Ethics

• Deontological Ethics is also known as Kantian Ethics or Duty-Based Ethics.
• Under Deontological Ethics, right & wrong is determined based on the MEANS  & the end result is immaterial here. 
• Deontological ethics holds that individuals have certain moral duties and obligations, even if it produces a bad result. These duties include “do not lie,” “do not steal,” or “do not harm others.” So, for example, the philosopher Kant opined that it would be wrong to lie to save a friend from a murderer. 
• According to Kant, the Dignity of every individual is an important value & it should be used as a criterion for judging right & wrong. He argued, “Every individual should be treated as an end in himself & shouldn’t be treated as means to some end.”  
• The intention is also crucial in Deontological Ethics. It is seen whether an act is carried out with good or bad intentions. If good work is done with bad intentions, then actions are unethical.  
• Instances where human beings are treated as means to some other ends are
  • Surrogacy  
  • Clinical Trials
  • Consumerism (MNCs use common people as a means to maximize their profits)  
• Mahatma Gandhi, too, has emphasized a lot on means as an ethical aspect. According to Gandhi, means should be equally pious & moral as that of the end. 
• The Hindu philosophy of Nishkama Karma that argues for doing one’s duties without expectation of fruit is in line with Deontological Ethics /Duty Based Ethics. 
• Deontological or duty-based ethics motivates work, even when the result is uncertain or far away. e.g. Lord Krishna advised Arjun to fight in the war against the Kauravs.

1. Lack of Consideration for Consequences: Deontological ethics neglect the importance of consequences of actions. Hence, it fails to address situations where a morally right action could lead to negative outcomes or where morally wrong actions could result in positive consequences.
2. Conflict of Moral Rules: Deontological ethics may encounter challenges when moral rules or duties come into conflict with one another. 
3. Lack of Flexibility: Deontological ethics is criticized for its rigid adherence to moral rules, which may not account for the complexities and nuances of real-life situations.

Immanuel Kant was a renowned German philosopher who significantly contributed to various fields, including metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics.

Categorical Imperative

Kant lays down the following rules of conduct to make the moral law i. e. the Categorical Imperative more definite

1. Act only on that principle which can be a Universal Law: Kant says that one should act in such a way as you could wish that everyone else should act in the same way. For example  
   • Breaking promises: The act is wrong because it cannot be universalized. If everyone breaks a promise, no one can make any promise. 
   • Suicide: If everyone commits suicide in despair, no one would be left to commit suicide. 
   • Theft: Theft is wrong because if everyone else resorts to such activity, it will create chaos. 
2. Do not use any person, including yourself, as only means: This maxim holds that a person should be treated as an end in itself and not as a means to some ends. Man is essentially a rational being, and the rational nature is an end and has absolute value.  
3. Act as a Lawmaker of the Kingdom of Ends (Autonomy of Morality): Everyone in this kingdom is sovereign (i.e. imposes moral law upon himself) and subject (i.e. he obeys the moral law imposed by himself) at the same time. 

Complete Good: Virtue & Happiness

• Kant believes that virtue is the supreme good but not the complete good. 
• The complete good consists of the association of virtue with happiness. 
• Virtue depends upon goodwill within our control. Happiness depends upon external circumstances which are beyond our control. Virtue does not include happiness, nor does happiness include virtue. The harmony of virtue and happiness is brought about by God. 

Leadership

A leader should

• Cultivate autonomy and self-determination in themself and in followers
• “Act as if one were a member of an ideal kingdom of ends in which one was subject and sovereign simultaneously.”

• Consequential Ethics focuses on the “End/Outcome/Consequences” of action to check their morality. It is also known as teleological ethics (from ancient Greek telos, “end”; logos, “reason”)
• Under this category, the philosophy of various philosophers can be characterized. E.g., Bentham‘s Utilitarianism, John Stuart Mill (1806–73), and Henry Sidgwick (1838– 1900), with its formula the “greatest happiness [pleasure] of the greatest number.”
• Teleological ethics focuses on the idea that the ends justify the means. Hence, by using this theory, even robbing a bank can be justified if it is used for charity (hence promoting Social Banditry and Robinhood Methods).
• Additionally, it may lead to overlooking the rights and interests of minority groups or individuals.

