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Female Labour Force Participation Rate (India)

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Last Updated: Feb 2025 (Female Labour Force Participation Rate (India))

Female Labour Force Participation Rate (India)

This article deals with ‘Female Labour Force Participation Rate (India).’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here.

Introduction

Earlier, the Female Labour Force Participation Rate (FLFPR) was continuously decreasing. But that trend has reversed now and Female Labour Force Participation Rate (FLFPR) has increased from 23.3% in 2017-18 to 41.7% in 2023-34 (according to PLFS).

Female Labour Force Participation Rate (India)

The increase is FLFPR has been seen across the states.

Female Labour Force Participation Rate across States in India

But, women are underrepresented in white-collar and blue-collar jobs and dominate the pink-collar jobs (like nursing and teaching).

Feminization U-Hypothesis

Above trend can be explained with the help of the phenomenon of Feminization U-Hypothesis

With development,

Women’s labour force participation drops during the initial phase of industrialization (as women don’t have the skills required for new jobs and start to invest in education to acquire skills needed for new jobs).
However, in the long run, their labour force participation will increase once a certain level of development is reached.

Barriers for Women to join Work Force

Although FLFPR has increased, various barriers stop women from joining the workforce. These include:-

Social Causes
- Patriarchal Mindset: Patriarchal norms of Indian society and social constraints on the freedom of women result in lower LFPR among women
- Nuclearization of families: Childcare and household work restrict women’s work participation.
- Caste factor: In some upper castes, a stigma is attached to women working outside the home.
Entry Barrier: Many sectors, like the Armed Forces, weren’t open to women till recently.
Lack of Care Economy: India has low levels of investment in Early Childhood Care and education. Hence, women can’t join the workforce due to caregiving responsibilities.
Unpaid Household Work: Economists distinguish between production for self-consumption and production for the market. Only the latter is counted as ’employment’. Most women work at home, but it is not counted in labour force participation since it is unpaid.
Use of overly broad categories: While measuring employment, productive works such as poultry farming and collection of firewood are considered domestic duty and women involved in such works are considered out-of- labour-force category.
Rising incompatibility of work: Due to structural change in the Indian economy, skilled jobs in the service and construction sectors are coming up, but women don’t have the necessary skills for these jobs.
Higher Education: As women pursue higher education, their entry into the job market is delayed (Feminization U-Hypothesis (explained below)).
An income effect of the husband’s higher earnings: The rise in men’s income has resulted in women’s withdrawal from the labour market.
Violence against women forces women to move out of the labour force. E.g.:
- Violence against women in the workplace restricts their participation.
- The mode of transportation is not safe for women restricting their movement.
Problems like looking after young children, lack of crèches facilities at the workplace etc. force working mothers to quit their job.

Importance of Women in Work Force

Economic Growth and Prosperity: The inclusion of women in the workforce positively impacts national economic growth.
Empowerment and Decision-Making: Women’s employment empowers them financially and boosts their say in household decision-making. For example, the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) shows that employed women tend to have more say in family matters.
Social Indicators Improvement: Higher LFPR improves social indicators such as infant and maternal mortality rates.
Demographic Dividend: India’s demographic dividend can be fully realized with a substantial participation of women in the workforce.
Diverse Perspectives and Innovation: Women’s participation brings a range of perspectives to the table, fostering creativity and innovation.

Steps taken to increase FLFPR

Skill Upgradation

Skill India Mission: Women are provided with a special focus under the Skill India Mission.
STEP Scheme: STEP or Support to Training and Employment Program for women provides skills to women to increase their employability or to make them self-employed.

Entrepreneurship

Stand-Up India Scheme: It promotes entrepreneurship among women (and SC/ST). Women can avail of Rs. 10 lakhs to 1 crore collateral-free loans from Indian banks to start greenfield enterprises in the non-farm sector.
Start-Up India: Various female led Start-Ups have received government support under the Start-Up India initiative. Additionally, 10% of the Fund of Funds for Start-Ups is reserved for women.
Credit Guarantee Scheme for Start-Ups (CGSS): Scheme has guaranteed loans of Rs.24 crore for women led Start-Ups as of Jan 2025.
Nandini Sahakar Scheme: 2% interest subvention is given to women led innovative cooperative projects
Marketing Support: Women’s trade fair participation to market their products is fully subsidised by the government.
ZED Certification: 100 per cent subsidy on certification for women MSMEs.
Procurement: 3% of procurement by CPSEs is reserved for women-owned enterprises.

Maternity Leave Benefits

The Maternity Leave has been increased to 26 months from the existing 12 months.

Stopping Gender Disparity

Code on Wages: It prohibits wage discrimination on the grounds of sex.
Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 (PoSH): It enhances the safety of women at the workplace.

State Specific Schemes

Kerala: Smart Kitchen Project

It was launched by the Kerala government in 2021.
Under the scheme, soft loans are given to women to modernize their kitchens. These loans can be paid back in small instalments.
It helps to increase women’s participation in labour as their time and energy spent on household chores decrease.

Telangana: WE Hub (Women Entrepreneurs Hub)

It is Telangana state led incubator for women entrepreneurs.
It ensures that women Start-Ups have access to technical, financial, governmental, and policy support.
Till 2025, it has raised ₹177 crore and incubated 6376 start-ups.

Digital Economy and increase in FLFPR

Women face challenges in accessing the traditional job markets due to social causes, time restrictions, workplace safety, etc. (as mentioned above). However, the development of the digital economy has positively impacted women’s participation as the digital economy allows remote working. In the digital world, gender does not matter as much as in the physical economy.

