This article deals with ‘Class System in India’ . This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you canclick here.
Introduction
Class is an economic concept which is decided by economic factors like income, wealth, and occupation of a person.
Before the arrival of the British, there were no vivid classes, as the caste system was the basis of social structure. The caste system was synonymous with the class system.
British rule & emergence of Class System
After
the arrival of the British class system developed in India due to
Agricultural reforms
Urbanization
Industrialization
Education
Agricultural Reform: After the arrival of
the Britishers, the Indian revenue system was overhauled into Ryotwari,
Mahalwari and Permanent system, which divided rural society into two classes
Zamindars & Mahajans
Farmers, Ryot, Small Animal Husbands and Landless Labourers
Industrialization and urbanizationdivided society into
Industrialists and investors
Labour class
Post-Independence
After
independence, the class system further developed in India due to reasons
like
Green revolution
IT revolution
LPG Reforms
Vocational education
After 1990 , even
three classes were subdivided thrice each
into lower, middle and upper.
Upper class(upper, middle and lower),
Lower class (upper, middle and lower
Middle class(upper, middle and lower)
Generally,
three classes broadly identified in India have the following characteristics
Upper Class: Those people who control and regulate wealth & investment and gain profit from wealth & investment.
Middle Class: Those people who do white collared jobs or are in technical or administrative sectors.
Lower Class: These people do unskilled or semi-skilled work.
Middle Class
The
middle class in India is decided mainly by three factors.
Income: Income ranges from Rs. 15,000 to 1.5 lakh/month. Income is such that basic requirements of life like food, housing, clothing, education and even entertainment are easily met.
Occupation: Middle class generally do white collared, technological or administrative jobs.
Education: They are well-educated and ambitious.
The
reasons for the expansion of the middle class in India are
Macaulay’s education policy
Industrialisation and urbanisation
Green revolution: Middle class created in OBC
Reservation and education: middle class in SC and STs
LPG reforms: middle class in women as a separate
identity
Globalization: Middle class in states like Kerala,
Punjab etc., with the help of remittances sent from abroad.
The
structure of the middle class in India is quite complex, and around 35 crore people come under it, double the
US population.
Importance of Middle Class
Initiator of Reforms: Historically, Middle Class has always been the initiator of reforms. French Revolution was the result of the Middle Class. Middle class acts as the opinion makers in the society and challenge the status quo.
Economic Development: Demands of the Middle Class are highest. Apart from that, they are the main tax contributors in the economy.
Political Accountability: Middle Class demands accountability, making government responsive and transparent.
Promotes the formation of human capital (as they spend on their children’s education).
But Indian Middle Class is criticized because
Self-Centric: The middle class is always interested in preserving and promoting their interests.
Self-Exclusivism: Instead of demanding accountability from the political system, they have started living in gated communities.
Not paying back to society: This is due to the fact that the middle class doesn’t accept that they have benefited from the highly subsidized education system.
Excessive indulgence: Middle class has indulged in excessive indulgence as consumerism has plagued it.
But
even after that, most social movements are led by the Middle Class.
This article deals with the ‘Mauryan Empire’. This is part of our series on ‘Ancient History’ which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you canclick here.
Introduction
The Mauryan Empire is the first largest empires that were ever established on Indian soil.
Sources of Mauryan Empire
The sources include literary sources, epigraphical sources, foreign accounts and other materials obtained from archaeological excavations.
1 . Literary Sources
1.1 Arthashastra
Arthashastra means ‘science of statecraft‘.
It was written by Kautilya / Chanakya in the 4th century BCE during the reigns of Chandragupta Maurya (although there is debate about the authorship).
It consists of 15 books dealing with Internal Administration, Inter-state relations and miscellaneous topics.
It gives us information like the administrative system, officers, the role of King etc.
However, it must be remembered that the Arthashastra was a prescriptive text, which laid down the guidelines for good administration.
1.2 Megasthenes Indica
Megasthenes was the Ambassador of Seleucus Nikator (Indo-Greek king) in the court of Chandragupta Maurya.
Megasthenes wrote the book INDICA. Although the original book has not survived & fragments are preserved in later Greek works (of Diodorus, Strabo, Arrian, Plutarch & Pliny ).
But we have to keep in mind that India is seen through a double filter – first through Megasthenes interpretation of what he saw or heard & second Graeco-Roman writers interpretations of Megasthenes accounts.
1.3 Puranas
Puranas include a list of Mauryan Kings.
Eg: “Vishnu Purana’ throws light on the origin of Nandas and their overthrow by Chandragupta with the assistance of Kautilya.
1.4 Buddhist Texts
Ashoka was a celebrated figure in Buddhist texts because he was a patron of Buddhism.
He figures in later Buddhist texts like Divyavadana, Ashokavadhana, Mahavamsa and Deepavamsa.
But all the information from Buddhist texts can’t be accepted at face value because these books tend to exaggerate the accomplishments of Ashoka as he was their patron.
1.5 Jaina Texts
Jaina text named ‘Parisisthaparvan‘ by Hemachandra throws light on the early life of Chandragupta, the conquest of Magadha, his conversion to Jainism and famine during the later part of his reign.
1.6 Patanjali’s Mahabhashya
It was written in the last phase of the Maurya Period.
Mahabhashya is a major commentary on Panini’s Grammar by Patanjali.
1.7 Mudrarakshasa
Mudrarakshasa is a 5th-century historical drama written by Vishakhadatta.
It revolves around a clever plot of Chanakya against Rakshasa, minister of Nanda.
In the drama, Vishakhadatta referred to Chandragupta as ‘Vrishala’ and ‘Kulahina’ which means he was a person of humble origin.
