsequently, Yueh Chi moved westwards.
There were 5 Yeuh- Chi principalities & one was Kuei – Shang (Kushanas) with capital (initial) at Bactra (Majar e Sharif).
He established control south of Hindu-Kush Mountains and issued coins suggesting association with Buddhism .
2. Vima Kadphises
He was the son of Kujula Kadphises.
He expanded the empire to Kabul, Indus Valley & Mathura region.
He was the first in Indian subcontinent to issue gold coins.
His coins suggest an association with Shiva.
3. Kanishka
Kushana rule reached its zenith during his reign.
His reign began in 78 AD which also marks the start of Shaka Era.
His central Asian identity with boots, coat etc. is imprinted on a statue, unfortunately headless, found near Mathura.
His empire consisted of
Afghanistan,
Xinjiang (China)
Central Asia up to the north of Oxus river
Indian regions
Towards the end of his reign, he led an unsuccessful military campaign against Chinese in which his forces were defeated & he was forced to pay tribute.
He is celebrated as the patron of Buddhism. Northern Buddhists claimed that Kanishka organised the Fourth Buddhist Council to clarify Buddhist doctrine ( parallel to Theravada (South) Buddhism claim that Ashoka organised 3rd Council). A most significant outcome of this council was (1) recognition to new Buddhist sects and (2) Missionaries were sent to Central Asia.
But given the territorial span, royal patronage was extended to Buddhism, Jainism, Bhagavata and Shaiva sects, Zoroastrianism and Hellenistic cults. Various deities like Shiva, Buddha, Nana & many other West-Asian divinities can be found on their coins.
4. Successors
His immediate successors were Vasishka, Huvishka, Kanishka 2 & Vasudeva I.
Empire started to decline from the time of Vasudeva I & Vasudeva 2 was last Kushana ruler. Their rule ended in 262 AD.
Kushana Coinage
Kushana coins were of the highest quality and conformed to the weight standards of Roman coins.
In the coins, Kushana rulers are referred to as “king of kings”, “Caesar”, “lord of all lands” and by other such titles. Unfortunately, the titles did not leave much room on the coins for the actual name of the ruler.
Kushana coins tell us that Kushanas were eclectic. Different divinities like Shiva, Buddha, Nana etc. on their coins corroborate this fact.
Coins of Kushanas shows that Kushanas were appropriating Divine Status for the Kings because of features like a halo around the head, flames on shoulders etc.
Importance of the Kushana coins in international transactions is borne out by the discovery of Kushana coins in Ethiopia.
Art and Literature during Kushanas
During the reign of Kushanas, art and literature flourished. This was partly due to royal patronage and partly due to other factors, like the growing ascendancy of Mahayana Buddhism, which allowed the representation of the person of Buddha in human form.
Two separate schools of art developed during this period
Gandhara School: It was influenced by Greeks and also known as Indo-Greek style of sculpture and art.
Mathura School: It was red sandstone sculpture produced in areas around Mathura.
Buddhists began to carve out rock caves in the hills of western India, which served as religious centres with chaityas and viharas, stretching from the Ajanta caves to the Kanheri caves in Mumbai. Large statues of Buddha were sculpted in these caves as a part of the Mahayana tradition.
Kanishka was the patron of Buddhist philosophers such as Asvaghosha (writer of Buddhacharita and Sariputraprakarana), Parsva and Vasumitra, as well as the great Buddhist teacher Nagarjuna. Among the Hindu treatises, Manusmriti and Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra took final shape during this period.
2. South India
2.1 Mahameghavahanas
Mahameghavahanas were ruled Kalinga in Orissa (earlier Kalinga was conquered by Asoka from the local power).
During Post-Maurya period again came under the local line of rulers named Mahameghavahana who descended from an ancient line of the Chedis.
Kharvela
He was the third Mahameghavahana ruler.
Important Source: Hathigumpha Cave Inscription (near Bhubaneswar) which provides the following information
It gives a year-wise account of his reign.
Tell his military victories in north, west and south India .
Undertook many public works.
As practising Jaina excavated cave-shelters for Jaina monks on Udayagiri hills.
Agricultural Expansion: Kharavela refers to irrigation canals built by the Nandas, but proudly mentions his own efforts in this direction.
Kharavela did not issue coins. It is possible that theKalingan economy was not yet ready for its own coinage.