Steps ahead

Promote Women-owned Enterprises in Rural India.
Bangladesh Model: Promote the Apparel & Shoes Sector as these two sectors generate the highest number of jobs for women per unit investment.
Open more sectors for women, like Defence Services.
Green Workforce: The Renewable Energy sector can create many jobs for women. For example, the Solar Urja Lamps project in Dungarpur, Rajasthan, to provide an economical and sustainable solar lighting solution where Women’s Self-Help Group (SHG) members were trained, resulting in the employment of 83 women and the establishment of five solar shops.
Skilling women so that they can fit in the post-LPG Reforms economy.
Promote woman entrepreneurship: Via Standup India and many other schemes.
Maternity Benefits: The government has already increased Maternity Leave to 26 weeks. Steps should be taken to extend it to the informal sector as well.
Self Help Groups (SHGs) like Kudumbshree should be promoted to make women, especially in rural areas, self-employed.
Japan Model (Womenomics): It includes getting more women into leadership positions.
Reshaping societal attitudes and beliefs about women’s participation in the labour force.
Recognize the unpaid household work of women in the employment data.

Side Topic: Low proportion of Women in Leadership Roles in India

Women’s representation on company boards in India is very low at a mere 18.3% (as of 2023). But this number is gradually increasing, which is a very positive sign. Women head many big corporates, for example, Pepsi by Indra Nooyi, Axis Bank by Shikha Sharma, etc.
In 2021, Germany made it mandatory for large listed firms to have at least one woman on their boards.
Under the SEBI regulations in India, the listed firms must have at least one female director on the Board of Directors.

Reasons for the lack of women in leadership roles

Glass Ceiling Effect: It restricts the promotion of women to the topmost positions. This glass ceiling exists due to the persistence of patriarchy in society and also since the present leadership consists of men who promote the interests of men only.
Leaky Pipeline Effect: The proportion of women decline as management grade rises

Demographic Dividend

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Last Updated: Feb 2025 (Demographic Dividend)

Demographic Dividend

This article deals with ‘Demographic Dividend.’ This article is part of our series on ‘Economics’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3. For more articles, you can click here.

What is Demographic Dividend?

A country is said to be in the Demographic dividend phase WHEN

The majority of its population is in the working-age group.
The dependency ratio is minimum, i.e. very few people below 15 & above 64.
The age pyramid shows a bulge in the middle.

As East Asian countries in the past, and Ireland today, India is supposed to benefit from a ‘demographic dividend.’ This dividend results from large working-age people with a relatively small percentage of older people to support.
As of 2024, the median age of Indian is 28 years old, compared with 43 in China and the 38 in the United States and 48 in Japan. It implies a large and growing labour force, which can deliver unexpected benefits in terms of growth and prosperity.

But to reap the Demographic Dividend, the government have to
- Invest in education & skill development of the young generation.
- Produce enough good jobs to absorb them in employment (78.5 lakh non-farm jobs needs to be created annually until 2030).

Otherwise, this huge population would become burden onerous to handle instead of becoming an asset.

What to do to achieve Demographic Dividend?

Juvenile Delinquency

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Last Updated: Jan 2025 (Juvenile Delinquency)

Juvenile Delinquency

This article deals with ‘Juvenile Delinquency ’. This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

Juvenile delinquency, also referred to as Juvenile in conflict with law, involves individuals under the age of 18 engaging in unlawful activities.

Causes of Juvenile Delinquency

Dysfunctional Families: Broken homes, domestic violence, and substance abuse make children vulnerable to indulging in unlawful activities.
Negligent Parenting and Strict Parenting: Overly strict or neglectful parenting styles can foster resentment in children.
Breakdown of Traditional Joint Families: The breakdown of traditional joint families leads to the absence of a social control agency. In joint families, older members intervene to prevent deviant behaviour.
Corruption of Value System: Due to rapid societal changes (globalization, westernization, etc.), traditional cultural values have been diluted.
Negative impact of Social Media: The Fear of Mission Out (FOMO) compels juveniles to adopt risky behaviours to fit in.
Glorification of Crime by Media and Movies: Juveniles tend to imitate behaviours of perceived “successful” but negative role models in a phenomenon known as Anticipatory Socialization.
Subculture of Crime in Children Living in Slums: Children in such socioeconomically disadvantaged areas view criminal activities as a survival mechanism and means to escape poverty.
Lack of Adolescent Education in Educational Institutions

Consequences of Juvenile Delinquency

Loss of Nation’s Human Resources: Juveniles involved in delinquent activities are unable to contribute effectively to the economy, which could have otherwise added to the country’s demographic dividend.
Low Social Status leads to difficulty in Mainstreaming: Juveniles who come into conflict with the law are stigmatized and labelled as criminals by society, making it difficult for them to find employment or get education opportunities.
Overburdened Criminal Justice System: Juvenile crimes increase the workload on the justice system
Cycle of Crime: A juvenile engaged in small-scale theft frequently progresses to more serious offences.
Economic Costs: The state bears high costs for running reformative homes, juvenile courts, and rehabilitation centres.

Juvenile Justice (Amendment) Act

Juvenile Justice Act defines a child as a person who has not completed 18 years of age.
In 2015, it was amended to add a provision wherein a child in the age group of 16-18 years could be tried as an adult in case of heinous offences.
Heinous crime is a crime that requires imprisonment for 7 years .
The Juvenile Justice Board, consisting of psychologists and social experts, assesses whether “the crime was committed as a ‘child’ or as an ‘adult’.

Child Marriage in India

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Last Updated: Jan 2025 (Child Marriage in India)

Child Marriage in India

This article deals with ‘Child Marriage in India ’. This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

Child Marriage involves the marriage of minors (below the legal age of 21 for boys and 18 for girls) that violate their rights and contribute to various social challenges.

Data regarding Child Marriage in India

According to the 2011 Census, 30.2% of all Indians were married before they turned 18.
According to the Lancet Global Health Report (2023), there is a high prevalence of Child Marriage in India, with 1 out of 5 girls and 1 out of 6 boys victim of it.
Child marriage is more prevalent in rural areas than in urban areas.
In Bihar and Rajasthan, approximately 60% of females are married as children.