But the historicity of this drama remains uncertain.
2 . Ashoka’s Inscriptions
There are 14 Major Rock Edicts, 7 Pillar Edicts and some Minor Rock Inscriptions.
– Delhi (originally located at Topara near Ambala) – Meerut – Kausambi – Lauriya Araraj – Lauriya Nandangarh – Rampurva – Lumbini / Rummindei – Amravati
Minor Rock and Minor Pillar
They were many but had an unusually large concentration in Deccan.
The geographical
spread of the edicts essentially defines the extent of the vast empire over
which Ashoka ruled.
What do these inscriptions contain
Explanation of Dhamma.
King’s efforts to propagate it.
Own assessment of his success in doing so.
His allegiance to Buddha’s teachings & a close relationship with Sangha.
They also offer insights into Ashoka’s idea about his role as king, his administration and various social & economic aspects.
Content of Rock Edicts
1st Major Rock Edict
Prohibition of animal sacrifice.
2nd Major Rock Edict
Related to measures of social welfare.
3rd Major Rock Edict
Respecting one’s parents.
4th Major Rock Edict
Impact of Dhamma, Non-violence towards animals.
5th Major Rock Edict
Appointment of Dhamma-Mahamattas to spread Dhamma.
6th Major Rock Edict
Welfare measures of efficient administration.
7th Major Rock Edict
Peace, the balance of mind, faith and tolerance.
8th Major Rock Edict
Details of Bodhi tree.
9th Major Rock Edict
Ceremony of Dhamma.
10th Major Rock Edict
Ashoka’s desire to popularize Dhamma.
11th Major Rock Edict
Appraisal of Dhamma and Religious tolerance.
12th Major Rock Edict
Promoting religion of different faith.
13th Major Rock Edict
Kalinga’s destruction and mention of Greek rulers.
14th Major Rock Edict
Nature of all other rock edicts.
Language and script used in Inscriptions
These inscriptions
were written in
Prakrit Language and Brahmi Script
Most of the scripts found in India.
Prakrit Language and Kharosthi Script
North-western regions (like Manshera and Shahbazgarhi).
Aramaic Language and Greek Language (bilingual)
Lampaka and Kandahar.
Aramaic Language and Aramaic Script
Laghman and Taxila.
Mystery of name Devampiya & Priyadarsi
James Princep decoded Brahmi script but the mystery remained regarding the king to which these inscriptions were referring. Name Ashoka doesn’t appear in the inscriptions. Ashoka was mentioned as Devampiya (beloved of Gods) & Priyadarsi (pleasant to behold).
This mystery was solved when a minor edict at Masaki (Karnataka) was found containing the personal name of Ashoka along with the prefix Devampiya and Priyadarsi.
3 . Archaeological evidences
The remains of the palaces of Chandragupta have been excavated at Kumrahar and Bulandibagh.
Number of caves of Mauryan
period have been found in the ranges of Barabar Hills and Nagarjuna.
Stupas have been found at
Banaras, Prayag, Kannauj etc. which were built during Mauryan period and
give us detailed information on the
religious condition during the Mauryan period.
Middle & late Northern Black Polished Ware
(NBPW) pottery belong
to Mauryan period .
Statues like that of a woman
at Besnagar and the elephant statue at Dhauli reveal an indigenous
technique in sculpture during the Mauryan times.
4. Numismatic Evidence
‘Punch marked coins’ were in circulation during the Mauryan period. They do not bear the name of any ruler nor carry any date. But they were issued by a central authority indicated by the uniformity of symbols used.
These punched marked coins have been found at Atranjikhera, Sanchi, Patna, Hastinapur, Taxila, Tripuri and Sarnath.
Controversy about the origin of Mauryas
According to various sources, the origin of Mauryas was as follows
Buddhist books like Digha Nikaya, Mahavamsa and Divyavadana
Belonged to the Kshatriya clan called Mauryas who ruled Pippalivana.
Parishishtaparvan
Chandragupta was the son of the daughter of the chief of a village of peacock tamers.
Mudrarakshasa
Refers Chandragupta to be belonging to a low caste.
Dundiraja
(Commentator of Vishnu
Purana)
Chandragupta was the eldest son of Nanda king Sarvarthasiddhi by Mura, daughter of a hunter.
Vaishya
Origin theory
Following facts point towards the fact that Mauryas were Vaishyas 1. Name ending ‘Gupta’ in Chandragupta’s name. 2. Asoka’s marriage to the daughter of a merchant of Vidisha.
Kings of Mauryan Empire
1 . Chandragupta Maurya (324 -297 BCE)
Chandragupta Maurya had ruled during the period of 324-297 BCE.
Chandragupta, with the help of Chanakya, defeated the last Nanda King and captured his empire. In this, Chandragupta took the advantage of the disturbances caused by the invasion of Alexander and his sudden death in 323 BCE in Babylon. With the help of Kautilya, Chandragupta raised a large army
First of all, Chandragupta launched campaigns against the Nandas.
Later, he shifted his concentration against Indo-Greek Governors / Kshatrapas ruling over north-western India.
In 305 BCE, he defeated the army of Seleucus Nikator who was ruling the eastern part of Alexander’s empire after his death. After the defeat of Seleucus, a treaty was signed between Chandragupta Maurya and Seleucus Nikator under which territories of Kandahar, Kabul, Herat and Baluchistan was given to Chandragupta. Chandragupta presented 500 elephants to Seleucus. Apart from this, a matrimonial alliance was also signed and Seleucus married his daughter to Chandragupta Maurya. An ambassador named Megasthenes was also sent to the court of Chandragupta Maurya.