• Epicurus was an ancient Greek philosopher known for his philosophy called Epicureanism. 
• According to Epicurus, pleasure is the end (telos) of life. By pleasure, Epicurus meant the lack of pain.
• But Epicurus distinguished between higher and lower pleasures (an influence on J.S. Mill), and the main emphasis was on Higher Pleasures.
  • Higher or Katastematic pleasures: pleasures of the mind
  • Lower or Kinetic Pleasures: pleasures of food, drink and sex.
• Epicurus considered ataraxia, or tranquillity of the soul, as a central component of a happy and fulfilled life. He believed that by eliminating physical and mental disturbances and achieving a state of inner calm, individuals could experience lasting pleasure and serenity.
• Epicurus advocated for a simple and modest lifestyle. He believed that excessive desires and material possessions create unnecessary sources of worry and unrest. 
• Epicurus proposed a hedonistic calculus, which involves evaluating actions based on their long-term consequences. He argued that some pleasures may lead to greater pain in the long run, while some temporary discomforts may result in greater pleasure and overall well-being. The broader and long-term impact of choices should be considered.

Machiavelli was an Italian Renaissance philosopher, is known for his work “The Prince,” Machiavelli’s ethical philosophy, known as Machiavellianism, is characterized by a pragmatic and realistic approach to politics and power.

The main principles of Machiavellian Ethics include 

1. Amorality of Politics: The ends of maintaining power and stability justify the means employed by rulers, even if those means are morally questionable.
2. Rulers should act in their own self-interest and take whatever measures are necessary to secure and consolidate their rule. 
3. Concept of Virtù: Machiavelli introduced the concept of virtù, which he defined as the strength, skill, and capacity for action exhibited by successful rulers. Virtù involves the ability to adapt, make bold decisions, and effectively navigate the complexities of politics. It is a quality valued by Machiavelli for political leaders rather than traditional notions of moral virtue.

John Stuart Mill also believed in the ‘Greatest Happiness of the Greatest Number (GHGN)’, but to correct the anomalies of Bentham’s theory, he applied some conditions. 

These conditions were

• Mill was also concerned with protecting individual rights and promoting individual liberty. The liberty of every individual is important, and liberty can’t be negotiated (if making a dam will help 1000 families, and we have to uproot 20 tribal families, this theory says that although in this case, too, GHGN is important. But the liberty of 20 families to decide whether they want to be uprooted or not is more important. Government should go for negotiation with these 20 families and give them a deal that they vacate the area on their own without coercion) 
• Happiness differs in quality and not just in quantity.: Mill argued that not all pleasures are of equal value. He distinguished between higher pleasures, which involve the faculties of the mind (such as intellectual pursuits and moral contemplation), and lower pleasures, which are more sensory or physical in nature. The theory says, “it is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.” 
• Rule Utilitarianism: While Bentham’s Utilitarianism focused on evaluating individual actions, Mill introduced the idea of rule utilitarianism. It suggests that instead of assessing each individual action based on its specific consequences, we should follow general rules or principles that, in the long run, tend to produce the greatest overall happiness. Such rules can serve as useful heuristics for guiding ethical behaviour. For example, let’s consider the rule “Do not steal.” Rule utilitarianism would argue that this rule is generally beneficial because it promotes trust, security, and overall happiness in society. Even if there may be instances where stealing could lead to some short-term happiness, following the rule consistently brings about greater happiness in the long term.

• Hedonism believes in maximizing one’s own pleasure/happiness.
• According to hedonism, pleasure is the highest good, and actions should be judged based on their ability to produce pleasure or happiness. Pleasurable experiences can vary from person to person, but they generally include things like eating delicious food, spending time with loved ones, engaging in enjoyable activities, and experiencing physical or emotional sensations that bring joy.
• Charvaka School of Philosophy of Indian thought propounds it. (‘Rather a pigeon today than a peacock tomorrow’ or ‘A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.’)

Merits of Hedonism

• Promotes consumerism: It can give a boost to the economy & can help in employment generation. 

Demerits of Hedonism

• Hedonism justifies drug abuse because it gives pleasure.
• Hedonism oversimplifies moral decision-making and neglects other important values, such as justice, fairness, and the well-being of others.