Causes of Child Marriage

Poverty: Lack of education in poverty-stricken families often leads to early marriages
Growing insecurity of Girls: The increasing concerns for the safety of girls in some communities create a sense of urgency among families to marry off their daughters once they reach puberty.
Cultural Reproduction: Deep-rooted traditional practices that have persisted over generations have contributed to the perpetuation of child marriages.
Perception of Economic Liability: A girl child is seen as an economic burden, leading families to marry them off early.
Increased Dropout Ratio: A higher dropout rate among girls after primary education pushes them towards early marriages
Weak Enforcement of Legal Provisions: Despite the existence of legal frameworks such as the Child Marriage (Prohibition) Act, the act is weakly enforced.

Consequences of Child Marriage

Educational Deprivation: Child Marriage denies access to education, limiting future opportunities.
Health Impacts on Women: Child Marriage raises health risks for women, leading to higher rates of maternal mortality and anaemia.
Population Growth: Child Marriage contributes to a higher population due to increased fertility rates at a younger age.
Domestic Violence: Child Marriage amplifies instances of domestic violence.
Psychological Consequences: Child Marriage results in the prostitution of personality and psychological alienation for those involved.

Government provisions

Statutory Provisions

Child Marriage (Prohibition) Act, 2006

Marriage of boys under the age of 21 and girls under the age of 18 is illegal.
There is a provision for a Child Marriage Prohibition Officer to stop child marriages, create awareness, etc.
Additionally, the Child Marriage (Amendment) Bill of 2021 seeks to elevate the minimum age of marriage for females to 21 years.
Whoever performs, conducts or abets child marriage can be imprisoned for up to 2 years and fined up to Rs. 1 lakh.

Conventions

United Nations Convention on the Rights of Child (UNCRC): The convention emphasizes the protection of children’s rights, including the right to protection from early and forced marriages.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights: The declaration emphasizes that Marriage shall be entered only with the intended spouses’ full and free consent.
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW): CEDAW calls for eliminating gender-based discrimination, including harmful practices like child marriage.

Policies

National Population Policy, 2000 promotes delayed Marriage for girls

Supreme Court Judgement

Society For Enlightenment and Voluntary Action v. Union of India (2024): The Supreme Court held that even fixing the marriage during childhood violates the free choice of choosing one’s partner and life path, and steps should be taken by the Parliament to ban it.

Schemes

Dhan Laxmi Scheme: The Government provides financial assistance to those marrying after the age 18.
Odisha Child Marriage Resistance Forum: Forum of Children who have resisted parental and societal pressure to get married before the legal age

SDG

SDG target 5.3 aims to ‘End the Child Marriage in girls by 2030.’
It involves a multifaceted approach encompassing awareness campaigns, legislative reforms, educational initiatives, and community engagement.

Ayushman Bharat Scheme (UPSC Notes)

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Last Updated: June 2023 (Ayushman Bharat Scheme (UPSC Notes))

Ayushman Bharat Scheme (UPSC Notes)

This article deals with ‘Ayushman Bharat Scheme (UPSC Notes).’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’ (GS 1) and ‘Governance’ (GS 2). For more articles, you can click here.

Models of Health Care

There are two main models of healthcare that are worth discussing: the Free Market model and the Cuba model.

Model 1: Free Market Model

Countries like Japan, Switzerland, Germany, and South Korea rely on the private sector and insurance companies to provide healthcare services.
In these countries, the government does not directly provide healthcare services, but it still has significant control over the system. The government regulates the services offered, sets prices for healthcare services, and establishes protocols for treatment.
If any country, including India, wants to promote a healthcare system that involves the private sector and insurance providers, strict regulation and effective implementation of those regulations are crucial.

Model 2: Cuba Model

In Cuba, all healthcare services are provided by the public sector.
The country has made substantial investments in medical education, producing a large number of doctors. These doctors now work under the government to provide healthcare services to the people.

Ayushman Bharat Scheme

Ayushman Bharat has two components i.e.

Health and Wellness Centres
National Health Protection Scheme

Component 1: Health and Wellness Centres

The government is converting 1.5 lakh existing sub-centres into Health and Wellness Centres.
Services provided in these centres will include
1. Pregnancy Care and Maternal Health Services
2. Neonatal and Infant Health Services
3. Child Health
4. Chronic Communicable Diseases
5. Management of Mental Illness
6. Dental Care
7. Eye Care
8. Geriatric Care
9. Emergency Medicine

Component 2: National Health Protection Scheme (NHPS)

10 crore households across the country, constituting 40% of the total population selected based on “deprivation and occupational criteria” as per SECC data, 2011, are covered under this scheme.

The main provisions of the scheme are

Annual medical insurance coverage of Rs. 5 lakhs per household.
All secondary care & most tertiary care procedures are included.
Benefits can be availed both in public as well as empanelled private hospitals.
There is no cap on the family size.
It is Centrally Sponsored with Centre and State sharing 60: 40 (90: 10 in case of Special Category States)
Implementing Agency: National Health Authority (NHA) (body under Health Ministry)
The scheme includes pre and post-hospitalization expenses as well.
It includes transportation allowance per hospitalization.
Pre-existing diseases are covered under the scheme.
Access is given by cashless health card.
Benefits are portable throughout the country.

Significance of the Scheme

It leads to massive cuts in the Out of Pocket Expenditure of the patients.
It increases access to affordable healthcare, especially for the poor.
It has strengthened the public healthcare infrastructure.
The scheme has also incentivized the creation of new healthcare infrastructure in rural, remote and under-served areas.

Critical Appraisal of the Scheme

Achievements of the Scheme

The Ayushman Bharat Scheme implemented by the Indian government is the largest publicly-funded health program globally.
The Ayushman Bharat Scheme has successfully consolidated various health insurance schemes and offers greater health coverage compared to the previous Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana.
The scheme has expanded the beneficiary base of health insurance schemes, and several states have achieved universal coverage for their citizens.
It incorporates a robust monitoring mechanism, leading to the identification and blacklisting of numerous hospitals involved in fraudulent activities under the scheme.
The scheme serves as a solution to address the issue of rising out-of-pocket healthcare expenditure, which often leads to individuals falling into a cycle of poverty.