Chandragupta expanded his empire westward as far as Gujarat corroborated by the Junahgarh / Girnar inscription.
Detailed information about the rule of Chandragupta Maurya is obtained from Kautilya’s Arthashastra. Kautilya was the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya and is considered the real architect of the Mauryan Empire.
Megasthenes came in the court of Chandragupta Maurya as an ambassador of the Seleucus Nikator (an Indo-Greek King).
The “Sandrakottus” or “Sandrakoptus”, mentioned in the Greek literature has been identified as Chandragupta Maurya.
According to Plutarch, he had an army of 600,000.
According to Jaina tradition, Chandragupta Maurya abdicated his throne and retired to Shravanabelagola in Karnataka with his teacher Bhadrabahu (Jain ascetic) where he committed Sallekhana.
More about Chanakya
Chanakya = renowned teacher at Taxila University.
He saw Chandragupta when he was passing by his village. He was attracted by his personality and trained him for 8 years for war against Greeks & overthrowing Dhanananda. Earlier, Dhanananda insulted Chanakya when he approached him for help against the Greeks.
Contemporary Jain and Buddhist texts hardly have mention Chanakya. But popular oral tradition ascribes the greatness of Chandragupta and his reign to the wisdom and genius of Chanakya.
Chanakya, also known as Kautilya and Vishnugupta, was a Brahmin and a sworn adversary of the Nandas. He is credited with having devised the strategy for overthrowing the Nandas and helping Chandragupta to become the emperor of Magadha.
He is celebrated as the author of the Arthashastra, a treatise on political strategy and governance.
His intrigues and brilliant strategy to subvert the intended invasion of Magadha is the theme of the play, Mudrarakshasa.
2 . Bindusara (297 – 273 BCE)
He was the son of Chandragupta Maurya and ascended the throne after his father.
He is also known as ‘Amitraghata’ in Indian texts or ‘Amitrochates’ in Greek texts.
According to Tibetan historian named Taranath and Jain scholar named Hemachandra, Chanakya continued as the minister of Bindusara after the death of Chandragupta Maurya as well.
During his reign, a revolt broke out in Taxila. Ashoka was sent to suppress the revolt and restore peace.
Greek Texts refer to his diplomatic relations with western kings.
Antiochus (king of Syria) sent an ambassador named Deimachus to his court.
Ptolemy II (ruler of Egypt) sent an ambassador named Dionysius.
Famous Story: Bindusara requested Antiochus (king of Syria) to buy & send some sweet wine, dried figs & sophist (philosopher specialised in debate & argumentation). He sends wine & dried figs & replied that Greek laws didn’t permit sophist to be bought.
He died in 273 BCE.
3. Ashoka (273 / 269 – 232 BCE)
There is a general agreement that Ashoka was not the crown prince (Yuvaraja). He sat on the throne after winning 4 years-long war of succession following Bindusara’s death.
According to various texts, Susima was the crown prince but Ashoka was supported by Ministers especially Radhagupta. Ashoka killed 99 brothers sparing only one named Tissa.
During Bindusara’s reign
He served as a Viceroy at Ujjain and also at Taxila.
He was sent to Taxila to quell a revolt.
In Ujjain, he married the daughter of the merchant of Vidisha. Two children i.e. Mahinda and Sanghamita were born out of this union. His stay at Ujjain is described in the Sri Lankan chronicles as his son Mahinda introduced Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
Until hundred years ago in India, Ashoka was merely one of the many kings mentioned in the Mauryan dynastic list. In 1837, James Princep deciphered an inscription written in Brahmi but King was referred to as Devampiya Piyadassi (the beloved of the gods, pleasant to behold). We came to know about Ashoka in 1915, from Masaki Edict where King calls himself Devampiya Ashoka.
Kalinga War and its impact
Rock Edict XIII describes the horrors and miseries of the Kalinga war.
Although Ashoka’s predecessors brought Deccan and South under control Kalinga was still outside Mauryan control.
Kalinga had strategic importance as it controlled the routes to South India both by land and sea.
Kalinga war took place eight years after Ashoka’s consecration.
According to the inscription, one lakh people were slain in the war. These figures are likely to be exaggerated, nevertheless, war was very devastating. Although on the battlefield Asoka, was victorious, the inscription goes on to describe his remorse. The violence of the war completely changed the personality of Ashoka and he left the policy of aggression. The policy of conquest through the war was given up and replaced by a policy of conquest through Dharma/Dhamma i.e. Dhammavijaya.
Ashoka and Buddhism
Ashoka had close connection with Buddhism . Buddhist tradition considers him exemplary king & devout Upasaka .
His generosity as patron of Sangha is reflected in following things
He is credited with redistributing relics of Buddha & enshrining them in stupas in important towns .
84,000 Stupas were built by him .
He undertook pilgrimage to all major places connected with Buddha’s life .
Ashoka was ardent follower of Buddha’s teachings
He had position of influence
vis-a-vis Sangha .
In Bairat Edict , Ashoka greets Sangha & profess his deep faith in
Buddha , Dhamma & Sangha .
Schism Edict warns members of the order against
causing any division in the
ranks .
Rummindei & Nigali Sagar
inscriptions point towards fact that
Ashoka visited Lumbini & announced tax concessions .
Ashoka in
Buddhist texts
Buddhist texts
present Ashoka as vile & evil man until he came under influence of
Buddha’s dhamma & represent Ashoka’s following of Buddhism as sudden
transformative event .
Ashoka & 3rd Buddhist Council
According
to Theravada
Chronicles, Ashoka convened great
(3rd) Buddhist council in 250 BCE at Pataliputra presided by Moggaliputta Tissa in order to purge Sangha of certain
unacceptable practices .