Mahameghavahana Dynasty collapsed after his demise .
2.2 Satavahanas
Sources
Satavahanas are the Andhras of Puranas.
Gatha Saptasati, a Prakrit text composed by the Satavahana king Hala.
Inscriptions like Naneghat & Nashik inscription.
Account of Pliny: Eg – Andhra country had 30 walled cities and a large army of 1 lakh infantry, 2000 cavalry & 1000 elephants.
Accounts of Periplus in Periplus Maris Erythraei.
Coins of Satavahanas. Eg – Coins of Yajnashri Satkarni has ship on the coins showing the importance of Trade & Commerce.
Satavahana rulers
Although there is controversy about dates but a sequence of rulers is fairly clear.
1 . Initial rulers
Satavahana dynasty was founded by Simuka who was followed by Kanha (brother of Simuka) followed by Satakarni I.
2. Satkarni I
Naganika (wife of Satkarni I) in his Naneghat inscription describes him as Lord of Dakshinapatha who performed two Ashvamedha Yajanas.
3. Gautamiputra Satkarni
Gautamiputra Satakarni was the greatest of the Satavahana kings.
He defeated the Shaka ruler Nahapana and reissued the coins of Nahapana with his own royal insignia.
Achievements are engraved in Inscription of his mother (Gautami Balashri) in Nashik. He is described as the destroyer of Shakas, Pahlavas, & Yavanas.
He is also said to haveperformed the prestigious Vedic Asvamedha sacrifice.
Towards the end of his reign, he suffered defeats from Rudradaman I.
4 . Vasishthiputra Pulumayi
Vasishthiputra Pulumayi, the successor of Gautamiputra Satakarni, expanded the frontiers of the Satavahana Empire. The coins issued by him are found scattered in many parts of south India.
5. Yajnashri Satkarni
Yajnashri Satkarni was another famous ruler who issued coins with a ship motif, indicating the importance of the overseas trade during his reign.
Satavahana dynasty came to end in mid 3rd century CE . The breakup of empire paved way for the rise of
Vakatakas in Deccan
Kadambas in Mysore
Abhiras in Maharashtra
Ikshvakus in Andhra
Descent of Satavahanas
They claimed Brahamana descent.
Nashik Inscription states them to be Ekabamhana i.e. Peerless Brahamana and Khatiya dapa manamada i.e. who destroyed the pride of Kshatriyas.
Use of Matronyms
Satavahanas use name of their mother like Gautamiputra Satkarni, Vasishthiputra Pulumayi etc. This is significant, however, this doesn’t mean they followed the matriarchal system. Their succession was still Patrilineal.
They were followers of cross-cousin system of marriage, especially with father’s sister’s daughter.
Land Grants
Offering land grants was an important development of the Satavahana times. The beneficiaries of these grants were mostly Buddhists and Brahmins. The Naneghat inscription refers to tax exemptions given to the lands granted to Buddhist monks. These land donations created a group of people who did not cultivate but owned land.
2.3 Muvendors: Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas
From Sangam poetry, we come to know that Muvendar, ‘the three crowned kings’, the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas controlled major agrarian territories, trade routes and towns.
Cholas
The area under their control included central and northern Tamil Nadu i.e. Kaveri delta also known as Cholamandalam.
Capital: Uraiyur
Main Port : Puhar or Kaviripattinam
Emblem: Tiger
Sangam literature point towards fact that Kaviripattinam attracted merchants from various regions of the Indian Ocean and Roman Empire.
Sangam poems portray Karikalan as the greatest Chola of the Sangam age. Karikalan’s foremost military achievement was the defeat of the Cheras and the Pandyas, supported by as many as eleven Velir chieftains at Venni. He is credited with converting forest into habitable regions and developing agriculture by providing irrigation through the embankment of the Kaveri and building reservoirs.
Perunarkilli performed the Vedic sacrifice Rajasuyam or Rajasuya Yajna.
Cheras
The area under their control included central and northern parts of Kerala and Kongu region of Tamil Nadu.
Capital: Karur
Main Port: Muziris
Emblem: Bow and Arrow
Sangam poems speak about eight Chera kings, their territory and fame.
Pandyas
Capital: Madurai
Main port: Korkai
Emblem: Fish
According to traditions, they patronized the Tamil Sangams and facilitated the compilation of the Sangam poems .