Limitations of the Scheme

Limited Government Control over Private Hospitals: Regulation of clinical establishments in India is ineffective, resulting in many fraudulent activities. It includes the creation of ghost beneficiaries and the conversion of outpatient (OPD) patients into in-patient (IPD) patients.
The evaluation of the Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (RSBY) in the past has revealed a lack of institutional expertise and capacity in India to effectively implement public health insurance. India doesn’t have the prerequisite regulatory framework to regulate Insurance based healthcare.
International Experience: International experiences have demonstrated that relying on insurance-based healthcare provision can be a costly financing model for governments.
Against the Federal Principles: The scheme limits the autonomy of states as healthcare is a subject under the jurisdiction of the state list, thus posing challenges to federalism.
Budget Constraints: The allocated budget for the scheme is insufficient to cover the overall costs, posing financial limitations on its effective implementation.
Quality Control Issues: Out of the 18,000 private hospitals enlisted under the scheme, only 600 have received quality certification, raising concerns about the overall quality control measures in place.
Low Coverage as Middle Class not covered: NITI Aayog has suggested to include the ‘missing middle class’ within the ambit of PMJAY as they can’t afford private health insurance and are currently not covered under PMJAY.

Question: In India, since Public Health Infra is weak, is Insurance the way out?

No doubt, Insurance provides a simple way out, but it isn’t a sustainable way. Examples from the U.S., the Netherlands etc., have shown that a simple solution at one time becomes a problem for the next generations. The U.S. tried to rely on Private Insurance, and the result was a politically empowered industry dedicated to preserving its business at the expense of better risk pooling, equality, more efficiency, and simpler administration.
Building strong Public Healthcare is the sustainable way to reach the goal of providing Healthcare facilities to all. Countries such as Cuba have shown to the world that in spite of their lower GDP, the best and cheap health services can be provided to people if the government has a vision.
But since Public Healthcare can’t be built in a day, we can’t ignore Insurance altogether. There is a need to provide Insurance coverage to people as a cushion. But at the same time, we have to build a strong regulatory framework so that Insurance companies don’t charge exorbitant rates to vulnerable people. Government should try to stop Insurance companies from “actuarial” rate-setting.

Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission (ABDM)

Announced by the PM on Independence Day Speech of 2020.
Implementing Agency: National Health Authority (NHA) (body under Health Ministry)
This initiative enables citizens to generate their Unique Health ID (UHID), which serves as a central point for their digital health records.
By using this UHID, individuals can securely access health records in an electronic format. Further, the system allows patients to share their health information with doctors and insurance companies, eliminating the need for multiple physical files, photocopies, or X-rays.

Human Development Report

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Last Update: June 2023 (Human Development Report)

Human Development Report

This article deals with ‘Human Development Report’ This is part of our series on ‘Economics’ and ‘Society’. For more articles , you can click here .

Introduction

UNDP defines Human Development as the process of widening people’s choices and raising the level of well-being.

For instance, look at the following example.

Human Development is the critical enabler for upward social mobility.

Human Development Report

It is prepared by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) which provides a comprehensive analysis of human development across countries.
In 1990, Mahbub-ul-Haq of Pakistan and Amartya Sen of India gave the concept of HDI.
In various reports, it has been found that the Human Development of everyone is not taking place.
- The human development of males is 20 points greater than females in South Asia.
- Everywhere, the Human Development of elites and religious majorities is more than others.
- Due to Climate Change, the Human Development of the present generation is more than what can be achieved by future generations.

In Human Development Report, there are 5 Indexes.

Human Development Index (HDI)
HDI – Inequality Adjusted
Gender Development Index(GDI)
Gender Inequality Index
Multi-dimensional Poverty Index (MPI)

The latest report for 2021/22 was released in 2022

1. Human Development Index (HDI)

It was developed by United Nations Development Program (UNDP) in 1990 by a team headed by Prof. Mahbub ul Haq. Prof Amartya Sen was also a prominent member of this.

Dimensions of HDI

Dimension	Indicator
Health	Life Expectancy at Birth
Knowledge	– Mean Years of Schooling – Expected Years of Schooling
Standard of Living	GNI per capita

Switzerland topped the ranking in the latest report (2021/2022). India was ranked 132.

Indian Ranking

	Indian Ranking	HDI Score
1990		0.429
–	–	–
2015	130	0.624
2016	131	0.624
2017	130	0.643
2018	129	0.647
2019	131	0.645
2021/22	132	0.633

Based on a report by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), approximately 90% of nations have witnessed a decline in their Human Development Index (HDI) value during either 2020 or 2021. It signifies that global human development has come to a halt for the first time in 32 years.

2. Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI)

Human Development Index is Geometric Mean. Hence HDI masks internal inequalities.
UNDP releases another Index which also accounts for inequalities.
HDI (Inequality adjusted) = HDI -(minus) HDI (lost due to Inequality), i.e. Human Development which is lost because of inequalities present in the country wrt gender is adjusted in this.

IHDI (2022) Ranking

Rank	Country	HDI Score	HDI-Inequality Adjusted Score
1	Iceland	0.959	0.915
2	Norway	0.961	0.908
——	—–
108	India	0.633	0.475

When there is perfect equality, the HDI and the Inequality Adjusted HDI (IHDI) are equal. However, as the difference between the two increases, it indicates greater levels of inequality within the country.

Note: SDG Goal 10 calls for ‘reducing the Inequalities.’

3. Gender Development Index

The Gender Development Index (GDI) is a separate measurement released by the UNDP to complement the Human Development Index (HDI) to address females’ development specifically.
While the HDI does not provide specific information on female development, the GDI calculates the ratio of Female HDI to Male HDI.

GDI = Female HDI/ Male HDI.

If the Development Index for females exceeds that of males, the GDI can be greater than 1.