An important outcome of this
Council was the decision to expand the reach of Buddhism to other parts of
the region and to send missions to convert people to the religion.
Buddhism thus became a proselytizing religion.
Buddhist
Missions by Ashoka were sent to following places
Sri
Lanka
Mahinda and
Sangamitta (son and daughter of Ashoka).It is believed that they took
a branch of the original bodhi tree to Sri Lanka.
Suvarnabhumi
(South Easy Asia)
Under
Sona
Himalayas
North
West
Central
India
Ashoka’s Dhamma
Contents
of Dhamma were selected in a way that it should
be acceptable to majority of people of different communities .
It stressed on
Showing consideration towards
slaves and servants .
Obedience to elders .
Generosity towards needy Brahmanas and Sramanas.
Tolerance of different religious sects to create harmony.
Non-violence was to be practised by giving up war and
conquests and restraint on killing
of animals.
Welfare measures, like planting of trees, digging of wells,
etc.
Attack on ceremonies and
sacrifices practised regularly on various occasions like birth,
marriage etc .
Officers
known as Dhamma
Mahamattah were instituted to implement & publicise various aspects of Dhamma.
Interpretations of Dhamma
Ashokan policy of Dhamma has
been issue of debate &
controversy .
Buddhist
records credit him with the propagation of Buddhism in India and abroad.
But one cannot, however, lay the charge of being partisan against Ashoka.
There are two strong arguments
to prove that Ashoka, as an Emperor, did not favoured Buddhism
at expense of other faiths.
Creation of institution of Dhammamahamattas – Had it been to promote Buddhism ,
organisation of Sangha could be used to
propagate Dhamma.
Careful study
of Rock Edicts depicts that Ashoka wanted to promote tolerance & duty of Dhammamahamattas included working for
the Brahmanas and the Sramans.
Some historians believe that
Ashoka’s banning
of sacrifices and the favour that he showed to the Buddhists led to a Brahmanical reaction. This in turn led
to the decline of the Mauryan Empire (HC RAYCHAUDARY) .
Others believe
that the stopping
of wars and emphasis on non-violence crippled the military might of the Empire.
This led to the collapse of the empire, after the death of Ashoka.
It has been shown
by Romila Thapar that Ashoka’s
Dhamma, apart from being a superb document of his essential humaneness was
also an answer to the socio-political needs of the contemporary situation.
That it was not
anti-Brahmanical is proved by the fact that respect for the Brahmanas and
Sramans was an integral part of his Dhamma.
His emphasis
on non-violence did not blind him to the needs of the state. Thus,
addressing the forest tribes he warns
them that although he hates to use coercion he may be required to resort
to force if they continue to create trouble.
By the time Ashoka stopped war, the entire
Indian sub-continent was under his control. In deep
south he was on friendly terms with the Cholas and Pandyas. Sri Lanka was an
admiring ally. Thus, Ashoka’s no to war came at a time when his empire had
reached its natural boundaries.
4. Post Ashoka rulers
The subsequent history of the
Mauryas under his successors is very inadequately known. This is because a
state of disintegration seemed to have set in immediately after Ashoka’s
death.
The tenth and the last of the
Mauryas was Brihadratha who was murdered by his general Pushyamitra
and who ascended the throne in 187 BCE. The empire founded by him is known
as Sunga Dynasty.
With Brihadratha’s death (187
BCE) this historic rule of the Mauryas came to an end within less than
half a century of Ashoka’s death and 137 years since its foundation by
Chandragupta Maurya.
Polity and Administration of Mauryan State
Mauryan state was
an Empire. Empire is a
political system which has vast
expanse of territories under it’s control, not all of which is culturally
homogeneous . They are different from the Kingdoms in following
ways :-
Kingdoms draw maximum profit from existing
resources and do not make attempt
at restructuring access to resources.
Pressures on the Empire are many as
administrating a large empire with vast administrative machinery requires
huge financial resources . According to the Arthasastra, the salary of
chief minister, the purohita and the army commander was 48,000 panas, and
the soldiers received 500 panas. If we multiply this by the number of
infantry and cavalry, we get an idea of the enormous resources needed to
maintain the army and the administrative staff. Hence, Empires try to
restructure economy in order to increase the revenue base of the state .
Mauryan Empire tried to
increase their revenue base by
Extension of agriculture
Setting new cities
Promoting trade
Although they
rarely succeed, Imperial Systems
attempt to erase variation in favour of homogeneity . Ashoka’s
dhamma was an attempt to bring homogeneity .
1 . Central Administration
King
Maurya Empire was a Monarchy
with king as Supreme authority .
He took all important
decisions concerning the empire.
He was assisted by a council
of ministers who acted as the king’s advisors.
King started to have paternal
attitude towards his
subjects. In the Dhauli inscription Asoka states , “All men are
my children and just as I desire for my children that they should obtain
welfare and happiness both in this world and the next, the same do I
desire for all men.”
By adoption of the title Devanampiya (beloved of the Gods) by Asoka; according to Romila
Thapar, “an attempt was made to emphasize the connection
between kingship and divine power.”
Council of Ministers
Arthashastra & Ashokan inscriptions mention Council of Minister. Megasthenes also mentioned
SUMBOULAI
.
Arthashastra quotes that it
was impossible for King to rule single handedly (like Single Spoke cant
turn wheel) .
Primary role
of Council of Minister was that of an advisory body. Final authority was vested with the King.
We do get references about 18 departments of the central government in the
Arthasastra.
2. Regional Administration
After its territorial
expansion , state established administrative control at the Provincial and
Local Levels.