• Egoism propounds maximizing one’s own self-interest (not happiness). 
• It is different from hedonism. For example, in hedonism, eating whatever gives a person maximum pleasure is acceptable. But in egoism, a person aiming to become a fashion model should follow a strict diet plan to remain in proper shape and deny the pleasure of good food.
• Now the question arises, is maximizing one’s own self-interest bad? The answer to this is given by Ayn Rand’s Theory of Ethical Egoism.

Ayn Rand’s Philosophy

Ethical Egoism: Selfishness is a Virtue

• According to ethical egoism, individuals have a moral obligation to prioritize their own self-interest.
• Rand speaks about three modes of living. They are:
  • Plant model: Plants don’t have to move to get their life-supporting elements. They get them from the soil in which they grow. 
  • Animal model: Animals and birds have to seek their food and water. Even the lion, the king of the jungle, has to seek his food. 
  • Human model: Man does not merely seek food. He has to do productive work. For that purpose, he has to choose actions. He has to think. He has to seek knowledge. He needs knowledge in order to live. 
• Hence, she argued selfishness is a virtue. According to Rand, Selfishness means the pursuit of one’s rational self-interest. Concern with one’s own interests is not evil. ‘Selfishness’ is also not to be identified with evil.
• At the same time, Rand was opposed to Altruistic Morality. Altruism orders man to sacrifice one’s interest for the good of others.

Voluntary Cooperation

• While ethical egoism emphasizes the pursuit of self-interest, it acknowledges the value of voluntary cooperation with others. It recognizes that mutually beneficial interactions can contribute to individual well-being and encourages individuals to engage in relationships and interactions that are beneficial to their self-interest.

Individual Rights and Capitalism

• Ayn Rand’s ethical egoism is closely tied to her political philosophy of laissez-faire capitalism and the protection of individual rights. She argued that individuals have a right to their own lives, liberty, and the pursuit of their own happiness. In her view, a society that respects individual rights and allows individuals to freely pursue their self-interest benefits everyone.

Critiques of Ethical Egoism

• Lack of Consideration for Others: Critics argue that ethical egoism places excessive focus on self-interest and neglects the importance of altruism and concern for the well-being of others.
• Inconsistency with Moral Intuitions: Ethical egoism is often seen as contradicting widely accepted moral intuitions, such as the duty to help others in need or the responsibility to contribute to the greater good
• Conflict of Interests: Ethical egoism can create conflicts of interest when individuals pursue their own self-interest without consideration for the interests of others.

• Virtue Ethics focuses on a person’s virtues (qualities/values) rather than his conduct or actions.  
• It focuses more on the person than the action, assuming that if a person has good values, he will do good deeds. 
• For Civil Servants, Virtue Ethics are very important. Civil Servants must be a man of great virtues because 
  • If a civil servant is a virtuous man, he will command the respect of people, and people will accept him easily.
  • All decisions taken by him will be influenced by his values, and values don’t change overnight. 

• Socrates (469/470 BCE – 399 BCE), considered one of the founders of Western philosophy, was a Classical Greek philosopher. 
• Socrates is famous for his Socratic method of questioning, a technique which uses a series of questions to lead to a deeper understanding of the subject. 
• It should be noted that Socrates hasn’t written any book, and his work and philosophy are known through the writings of Xenophon and Plato, who were his students. 
• He believed in the pursuit of knowledge and the idea that wisdom comes from understanding one’s own ignorance. According to Socrates, seeking knowledge and living a virtuous life is the ultimate goal of life. 

Sophists vs Socrates

The Sophists were a group of travelling teachers and intellectuals in ancient Greece who offered their services as educators, tutors, and consultants. They were known for their clever and persuasive arguments. But sophists were controversial figures in their time, as they were often seen as mercenary and opportunistic, and their teachings were criticized for their relativistic approach to morality and truth.

The main issue between the Sophists and Socrates was a philosophical disagreement about the nature of truth and knowledge. The Sophists believed that truth was relative and could be shaped to suit one’s needs or beliefs. On the other hand, Socrates believed in the existence of objective truth and held that the pursuit of wisdom and knowledge was the most important aspect of human life. He also criticized the Sophists’ focus on rhetoric and argumentation over truth and wisdom, which led to a strained relationship between the two groups.