4. Gender Inequality Index

The Gender Inequality Index (GII) has been calculated since 2010.
Despite improvements in life expectancy and access to education for women, they still face specific forms of inequality, such as early pregnancies, lack of representation, and limited participation in economic activities. Therefore, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) introduced a specialized index to examine gender inequality.

Dimensions of Gender Inequality Index

Dimension	Indicator
Reproductive Health	– Maternal Mortality Rate – Adolescent Birth Rate
Empowerment	– Parliament Seats occupied by Women – Higher Education Attainment Levels
Economic Activity	– Female Labour Force Participation

The calculations used for the Gender Inequality Index (GII) are represented on a scale of 0 to 1, with 0 indicating no inequality (i.e., women fare equally to men) and 1 representing complete inequality (i.e., significant disparities between women and men).

GII (2022) Ranking

India is Ranked = 122 (Score: 0.490)
This score is better than that of the South Asian region (value: 0.508) and close to the world average of 0.465. This reflects the Government’s initiatives and investments towards more inclusive growth, social protection, and gender-responsive development policies.

5. Multidimensional Poverty

In India, we calculate poverty using Tendulkar Method based on household consumption.
But UNDP takes a holistic view of poverty and measures it differently.
The report has been released since 2010.
In Multidimensional Poverty, they look into the following components to measure poverty (HES)
- Health with components like child mortality
- Education with components like years of schooling
- Standard of Living with components like electricity, water etc.

According to the 2022 Report, 16.4 per cent of the Indian population (22.8 crores) is Multidimensionally Poor
Additionally, Multidimensional Poverty is continuously decreasing in India.

Multidimensional Poverty in India - Trend

Child Sexual Abuse in India

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Last Updated: Jan 2025 (Child Sexual Abuse in India)

Child Sexual Abuse in India

This article deals with ‘Child Sexual Abuse in India ’. This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Child Sexual Abuse

1.07 Lakh cases of Child Sexual Abuse in 2016 (NCRB data)
(In)famous Example: the Bombay Orphanage Case ( 2011), where there was sexual abuse of young boys.

Causes of Child Sexual Abuse

Poverty: In slums, children are most vulnerable to sexual abuse.
Unregulated web content: Porn is freely available.
Psychological reason: The person involved in these types of crimes has a history of sexual violence & generally, the culprit is once a victim of the same crime
Cultural Norms and Taboos: cultural norms and taboos in India reinforce gender inequality, resulting in the stigmatization of survivors. Hence, these incidents are not reported.
Lack of Sex Education: Sex Education is considered taboo in India. Hence, there is a lack of awareness about consent in healthy sexual relationships.
The emergence of nuclear and dual-carrier families
Weak Justice System: In India, laws such as POCSO Act exist. But due to a weak justice system, there is inadequate enforcement of laws.
Lack of sanitization facilities within the home

Measure to Control Child Sexual Abuse in India

1. Constitutional Measures

Article 23: Prohibition of traffic in human beings, begar & other similar forms of forced labour.

2. Legal Measures

2.1 POCSO (Prevention of Children against Sexual Offence) Act, 2012

POCSO defines a child as a person below 18 years.
Section 7 defines sexual assault of a child as “whoever, with sexual intent, touches the vagina, penis, anus, or breast of such person.”
POCSO is gender-neutral law (the safety of both boys and girls is covered).
It has widened the ambit of sexual abuse. It includes touch as well as non-touch behaviour.
The act is non-bailable, cognizable and non-compoundable.
For Penetrative Sexual Assault, the burden of proof is shifted on the accused.
It has the provision of special courts, special public prosecutors and in-camera trials.
The media is barred from disclosing the identity of the child.
Further, the Supreme Court, in its 2024 judgement, said that the case of sexual harassment registered under POCSO couldn’t be closed even after a compromise had been reached between two rival parties, as such offences have serious implications for society.

2.2. Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2018

Section 376 of IPC has been amended with the following provisions.

The minimum punishment for the offence of rape has been increased 10 years (from 7 years).
The rape of a woman below 16 years has been made punishable for life.
The rape of women below 12 years has been made punishable with imprisonment for life or death.
The time limit of the investigation has been reduced to two months and six months for the disposal of cases.

2.3 CrPC (Amendment) Act, 2013

The age of consent for sex increased from 16 to 18.

2.4 IT Act, 2000

IT Act deals with the issue of pornography affecting children. Section 67 B states that browsing, publishing or transmitting any content which involves children in sexual activity is a criminal offence (5 years in jail).

3. Conventions

3.1 United Nations Convention on Rights of Child (UNCRC)

It prohibits the use of children for sexual purposes.

4. NGOs

Various NGOs work in this regard

Child Rights and You
Bachpan Bachao Andolan

5. Schemes

Aarambh Initiative: To curb sexual abuse of children through the internet and remove child pornographic content.
Beti Bachao Beti Padhao
Operation Muskaan: It aims to rehabilitate the missing children.

Diversity of India

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Last Update: Jan 2025 (Diversity of India)

Diversity of India

This article deals with ‘Diversity of India’. This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

Diversity is a prominent and defining characteristic of India. India’s diversity is often celebrated and acknowledged as a source of pride, showcasing the country’s pluralistic and inclusive character.

Diversities in Indian Society

India has a variety of races, religions, languages, castes and cultures.

Religious Diversity

India is known for being the birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. Additionally, it is home to significant populations of Muslims, Christians, and various other religious communities. Apart from that, there are tribal societies that still live in the pre-religious state of animism and magic. Hindus are divided into several sects, such as Vaishnavas, Shaivates, Shaktas, Smartas etc.

Linguistic Diversity

India is linguistically extremely diverse, with 22 languages declared as official languages under the 8th Schedule of the Constitution. There are 124 major languages and 652 dialects being spoken in various regions. Each language carries its literature, poetry, songs, and oral traditions, contributing to the overall cultural mosaic of India.