Provincial Administration
Each province
was headed by – Kumara (Royal
Prince) , who was
King’s representative in Province .
Eg Ashoka was Kumara of Ujjain & Taxila .
Kumara was assisted by Mahamatyas & a Council of
Ministers.
From Asokan edicts
– names of four
provincial capitals were
Tosali (in the east)
Ujjain (in the west)
Suvarnagiri (in the south)
Taxila (in the north)
District Administration
Province was further divided
to Districts .
Officials listed at the level
of district during this period were
Pradeshta (overall incharge of
district),
Rajuka : Survey of lands (rajuka derived from rajju,
meaning rope)
Yukta
King was in direct
touch with these officers. In the 4th Pillar Edict -Ashoka grants to the
Rajuka “independent
authority” to carry out some of his instructions in relation to public
welfare.
Village Administration
Local people were involved in
the Village Administration.
Village head was known as Gramani. He was assisted by Gram Sabha .
Apart from that, there were
intermediaries between district and village administration . These were Gopa
(administer 5-10 villages) and Sthanika (administers 800 villages) .
3. City Administration
City Administration according to Megasthenes
Megasthenes
has described administration in Palibothra (Patliputra).
According to Megasthenes, there was 30
membered city council divided into six committees of 5 members each to administer city. These were
3rd Committee looked after registration of births and deaths.
4th
Committee looked after inspection of weights and measures .
5th Committee looked after inspection of manufactured goods .
6th Committee collected taxes on goods sold at rate of
1/10th.
City Administration according to Arthashastra
No mention of such committees is found in the Arthashastra . But reference of equivalent Officers in Arthashastra were present . Eg :
Work of 4th committee was performed by Pautavadhyaksa .
Collection of taxes (Sixth Committee) was performed by Sulkadhyaksha .
According to Arthashastra
Head of the urban administration was Nagariaka.
He was assisted by two subordinate officials called Gopa and Sthanika.
Law enforcers in the city were called Rakshina .
4. Army
Retreat of Seleucus, descriptive account of army administration in Arthashastra and the violent Kalinga war point towards a large and well organized military of Mauryas.
According to Pliny’s account , Chandragupta’s army consisted of 9,000 elephants, 30,000 cavalry and 6,00,000 infantry.
According to Megasthenes
There were 6 Branches of army – infantry, cavalry, elephants, chariots, transport & admiral of fleet .
Each branch was looked after by a committee of 5 members.
Kautilya has referred to Chaturangabala (i.e. infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants) as the main components of the army –each under a commander . Eg
Rathadhyaksha headed chariots .
Hastyadhyaksha headed elephant force.
5. Espionage System
Espionage was important part
of Mauryan Administration.
Main tasks of
the spies recruited involved:
Keeping an
eye over ministers
Reporting on
government officials
Collecting
impressions regarding the feelings of citizens
Know the
secrets of foreign rulers, etc.
Arthashastradivided Spies (Gudhapurusha) into three type
Samsthan
Positioned at
one place
Sanchara
Roamed about
Ubhayavetana
Doubly Paid
6. Law & Justice
Arthasastra is full of codes listing punishments for various offences.
There
were various kinds of courts to settle disputes at various
levels.
Gramani
Had judicial powers at village level .
Dharmasthiya
Courts to decide civil cases .
Kantakasodhana
Courts to decide criminal cases.
Kanhkmaba
Courts which decided upon matters related to
individuals and the state.
Punishment
for crimes range from fines to mutilation of limbs to death.
Ashokan
edicts mention that each 5th year king would despatch a gentle officer , neither
fierce nor harsh on a tour to ensure
that justice was being done
.
7. Revenue Administration
According to Arthashastra
, different resources from where
revenue flowed into the state treasury (Kosa) were rural areas, cities,
roads , pastures , plantations, forests and mines.
Tax on agricultural produce
constituted the most important source of revenue. Usually, the king was
entitled to one-sixth of the produce.
Kosa/ Treasury was
looked after by an official Sannidhata (Chief Accountant)
.
The state was also empowered
to impose taxes in case of emergency for increasing its earnings.
King had the
right of granting remission of land revenue as Ashoka reduced the Bhaga of the village
Lumbini to 1/8
and scrapped Bali altogether.
8. Public Works
State took keen interest
in public works. Account of
Megasthenes and Arthasastra corroborate
this
Irrigation : Tanks like Sudarshan Tadaga in
Junahgarh .
Medical facilities were available to both men
and animals.
State also helped its citizens
during natural calamities like floods, famines, etc.
Laying down and
repair of roads
and opening of inns.
Society in Maurayan Empire
Arthashastra
recommended 4 fold varna
system in society but how far that was followed is debatable.
Eg : Pushymitra Shunga
, a Brahmin who overthrew Mauryan Empire was Commander in Chief of Mauryas
.
Megasthenes divided Indian people into 7 strata i.e. Philosophers, Farmers, Herdsmen
& Hunter, Artisans & Traders, Soldiers, Overseers & King’s
Counsellors . It
seems Megasthenes’s own creation although it is possible to be
modelled on Herodotus’s classification of Egyptian society into similar 7 strata.
Untouchability
There was significant hardening
of Brahmanical position on untouchability .
Well of Chandalas could only be used by them &
none else .Chandalas were known as
Antavasayin
(living at end) suggesting that they lived on margins of settlement .
Women
There reference of king’s women bodyguard in Arthashastra .
Women were also employed
by the state as spies and performers.
Women of the upper
castes who had become widowed, deserted wives or ageing prostitutes could get work
from the state, such as spinning yarn .