Murder of Socrates

Socrates and the Greek state were in conflict due to Socrates’ beliefs and teachings. Socrates was a philosopher who believed in objective truth and virtue, and he taught his students to question authority to seek knowledge. This challenged the beliefs and values of the Greek state, which relied on tradition, religion, and the rule of law to maintain order. The Greek state viewed Socrates as a threat to the established order and charged him with impiety and corrupting the youth. He was sentenced to death. But he refused to abandon his beliefs and was executed by drinking hemlock.

This conflict between Socrates and the Greek state reflects the larger tension between the individual and the state, between reason and tradition, and between free speech and censorship.  

Socratic Method of Questioning

The Socratic method of questioning is a method of teaching and learning through a dialogue between teacher and student. This method was developed by the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates and is based on the idea that the best way to learn is by questioning and examining one’s own beliefs and assumptions.

In the Socratic method, the teacher asks questions to help the student uncover the truth and arrive at a deeper understanding. The questions are designed to encourage critical thinking and to challenge the student’s assumptions and beliefs. The teacher does not provide answers but instead guides the students to find the answers themselves.

The Socratic method is often used in philosophy, law, and ethics classes, but it can be applied to any subject. It is a powerful tool for learning because it forces the student to think deeply about the subject matter and to understand the underlying principles and reasoning.

Virtue is Knowledge

• Socrates believed that ignorance was the root cause of immorality or vice. In his view, if individuals possessed complete knowledge or understanding of what is morally right, they would naturally act accordingly. 
• For Socrates, knowledge was not limited to factual information or expertise in a specific field. He focused on moral and ethical knowledge—the understanding of what is truly good and how to live a virtuous life.

Know Thyself

• Socrates believed that self-knowledge was fundamental to leading a meaningful and virtuous life. 
• Socrates encouraged individuals to engage in introspection and examine their own thoughts, beliefs, and actions to identify their strengths, weaknesses, biases, and limitations.
• Socrates recognized that people often deceive themselves or remain ignorant about their own flaws and shortcomings. He said, “The unexamined life is not worth living.”

The Only Thing I know is that I know Nothing

Socrates advocated for intellectual humility, which involves recognizing the extent of our ignorance and being open to the possibility of being wrong. He saw intellectual arrogance and overconfidence as obstacles to genuine learning and understanding. By acknowledging that we know nothing, we adopt a mindset of humility that allows us to be receptive to new knowledge.

Importance of Socrates Teachings in Times Day

While Socrates’ teachings may not have been directly emphasized in India’s intellectual history, their universal principles resonate across cultures and have the potential to contribute to the intellectual and ethical development of individuals in present-day India. 

• Critical Thinking: Socratic principles can encourage individuals to challenge dogmas, traditions, and societal norms, leading to personal growth and intellectual advancement.
• Pursuit of Knowledge: Socratic principles can inspire individuals to embrace intellectual humility and a never-ending quest for knowledge.
• Socratic Method: The Socratic method, a dialectical approach to questioning and examining ideas, is well suited for India, a country known for its diverse opinions and perspectives. The Socratic method can facilitate meaningful conversations, foster empathy, and bridge ideological divides.

• Plato (427-347 BC), a student of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle, expressed his philosophical ideas through dialogues, in which he used conversations between characters to explore various philosophical concepts.
• He wrote a book named ‘Republic.’  

Plato’s Cardinal Virtues

He gave four cardinal virtues of a “good man.”

1. Wisdom: Wisdom refers to the pursuit of knowledge, understanding, and insight. It enables individuals to make sound judgments and decisions based on reason and a deep understanding of reality.
2. Courage: Courage entails the ability to face fear, danger, or adversity with bravery and resolve. It is not mere recklessness or fearlessness but rather the strength of character to act according to one’s convictions and face challenges even when difficult or intimidating.  
3. Temperance: Temperance refers to self-control and finding the right balance in one’s actions and desires. It involves restraining excessive behaviour and avoiding extremes, finding harmony and equilibrium in one’s thoughts, emotions, and actions.  
4. Justice: Justice is the most central virtue in Plato’s philosophy. It involves fairness, righteousness, and the pursuit of what is just and equitable. Plato viewed justice as the fundamental virtue that governs the harmonious functioning of society and the individual. 