Caste and Jati Diversity

Caste and Jati is an intrinsic features of Indian society. People from four castes reside in India, viz. Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. Apart from that, there are more than 3000 Jatis in India.
These systems have been prevalent in India for centuries and are crucial in shaping social relationships, occupations, and identity. Each caste and Jati has its own distinct customs, rituals, occupations, and social interactions. Marriage within one’s own caste or Jati has been a traditional practice to maintain social and cultural boundaries.
While the Indian Constitution prohibits caste-based discrimination and ensures equal rights for all citizens, the influence of caste is still prevalent in various aspects of Indian society.

Racial Diversity

India is home to various ethnic groups, including Indo-Aryans, Dravidians, Tibeto-Burmans, Mongoloids, Mediterranean, Proto-Australoids and Western Brachycephals. These groups exhibit distinct physical features, cultural practices, and historical backgrounds.
India’s history of invasions, migrations, and interactions with neighbouring regions has contributed to its diverse genetic and cultural landscape.

Geographical Diversity

India spans an area of 3.28 million square kilometres with great diversity of physical features like deserts, evergreen forests, lofty mountains, perennial and non-perennial river systems, long coasts and fertile plains.

Unity & Diversity in India

Unity and diversity are two fundamental aspects that characterize India. Despite being a diverse nation with a multitude of languages, religions, cultures, and traditions, India has managed to maintain a sense of unity.

The concept of unity in diversity emphasizes the idea that although India is composed of diverse communities, there is a collective sense of belonging and shared values that bind the nation together.

Unity in diversity essentially means “unity without uniformity” and “diversity without fragmentation”.

How such a diverse society living together in India

Most states are generally suspicious of their cultural diversity and try to reduce or eliminate it. It is because community identities (like language, religion, ethnicity and so on) can act as the basis for nation-state formation. Hence, already existing states see all forms of community identity as dangerous rivals. That is why states generally tend to favour a single, homogenous national identity. However, suppressing cultural diversity can be very costly in terms of alienating the minority whose culture is treated as ‘non-national’.

1. Constitutional Identity

With such diversity, it becomes essential to have a unifying force that binds the country together, and the Indian Constitution, by providing a common set of values, rights, and principles that transcend regional, linguistic, religious, and cultural differences, serves that purpose.

2. Religious Coexistence

The concept of religious coexistence allows people from different religious backgrounds to coexist harmoniously, acknowledging and appreciating the beliefs and practices of others.
Religious coexistence encourages interfaith dialogue, fostering understanding, empathy, and respect among religious communities.

3. Economic Integration

Economic integration creates opportunities for individuals and communities from different backgrounds to engage in economic activities. When people share economic interests and benefits, it helps to bridge the gaps and reduce social divisions based on cultural or ethnic differences.

4. Fairs and Festivals

Fairs and festivals provide a platform for people from different regions and communities to come together and celebrate their shared heritage. For example, Diwali, celebrated across India, unites people of different religions as they light lamps, exchange sweets, and share the joy of the festival.

5. Climatic Integration

The entire Indian subcontinent is intricately connected to the monsoon season, which influences flora and fauna, agricultural practices, and the way of life for its people. Hence, the festivities celebrated by the people are also centred around this significant climatic event.

6. Insight of our founding fathers

India’s founding fathers, the architects of the Indian Constitution, deeply understood the importance of unity in diversity. They recognized that India, with its vast array of languages, religions, cultures, and traditions, needed a strong foundation that could accommodate and celebrate this diversity while ensuring a cohesive and united nation.
Indian Constitution makers envisaged India as a Mosaic culture. In a Mosaic culture, different languages & cultures coexist with each other. Although they stay together, their individuality remains intact (The concept of Mosaic Culture was given by Canadian sociologist John Murray Gibbon, who disapproved of the American melting pot concept. In American society, immigrants were encouraged to cut off their ties with their home country & assimilate into the American way of life).

7. Geopolitical Unity

India’s geographical unity, marked by the Himalayas in the north and oceans on the other sides, has played an important role in the formation of a shared cultural identity in India.

8. National Signs

National signs like Flag, Anthem, National figures and National sporting teams unite Indians and promote a sense of belonging and national pride among the diverse population.
These symbols are prominently displayed during national events, public ceremonies, and important occasions, instilling a sense of unity, patriotism, and collective pride.

9. Interaction between societies, i.e. Acculturation

Interaction between different groups has both positive & negative effects. They either reduce differences or increase differences

Samuel Huntington, in his book “Clash of Civilizations”, argues that globalization, when more & more people are meeting, is leading to an increase in differences which is the leading cause of terrorism in Western nations because two communities are so different that they can’t live in harmony with each other. Even in India, we can see this process playing out when two communities are not able to live peacefully, as seen in Assam (Assamese vs Bangla Muslims)
But in India, mainly the process of Acculturation has occurred, i.e. the original culture of both communities changes somewhat to accommodate each other. It has led to the development of a secular fabric in India.

10. Other

Language: Hindi and English act as unifying threads on a pan-Indian basis.
Cinema: Bollywood is seen all over India

Factors that threaten the unity of India

Communalism: Communalism divides people based on religion.
Regionalism: Regionalism tends to highlight the interests of a particular region over national interests. They threaten national unity by following policies such as the policy of Sons of Soil.
Caste Politics: Caste-based parties promote the division of sections of society based on caste to create vote banks.
Linguistic Movements like the Dravidian movement sowed the feeling of difference between people of north and south India.
Development imbalance: Uneven socioeconomic development patterns can lead to a region’s backwardness. Consequently, this can result in violence, kickstart migration waves and even accelerate separatism demands. E.g., separatist demands in North-East India.
Influence of external factors: Sometimes, external factors such as foreign organizations, terrorist groups, and extremist groups can incite violence and sow feelings of separatism. E.g., Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) has been accused of supporting and training mujahideen to fight in Jammu and Kashmir and sow separatist tendencies among resident groups.
Rise of the ultra-right wing in India, which try to mix religion with nationalism and impose the majority’s values on minority groups.