Female ascetics were known, but were few and far between .
Kautilya in
his Arthashastra argued that prostitutes
should also be taxed .
Surprisingly, there is no mention of either varna or jati in the Ashokan edicts, which may
suggest that they were not yet so prominent as social categories.
Tensions in
Society
Ashoka’s emphatic plea for social harmony and repeated calls for equal respect towards brahmans and shramanas suggest that there were social tensions.
Economy during Mauryan Times
1. Agriculture
Mauryan State was producing substantial
agriculture surplus because of use of iron
in agriculture started and
start of paddy cultivation in North India
.
The Greeks noted with wonder
that two crops could be raised annually in India because of the fertility
of the soil.
Due to growth
in agriculture, cultivator assumed
important role. Megasthenes in his seven classes
mentions the farmers as the second class suggesting it was numerically
large class .
Essential
resources needed for Mauryan State could
only be got from land revenue. Hence, Arthasastra is careful in designing efficient
revenue system of the State.
Bhaga
– King’s share of produce . – Levied at the rate of 1/6th of the produce.
Bali
– Tax on the area of land cultivated .
Udaka Bhaga
– Water tax if irrigation facility of state is used . – 1/6 to 1/3 of produce
Lumbini(Rummindei) Edict states that when Ashoka visited
Lumbini i.e. birthplace of the Buddha, he exempted payment of Bali and reduced the payment of Bhaga to 1/8. Even Asoka’s great respect for the Buddha did not prompt
the emperor to exempt the village totally from the payment of taxes.
State took steps to provide Irrigation . Eg: Pushyagupta, governor of Chandragupta Maurya, built a dam in Girnar (Saurashtra) known as Sudarshana
tadaga (water tank).
2. Trade & Urban Economy
Mauryan state
wanted to expand trade and commerce . For this, they established new state
founded walled towns and markets .
Improved Transport
River transport was improved because forests
around the Valleys were cleared .
There was an officer called Agronomoi whose function was to maintain
Royal Road and
put distance markers after every 10 Stadia (10 Stadia = 0.5 Mile) .
State Control on Trade
The sale of
merchandise , in
theory, was strictly supervised. Goods were required to be stamped (to distinguish
between the old and the new) .
According to Megasthenes , tax was one-tenth of the sale proceeds and failure to pay this tax
was punishable with death.
Arthashastra recommends appointment of following officers
related to Trade
Panyadhyaksha
: Superintendent of Trade to fix price of goods
Pautavadyaksha :
Superintendent of weights and measures
Navadhyaksha : Superintendent
of State boats
Sulkadhyaksha :
Superintendent of taxes , tolls and custom dues
Mining
According to Arthashastra, State enjoyed a monopoly in mines
and trade in mineral products.
Arthasastra provides for a superintendent of mines called Akara-dhyaksha – to look for
new mines & reopen old ones.
Causes of Decline of Mauryan Empire
Ashoka ruled for thirty-seven years and died in about 232 BCE . Subsequently, a political decline set in and the empire began to break up. The last of the Mauryas, Brihadratha, was assassinated during an inspection of the troops by the brahman Pushyamitra, the commander of the army. Pushyamitra founded the successor Shunga dynasty .
1 . Role of Ashoka
Debate 1: Revolt of the brahmans because of his pro-Buddhist policy ( by HP Shastri)
But this can be challenged because
His general policy was not an active proselytizing in favour of Buddhism at expense of Brahmanism.
Respect to both brahmans and shramanas was part of Ashoka’s Dhamma.
Buddhism’s more extensive spread happened in post Mauryan Period due to patrons in form of Mercantile Community and not due to Ashoka.
Debate 2 : Pacific policy of Asoka (by HC Raychaudhary)
It is argued that his obsession with non-violence led to the
emasculation of army, laying the
country open to invasion.
But
Edicts prove that this was not the case. His open threat to Tribals to
mend their ways otherwise they would be crushed & his advice to his
sons and grandsons on the use of violence prove that army was still
powerful .
However, a long reign marked by only one military campaign in the
early years may have adversely affected the preparedness of the army,
and this may have been a factor responsible for the success of the Greek
invasions.
More probable reasons are to be found elsewhere.
2. Pressure on Mauryan Economy (By DD KAUSAMBI)
There
was need for vast revenues to
Maintain large army
To finance the salaries of upper levels of bureaucracy
Cost of establishing settlements on
newly cleared land
This strained the treasury.Debasement of silver coins in later Mauryan period shows severe
pressure on economy and lack of
resource to maintain the structure .
3. Structure of Mauryan Administration (By Romila Thapar)
Mauryan bureaucracy was centralized, with the ruler – or king – as the key figure towards whom
loyalty was directed. A change of
king meant a re-alignment
of loyalty .
Recruitment
was arbitrary, with local governors choosing their officers hence, there was possibility of particular social groups
monopolizing administrative control in certain areas .
Lack of
representative institutions to stabilize public opinion . They used espionage to stabilise public opinion
which must have created manifold tensions in the administration.
4. Invasions in North-West
After the demise of Ashoka, North-West saw invasion by Bactrian Greeks (because they were pushed by Parthians & Scythians) which destabilized the Empire .
Absence of nationalism, the idea of loyalty to the state rather than to a particular king, and the lack of popular representative institutions and absence of Chinese-type examination system in Maurya India are not very helpful in explaining the decline of the Maurya empire.
All
empires rely on mechanisms of integration and control over territory,
resources, and people. These
mechanisms include military force, administrative infrastructure, and ideology.
In the case of the Mauryas, given the vast contours of the empire, all three
must have been strained to their utmost. It was just a matter of time
before the distant provinces broke away from the centre.