Four virtues are cardinal because they are fundamental virtues. Other virtues depend upon them and are, therefore, subordinate to cardinal virtues.

Division of Society into Three Classes

Plato proposed a division of society into three classes in his influential work, “The Republic.” According to Plato, this division was based on the principle of specialization and aimed to create a just and harmonious society.  

1. Guardians

• Guardians constitute the class of Rulers.     
• Wisdom is their principal virtue.
• They are responsible for governing and making decisions for the entire community. They are philosophers and possess wisdom, knowledge, and a deep understanding of the forms and the nature of the good. Plato believed that only those who have undergone rigorous philosophical education and training can become competent rulers.

2. Auxiliaries

• They support the guardians, execute the laws made by the enlightened rulers or philosopher kings and protect the society from internal disorder and external attack. 
• Courage is their principal virtue.

3. Civilians

• Civilians consist of producers, such as farmers, blacksmiths, fishermen, traders, carpenters, etc.  
• Temperance is their main virtue. 
• Plato considered them as the productive class, providing the necessary goods and services for society’s functioning. The producers were expected to be hardworking, obedient, and focused on their respective tasks.

Justice

• Central to Plato’s ethical philosophy is the concept of Justice. In “Republic,” he presents his ideal city-state, where Justice is the harmony and balance between three distinct classes: the rulers, the guardians, and the producers. Each class has its own function, and Justice is achieved when each class fulfils its role harmoniously without encroaching upon the responsibilities of others.
• Additionally, Justice is the highest virtue because it helps maintain societal stability. 
• Hence, Plato’s Theory of Justice is similar to the Swadharma of Gita. It states that every man should do the job according to his natural inclination. Interference in others’ affairs is not only against the requirement of Justice but also causes chaos.  

Just Person and Tripartite Nature of the Human Soul

• Plato discussed the tripartite nature of the human soul in his work. He identified three parts: reason (the rational part), spirit (the emotional and spirited part), and appetite (the desires and appetites). According to Plato, a just person is one in which reason rules over spirit and appetite, ensuring a harmonious and balanced soul.

Importance of Plato’s Teachings in Present Times

• Philosopher-Kings and Good Governance: Plato’s concept of philosopher-kings, individuals who possess wisdom and virtue, has implications for governance in India. If PM and CM act like the Philosopher King of Plato, their actions can be more effective and moral.
• Plato gave the 4 most important virtues, i.e. Wisdom, Courage, Temperance and Justice, which can help make officers who can serve the public well. 
• His ideas about the human soul are almost similar to the philosophy of Bhagavad Gita, which speaks about Satguna, Rajsik guna and Tamsik guna. Dr Sarvapali Radhakrishnan has called it to be the merger of Western and Indian philosophy.
• In India, where social justice remains a significant challenge, Plato’s teachings can inspire individuals to strive for a just society, addressing issues such as caste discrimination, gender inequality, and poverty.

• Cultural Relativism: Different people, cultures, and societies often have vastly different opinions on what constitutes a virtue. 
• Lack of Action Guidance: Unlike consequentialist or deontological theories, which offer specific rules or principles to follow, the lack of specific guidance in virtue ethics can make it challenging to determine the right course of action in complex moral dilemmas.
• Lack of Moral Conflicts Resolution: Virtue ethics does not provide a clear framework for resolving conflicts between virtues. In situations where virtues come into tension with each other, it may be difficult to determine which virtue should take precedence. 
• Individual Focus: Virtue ethics primarily focuses on the moral character of individuals rather than addressing broader societal issues or systemic injustices.  
• Limited Applicability to Non-Human Entities: Virtue ethics is often criticized for its anthropocentric nature, primarily focusing on virtues and moral character within the human context. This raises concerns about its applicability to moral considerations involving non-human entities, such as animals or the environment. 