Side Topic: Diversity in Unity

‘Diversity in Unity’ means the same sociological system manifests itself in different ways

Patriarchy: Within Patriarchy, there are different forms of Patriarchy, like Brahmin Patriarchy, Dalit Patriarchy etc.
Hinduism: Within Hinduism, there are various sects like Shaivism, Vaishnavism etc.
Marriage: Marriage is a feature of almost all Indian Societies, but there are different types of marriages like Monogamy, Polygamy, Matrilocal, Patrilocal etc.
Language: There are various dialects of the same language spoken in different areas

Issue of Hunger in India

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Issue of Hunger in India

This article deals with ‘Issue of Hunger in India.’ This is part of our series on ‘Governance’ which is important pillar of GS-2 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

What is Food Security?

It has three aspects wrt access

Physical	There should be a presence of food
Social	There should be social access to safe, sufficient and nutritious food. Consider the following situations 1. Dalits aren’t given food or given food on the ground 2. Male child is given nutritious food than the girl child
Economic	People should have money to buy safe, sufficient and nutritious food

Malnutrition

It is a physiological condition due to an unbalanced intake of macro and micronutrients manifested in the form of
- Wasting, i.e. low weight: height ratio
- Stunting, i.e. the height is lower wrt age.
- Underweight, i.e. weight is lower wrt age.
- Anaemia, i.e. low Red Blood Cells

Malnutrition at early stages reduces intelligence and affects the formation of cognitive and non-cognitive skills that affect long-term wellbeing.
The cost of malnutrition is high both for individuals and nations.

Anaemia

Anaemia is a condition of having a lower quantity of red blood cells or lower haemoglobin in the body.
Its causes include
1. Inadequate intake of iron, folic acid or vitamin B12
2. Infections such as malaria, hookworm infestation, and other parasitic diseases which cause blood loss, impairing nutrient absorption
3. Women are vulnerable to Anaemia due to menstrual blood loss, pregnancy, and lactation

Sustainable Development Goals and Hunger

SDGs also deal with the issue of Hunger. For example,

IFPRI Global Hunger Index

Status of India on the Global Hunger Index (2022) released by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
- Rank = 107 (out of 121 countries)
- According to the report, India is home to the largest number of hungry in the world.
But they have also appreciated MGNREGA, NRHM & ICDS programs of the government and recognized their role in reducing Hunger, but even after that, the absolute number is very high.

Concept of Hidden Hunger

2014 Report has spoken about HIDDEN HUNGER
If the person is just taking Carbohydrates in his diet, he willn’t die. But this isn’t enough for the overall development of the human body. Vitamins and other micronutrients are equally important. It is known as Hidden Hunger because it often goes unnoticed.
More than 50% of women & children in India suffer from Anaemia.
To fight Hidden Hunger, one can use
- Iodized Salt
- Fortified Flour
- Biofortification of crops
- PDS Reforms
- Education

Causes of Malnutrition

The green revolution phase saw new, fast-growing varieties of staples, especially wheat and rice; the following decades saw a steady decline in the food basket diversity, especially of traditional grains such as bajra and millet, which have nutritional value.

Micronutrient Deficiencies / Hangover of Green Revolution: Green Revolution phase saw new and fast-growing varieties of staples, especially wheat and rice; the following decades saw a steady decline in the food basket diversity, especially of traditional grains such as bajra and millet, which have high nutritional value. Indians suffer deficiencies in vitamins and minerals- iron, vitamin A, zinc and iodine due to faulty diet.
Breastfeeding Practices: Lack of improvement in infant and young child feeding practices are also responsible for poor nutrition status.
Poor Sanitation: About half of Indians defecate outside without using toilets, and from here, children pick up parasites and chronic infections that impair the ability of the intestines to absorb nutrition.
Problem with Public Distribution System (PDS)
- Leakages in PDS: In 2012, 46% of total grains released through PDS leaked
- Wastage: 62,000 tonnes of wheat & rice damaged in Food Corporation of India godowns
Social Causes: Women in the household and Girlchild don’t get proper food (compared to other members)
Social and Cultural Factors: Social and cultural factors, such as traditional food practices, dietary beliefs, and taboos, can influence food choices and dietary patterns.
Climate Change and Agricultural Challenges: Climate change impacts agriculture, affecting crop yields and food production affecting food availability and affordability.

Implications

What India is doing to fight Hunger / Malnutrition

National Food Security Act (NFSA): Explained below
Mid-Day Meals in School: The Mid-Day Meal Scheme is a school feeding program providing free meals to students in government and government-aided schools to meet their dietary requirements.
POSHAN Scheme: Explained below
National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM): NRLM aims to alleviate rural poverty by promoting livelihoods.
MGNREGA: Provides guarantee of 100-day work and has increased income of poor.
Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM): SBM aims to eliminate open defecation, thus contributing to reduced waterborne diseases, improving sanitation, and enhancing nutrition outcomes.
Integrated Child Development Program (ICDP): It focuses on the holistic development of children under six years by providing supplementary nutrition, healthcare, immunization, early childhood education, and other services through Anganwadi centres.
Initiatives such as India Food Banking Network (IFBN) are promoting the concept of collaborative consumption with support from the private sector and civil society organizations.
Other Schemes
- National Iron Plus Initiative and Vitamin A Supplements
- Guidelines on Infant and Young Child Feeding

National Food Safety Act (NFSA)/ Public Distribution System

Central government procures the produce from farmers at MSP, store and then supply it to states at Central Issue Price.
State Government identifies the beneficiaries using Socio-Economic Caste Census (SECC) in a way that it cover 67% of population and then distribute cereals /allowance to them at low price through Fair Price Shops.