This article deals with ‘Persian and Macedonian Attacks’ . This is part of our series on ‘Ancient History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you canclick here.
Persian Invasions
In 6th Century, Persian empire extended upto north-western borders of
subcontinent .
Greek historian Herodotus mentions that India (Indus Valley) was the 20th &
most prosperous satrapy of Persian empire & tribute from province was more
than tribute from all other provinces put together .
Cyrus
He was the founder of
the Achaemenid
Empire in
Persia .
He invaded Indian
borderland and captured the Gandhara region.
Darius (522 – 486 BCE)
Darius
I (522-486 BCE) made the real
advance in India. He invaded India and occupied the territories in the North-Western
Frontier Province, Sind and Punjab . These parts remained with the Persian
Empire till Alexander’s invasion of India.
According to
Herodotus (historian) , Gandhara formed the 20th satrapy of the empire of
Darius paying a tribute of 360 talents of gold dust. It was the most fertile and populous
province of the Achaemenian Empire. Herodotus has also recorded that
Darius sent a naval expedition probably in 517 BCE to explore the Indus
basin.
Xerxes
Xerxes kept the control of
Indian possessions but due to
requisitioning of large number of troops for invasion of Greece, failed to
make any advances in India.
Xerxes
suffered defeat in Greece which led to the decline of Persian Empire . However, the Achaemenid rule over India continued up to 330 BCE . In that year Darius
III, the last of the Achaemenid ruler summoned Indian troops to fight
against Alexander . With the fall of the Persian power under the impact of
the invasion of Alexander the Great, the Persian hold over India was lost.
Impact of Persian Invasions on India
Political Impact
India
learnt the necessity
of a strong and united empire to repel the foreign invasions and
realized how essential it was to join hands together to meet the common
enemy.
Encouragement to trade
The Persian rulers did much
to promote geographical exploration
and promote trade. The exploration of
the Indus and the Arabian Sea by Scylax opened a new water-route.
Settlement of Foreigners on Indian Soil
A
large number of foreigners, Greek, Persians
etc. settled down in the North-Western parts of India. With the
passage of time they were completely absorbed among the Indians.
On Architecture
Traces of the
Persian influence can be seen in the Mauryan sculptures and in the
Ashokan pillars. The polish of the
Mauryan pillars manifests the Persian influence. Ashoka also
followed the Iranian custom of preaching ideals by inscribing them on
the stone pillars. Similarly, the pillared remains of the
Palace in Pataliputra display a remarkable similarity to the pillared
hall in the Achaemenid capital.
Kharosthi Script
The Aramaic form of writing which
the Persians introduced in the north-western India after their
conquest, gradually developed into the Kharoshti script. It was written
from right to left .
On Coinage
The Persian silver coins
were in circulation in India. This affected Indian coinage. The Persian
coins were known for their refined minting and elegant looks. The Indian rulers adopted
similar techniques to mint their coins on the Persian model.
Alexander Invasion (327-26 BCE)
In 327-26 BCE , North West Indian Subcontinent suffered the invasion
of Alexander .
Persian hold over Indian
provinces was nominal or non existent at that time . Alexander defeated
the armies of Darius III (Persian king) established various outposts in
Afghanistan & ventured into India . Greek historians make great deal
of Alexanders siege of Hill fort of
Arnos because
tradition says that even god Herakles was unable to take that .
In
326 BCE , he ventured into India after crossing Indus . Ambhi, the ruler of
Taxila, surrendered and accepted the suzerainty of Alexander. The most
famous of Alexander’s encounters was with Porus, ruler of the region
between Jhelum and Beas. The two armies met in the battle of Hydaspes
(Jhelum) in which Porus was imprisoned. Later, impressed by the Porus’s
dignity, Alexander restored his throne on the condition of accepting his
suzerainty.
Alexander captured area till
Ravi but movement beyond Beas was prevented because of resistance of his own soldiers
who were tired by many years of wars & wanted to go back .
Alexander retreated back .
Areas lying west of Punjab were entrusted with Satraps (governors) & Macedonian garrisons were placed there.
Alexander died two
years later of a mysterious fever in Babylon.
One of the results of Alexander’s invasion was creation of Seleucid
principality in North-West & establishment of several Greek
settlements in that area including Boukephala, Nikaia & several
Alexandrias .
Effects of Alexander invasion
Trade routes opened up with
the West. As trade contact increased, many Greek settlements were
established in the northwest of India. Alexandria near Kabul, Boukephala
near Peshawar in Pakistan and Alexandria in Sindh were some of the
prominent Greek settlements.
Indirectly this invasion made
possible the establishment of Indo-Bactrian and Indo-Parthian states,
which at a later stage considerably influenced Indian architecture
(Gandhara school of sculpture), astronomy, coinage etc.
The invasion opened the eyes
of Indian politicians to the necessity of creating a unified empire
The date of the Invasion of
Alexander is the ‘first reliable date in early Indian
history’ and
considerably helps in solving chronological difficulties. Greek historians
began to write about India .
This article deals with ‘Rise of Magadha’ . This is part of our series on ‘Ancient History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you canclick here.
Introduction
Among the 16 Mahajanapadas, Kasi was initially powerful. However, Kosala became dominant later. A power struggle broke out between Magadha, Kosala, Vrijji and Avanti. Eventually Magadha emerged as the dominant Mahajanapada and established the first Indian empire.
Rise of Magadha under the Haryanka Dynasty
1 . Bimbisara
Bimbisara is the first known
ruler of Magadha .