• Environment Ethics says that the environment should also be a criterion to judge the righteousness and wrongness of an action (earlier decision-makers were not using it as a criterion).
• Ecological values are part of Indian tradition, where nature is revered for its services to humanity. Environmentalists like Baba Amte have also spread awareness about ecological balance and wildlife preservation. They believed that humans must live in harmony with nature and not by exploiting it.

Environmental Values include

1. Sustainable Development (Sustainable Development is the development that meets the present generation’s needs without compromising future generations’ ability to meet their respective needs. It calls for judicious use of resources)
2. Conservation 
3. Co-existence 
4. Holistic approach  

The need for sustainable development could be summarized by what Gandhi said, ‘Earth has sufficient resources for the need of man but not the greed of man.’ Thus greed will lead to the mindless exploitation of resources and compromise the ability of future generations to meet their needs.

The term “bioethics” refers to the broad terrain of the moral problems of the life sciences, ordinarily taken to encompass medicine, biology, and some important aspects of the environmental, population and social sciences.

Some of the general issues in bioethics include

1. Clinical ethics regarding the day-to-day moral decisions confronted in caring for patients.
2. Use of foetal tissue in Stem Cell research
3. Euthanasia
4. Cloning
5. Human trials in the development of medicine

Broader theories to answer the questions in the field -of bioethics include.

1. Utilitarian Approach: It looks at the consequences of a choice or action. Furthermore, the utilitarian view would look for the collective social benefit rather than advantages to individuals. E.g., the Utilitarian Approach would argue that human trials are good as it leads to the development of drugs that save millions of lives. ‘
2. Deontological Approach: This approach would argue that “good consequences may have to be set aside to respect inalienable human rights”. An example would be subjecting individuals to medical research that may harm that individual while providing the potential to help others.
3. Primum non-nocere: It is the doctors’ obligation not to inflict harm on others. Harm is to be avoided or minimized.  
4. Justice: Distribution of healthcare and limited supplies fairly and equitably.  

In a competitive environment in every product range, companies spend huge on marketing to get a competitive edge over their rivals. It is perfectly fine in an open economy. But the problem arises when they indulge in unethical practices like

• Misappropriation of facts to misguide the people
• Stereotyping of gender: For example, roles like dishwashing, kitchen work etc., done by female actors
• Objectification of women: Some beauty cream and soap ads indulge in these practices
• Use of brand ambassadors: Ambassadors endorse products which they don’t use or whose authenticity they don’t cross-check, making profits out of the public’s reverence of a person
• Paid News: Some companies pay media houses to show their product in a positive light and swing public opinion. These are not an ad but paid news. E.g., Monsanto is frequently alleged to be paying media houses to make public opinion in favour of GMOs. 
• Negative advertising techniques: the advertiser highlights the disadvantages of competitor products rather than their own advantages.  
• Surrogate advertisement: It is an advertising technique to promote banned products in the disguise of another product. For example, advertising soda under the brand name of alcohol producing company for its promotion. E.g. ​o Liquor companies advertising Music CDs or pan masala ​brands advertising cardamom with celebrities.

Steps taken

• Guidelines for Prevention of Misleading Advertisements and Endorsements for Misleading Advertisements, 2022, have been released to “protect the consumers” and “to ensure that consumers are not being fooled with unsubstantiated claims, exaggerated promises, misinformation and false claims”. These guidelines focus on misleading ads and ads shown during programming for children. Surrogate ads, meanwhile, have been banned completely.
• Regulating Bodies: Advertisement Standard Council of India (ASCI) has been constituted to check on misappropriation of facts. 

Contemporary Issues in Marketing

• Issue of legal liability of Celebrities wrt advertisements. The government is trying to bring it within the ambit of the law. 
• Patanjali Case (2016): Uttarakhand High Court fined Patanjali ₹ 11 lakhs for misappropriation of facts in advertisements. 

Arguments of Applied Ethics w.r.t. Gender Inequality

• Male and females have the same spirit. Hence, inequality is wrong.
• The main reason for inequality is the physical power of man. But if Physical Power should be considered the main reason for the establishment of authority, then tigers should get precedence over Humans who are more powerful than Humans. 
• If we compare males and females on mental abilities, females are more creative and have more reasoning abilities and rationality.
• Men have outlined the social roles of females, which is morally wrong.