Eligible Households

There are two types of eligible households under NFSA, 2013

Priority Household	State Governments shall prepare guidelines to prepare the list of Priority Households (consisting of 67% of population).
Antyodaya Household	Houses covered under Antyodaya Anna Yojana

Entitlements under NFSA

Criticism

Fiscal Deficit: There is no need to cover 67% population & it should have been a targeted scheme. Such a broad coverage leads to a Fiscal deficit.
The Hidden Hunger Problem remains because it doesn’t have pulses, edible oil, fruits, veggies and milk component in it. The present diet entitlement just provides carbohydrates.
Nothing done to reduce leakage: GPS Truck tracking, CCTV etc., should have been used in this, but there isn’t any provision like this in the act.
Exclusion Errors: Deserving beneficiaries are excluded due to inaccurate identification of eligible households, ineffective ration card distribution, and corruption, thus limiting the reach of the program.
Quality of Food Grains: The quality of food grains provided through the PDS is often substandard due to poor quality, adulteration, and insect infestation.
Storage Issues: Large amount of grains rot in godowns because proper infrastructure is not present

Economic Survey is of the view that instead of this, Food Stamps should be given to target people who can buy the food of their choice from the market.

Best Practices Introduced by States

Issue of Smart Card	Haryana , Tamil Nadu, Punjab
Using GPS	Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu
SMS based Monitoring	Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu, UP

One Nation One Ration Card

Issue: Currently, the ration card for accessing the benefits provided under National Food Safety Act (NFSA) is location specific. Hence, if a person migrates to another state or another place in the same state, the beneficiary can’t buy cheap grains.

Way out: The government has introduced the One Nation One Ration Card, under which all the ration cards have been connected to the central server. Beneficiaries can access their entitlement to cheaper food grains anywhere in the country.

POSHAN Scheme

POSHAN, or PM’s Overarching Scheme for Holistic Nourishment Abhiyaan, aims to ensure holistic development and adequate nutrition for pregnant women, mothers and children.
The mission’s target is to reduce stunting in children aged between 0-6 years. It also aims to reduce Anaemia among women and adolescent girls.
In 2021, Central Government merged schemes like the Supplementary Nutrition Programme under Anganwadi Services, Scheme for Adolescent Girls and POSHAN Abhiyaan, known as POSHAN 2.0.

Anti-Microbial Resistance

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Last Updated: Jan 2025 (Anti-Microbial Resistance)

Anti-Microbial Resistance

This article deals with ‘Anti-Microbial Resistance – for UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

What is Anti-Microbial Resistance?

Anti-Microbial Resistance (aka Antibiotic Resistance) happens when microorganisms (such as bacteria, parasites, viruses and fungi) evolve when they are exposed to the antibiotic and develop resistance mechanisms to it or acquire that resistance from another bacterium.

History

2010	It became a topic of debate in India when the British journal Lancet named an enzyme as New Delhi Metallo-beta-lactamase-1 or NDM-1, which had antimicrobial resistance
2016	Resistance to Colistin was detected in China. Colistin is the last resort of antibiotics.
Sept 2016	United Nations held a high-level meeting to tackle Antimicrobial Resistance. Note: It was only the fourth time the general assembly held a high-level meeting for a health issue (previously, it was for HIV non-communicable diseases such as heart disease and diabetes and Ebola).
2017	A US woman died from an infection that was resistant to all 26 available antibiotics.
2023	Muscat Conference on Antimicrobial Resistance held. Muscat Manifesto was released, calling for 1. Accelerating the political commitments in the implementation of One Health Action 2. Recognize the impact of AMR on humans as well as Animals.

Causes of Anti-Microbial Resistance

Significant sources of resistance:

Overuse of antibiotics by human beings (over prescription)
Doctors prescribing broad spectrum antibiotics
Self-medication
Overuse of antibiotics in the veterinary sector
Environmental antibiotic contamination due to pharmaceutical companies and hospital discharge.
Lack of new antibiotics being developed
Patients not finishing treatment
Poor infection control in hospitals

Ways to control Anti-Microbial Resistance

Prescriber

Prescriber should

Follow guidelines
Perform Antimicrobial susceptibility tests
Maintain hygiene, disinfection and sterilization in the hospital

Farmer

Farmers should

Follow guidelines.
Use only animal-specific antibiotics
Maintain hygiene

Public

Public should

Follow the prescription and don’t self-medicate himself
Public awareness and education should be carried out

Politician

Politician should

Establish Antibiotic Resistance related laws
Make National Plans and Guidelines
Invigorate the antibiotic development of pharmaceutical companies

Researcher

Researcher should

Develop a new generation of antibiotics
Develop Molecular Techniques for identifying resistance genes.

Initiatives taken by Government

1. Red Line Campaign

Red Line Campaign for Anti Microbial Resistance

2. National Surveillance System for Anti-Microbial Resistance

The program keeps a close watch on such cases.

3. National Action Plan on Anti-Microbial Resistance

The program was started April 2017
It focused on
1. Hand Hygiene and Sanitation programs
2. One Health Strategy

4. National Health Policy, 2017

It had specific guidelines for the use of antibiotics and limiting the use of antibiotics.

5. Schedule H1 of Drugs and Cosmetic Rule, 1945

Schedule H1 was added to the Drugs and Cosmetic Rule 1945. Drugs in Schedule H1 are required to be sold in the country with the following conditions:-

Their sale has to be registered in the register with the name of the prescriber and patient
Drugs shall be labelled with the symbol Rx & drug warning.

International Steps

1. By WHO

WHO is providing technical assistance to countries to develop national action plans to combat Antimicrobial Resistance and strengthen their surveillance systems.

One Health Approach: The One Health approach recognizes the interconnectedness between human, animal, and their shared environment. It emphasizes the importance of addressing health issues comprehensively by considering the interdependencies and interactions between humans, animals, and their shared environments. The ‘One Health’ approach calls for optimal antibiotic use in both humans and animals.

2. High Level Meetings at United Nations

High-level meetings on antimicrobial resistance are being held at the United Nations General Assembly. The last such meeting was held in September 2024.

3. New Antibiotics

For example, ODLs are a new class of antibiotics discovered by the University of Illinois and Nosopharm, a French company.