He was the first ruler to
introduce matrimonial alliances for strategic purposes . He married
following
Khema
Daughter
of Madra king of Punjab
Mahakosala
Sister
of Prasenjit of Kosala & got kashi
in dowry
Chellna
Lichchhavi
Princess
He had great
army (according to Jain texts).
Bimbisara was contemporary of both Mahavira & Buddha and met Buddha 7 years before enlightenment .
Buddha visited his capital after enlightenment as he promised earlier.
His capital
was Girivraja (identified as Rajgriha)
He was killed
by his son Ajatshatru .
2 . Ajatshatru
He killed Bimbisara & Mahakosala died in shock . Her brother,
King Prasenjit took back Kashi which was earlier given in dowry . This
led
to a military confrontation between Magadha and Kosala. The struggle lasted
until Prasenjit was overthrown .
Ajatashatru also
fought and won the battle against the Lichchhavis. During this war, he sent his minister Vassakara to create dissension . He also used new
weapons named (1) Mahshilakantaka i.e. catapult to throw large stones and (2) Rathamusala (chariot with blades attached on
wheels).
On Buddha’s demise
, Ajatshatru is said to have gone to Kusinagara to claim portion of his relics . He built many stupas around Rajgriha and
organised first buddhist council
When
Immediately after
death of Buddha
Where
At hall
erected by him outside Sattapani caves in Rajgir
Presided
by
Elder
Mahakasyapa
He was also killed by his own
son Udayen .
3. Udayen
Udayen developed
Pataliputra as city .
He was killed by his own son .
Later kings
Later kings like Anurudha and Nagadaska also suffered PATRICIDE .
Hence, revolt broke and
Haryanka dynasty was thrown away by Shishunaga Dynasty
Shishunaga Dynasty
1 . Shishunaga
Shishunaga was the Governor of
Haryanka & did coup d’état.
He ruled from Girivraja &
seemed to have second capital at Vaishali
.
2. Kalashoka
During his reign Pataliputra became capital of Magadha .
He organised & sponsored 2nd Buddhist
Council
Where
Vaishali
When
383 BC
Headed by
Sabakami
Disputes
There was dispute
on 10 points
Storing salt in horn
Eating after mid day
Eating once
Going to villages for alms
Eating sour milk after one’s
meal etc
Outcomes
No consensus emerged and Buddhist sects began to appear for first time.
Last king of this dynasty was
Nandivardhana . Shaishunaga dynasty came to bitter end . King and his sons
were killed , making way for Nanda dynasty
Nanda Dynasty (345-321 AD)
Puranic , Buddhist
& Jaina tradition agree that there were 9 Nanda kings . Mahapadma Nanda was succeeded by his eight
sons, and they were together known as the navanandas or the nine Nandas.
Nandas
build on the
foundations of Haryanka & Shishunaga dynasty
& emerged
as the first great empire in North India .
Nandas were thought of low
origin with some
sources stating that dynasty’s
founder, Mahapadma Nanda, was the son of a Shudra
mother.
Mahapadma Nanda = Empire Builder
Mahapadma Nanda usurped the
throne by murdering the last of the Shishunaga kings.
Mahapadma Nanda has been described in Puranas as “the destroyer of all the Kshatriyas”. He defeated many other kingdoms, including Panchalas, Haihayas, Kalingas, Asmakas, Kurus , Surasenas etc.
He is known as Ekrat (Sole king).
He conquered Kalinga . Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela (of Kalinga) also mentions the conquest of Kalinga by Nanda.
He also expanded his territory south of the Vindhya range, into the Deccan plateau .
Mahapadma Nanda is described as the first empire builder in the recorded history of India.
He inherited the large kingdom of Magadha built by Haryanka & Shishunaga dynasty .
But he wanted to extend it to yet more distant frontiers. For this he built up a vast army. According to Diodorus and Rufus (Roman historian) , his army consisted of 2 lakh infantry, 20 thousand cavalry, 2 thousand war chariots and 3,000 war elephants.
Such was the fear of Nanda army that when Alexander invaded India (Dhana Nanda was the ruler at that time ), he confined his campaign to the plains of Punjab as his forces were frightened by the prospect of facing Nanda army & mutinied at Hyphasis River (the modern Beas River) .
Reasons why Magadha emerged as strongest of all Mahajanapadas
In Republics of North-eastern India (Malla, Vajji) , there was no centralisation due to common ownership of land by the kshatriyas . On the other hand, in the Monarchies of upper Ganga , Vedic sacrifices led to wasteful consumption . Magadha located in the mid Ganga plains had no such limitations.
Magadha had the advantage of
Rich soil & history of rice cultivation .
Good rainfall, irrigated land and bandhs used as water reserves .
It was close to the mines and minerals of Singhbhum .
Forest of Rajmahal hills for procuring timber and elephants.
Geographical Position
Old capital Rajgriha was surrounded by perimeter of 5 easily defendable hills .
New capital Pataliputra was protected due to location at Ganga & Son .
Both Uttarapatha & Dakshinapatha passed through Magadha leading to high volumes of trade . River Ganges which flowed through the heart of Magadha was the high route of trade .
Due to foreign invasions like
Achaemenians in 6th century B.C
Macedonians in 4th Century B.C.
infiltration of foreign races
Demands started to raise that there was need of central paramount power on the subcontinent to defend it from foreign invasions. It prepared the country to submit to Magadhan hegemony.
An unbroken chain of very able and extraordinary monarchs ascended the Magadhan throne like Shishunaga, Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Mahapadma and Chandragupta . They were fortunate in having great ministers and diplomats like Vassakara, Kautilya and Radha Gupta .
This marks the end of our article on topic ‘Rise of Magadha.’
