This article deals with ‘ Maternity Leave in India .’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.
Introduction
Maternity leave is a period of break from work given to a mother before and after the birth of her child. It aims to provide a period for the mother to recover from childbirth and bond with the newborn child.
Although the provisions vary in different countries, mothers are
paid a certain portion of their salary or unemployment benefits during this
period.
Present Situation of Maternity Leave in India
Article 42
Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) directs the state to provide Maternity leave.
A women employee who has worked in the same place for at least 160 days in the 12 months preceding her delivery is eligible for maternity benefits.
Women employees can go on leave for 26weeks — during which they are paid 100 per cent of their salary (earlier, it was 12 weeks)
12 weeks of paid leave to mothers adopting or having a child through surrogacy
However, the amendment to the Act doesn’t cover a vast majority of the women workforce employed in the informal sector in India. (According to the planning commission, over 93 per cent of the women workforce in India are employed in the informal sector)
All establishments with 30 women workers or 50 total workers should provide crèche facilities for their employees, either at the premises or within half a kilometer
The entitlement applies only to the first two children. For the third child, the maternity leave entitlement will only be 12 weeks.
Why Maternity Leave is required?
Post-natal leave must be increased owing to factors such as
An increasing number of late marriages
Increase in Caesarean births.
Urbanization and transition towards the nuclear family structure => Hence, nobody is at home to take care of the newborn child.
International studies have established a direct link between greater maternity leave duration and lower infant mortality rates.
How women suffer in its absence?
In the absence of maternity leave, women have to face dismissals.
In a fast and competitive world, women are delaying pregnancy owing to very less maternity leave & getting pregnant at 35+ age which has increased the proportion of genetically defective children.
According to experts, with anaemia still affecting a large number of Indian women and with lifestyles changing and increasingly stressful jobs, at least six months are needed to ensure better recovery for the mother and the nutritional health of the child.
What more needs to be done?
More than 93% of working women are in the informal sector, where these maternal benefits don’t extend. Policy to include these women in Maternity Leave benefits should be thought upon.
Implementing maternity benefits is a real challenge. Concerns have already been voiced that such laws and rules will only prevent employers from hiring women or push more women workers into informal contracts.
Singapore way: Women in the city-state get 16 weeks of maternity leave, with the employer paying for eight weeks and the next eight reimbursed to the employer by the government. In India, this could be a way to avoid a collision with the private sector and ensure that women don’t have to bear the brunt of a move that may be unpopular with their employers.
It should be extended to paternity leave as well. Companies like Facebook are giving 4 months of paternity leave across world offices, and developed nations like Sweden, Iceland, Norway, Portugal, and Germany are also providing this. It will enhance the idea of equally shared parenting fast.
Side Topic: Paternity Leave
Paternity leave is a period of break from work given to a father after the birth or adoption of a child. It aims to provide a period for the fathers to bond with their new child and support their partner during the postpartum period.
Central Government Employees can avail of 15-day paternity leave for the first two children.
There is no legal provision regarding paternity leave by private companies. But some private companies offer such leaves. E.g.,
This article deals with ‘Old Age ’. This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you canclick here.
Introduction
Due to the demographic transition through which India is passing through, India will witness a population explosion of senior citizens. Elders (aged 60 years and above) constitute
Presently = 8% of Indian population.
2041 = 16 % of Indian population
Reason for increased %age of old age
Longer life expectancy due to better health facilities
Decline in fertility: This, coupled with a reduced birth rate have led to an increase in India’s population of senior citizens.
Elderly persons in society face a number of problems due to lack of family support, social security, health etc.
Elders in Traditional Indian Families
Caring for the aged has always been a part of the Indian tradition.
In large joint families, senior members used to be head of the families enjoyed the centre stage and were loved and respected by all children and grandchildren.
Hence, the institution of Joint Family ensured peaceful living in old age with all dignity and respect.
But with changing structure of family due to various factors,
old age people have become vulnerable to various insecurities.
Challenges of the ageing population
Change in Family Structures
Due to the changing family structure from Joint to Nuclear Family, the elderly have become more vulnerable.
Burden on economy
The decline in the labour force.
The decline in savings and consumption.
The higher burden on the government for geriatric care.
Financial Insecurity
Most elderly are not covered by a pension system or any other social security net.
Weak Geriatric Care System
Old Age homes are in bad shape.
Geriatric Specialists in India are lesser than required.
The sex ratio of the elderly is increasing (1,033 in 2011).
Ruralization of the Elderly
According to Census-2011, 71% of the elderly live in rural India. It is difficult to provide quality geriatric care in villages
Empty Nest Syndrome
Generally, next-generation had to migrate in search of a better future leaving old age persons alone.
Digital illiteracy
Digital illiteracy acts as a great hindrance in times when every service is getting digitalized.
Steps to uplift Old Age
Constitutional Provision
Article 41 (DPSP): It has provision regarding public assistance in case of unemployment, old age, disablement etc.
Legal Provisions
Maintenance & Welfare of Parents and Senior citizens Act,2007:
It has the provision of Legal obligation for children to provide maintenance to the senior citizens.
It also obligates state governments to establish old age homes in every district.
Government Schemes
Integrated Programme for Older Persons (IPOP): It is implemented by the Ministry of Social Justice.
National Social Assistance Program (NSoAP): NSoAP has a component of Assistance to Old Age.
Pension Schemes: There are two pension schemes
Indira Gandhi Old Age Pension Scheme
Atal Pension Yojana
Rashtriya Vayoshri Yojana: It provides physical aids and assisted-living devices for Senior citizens belonging to the BPL category.
Reservation of seats and concessions in the road, rail and air transport.
National Council for Senior Citizens has been set up to suggest policy changes for the elderly.
State Specific Schemes
Delhi Police has a dedicated cell for old age.
NGOs
Various NGOs are also working for old age persons like HelpAge India.
International Obligations
India is also a signatory of the Kathmandu Declaration of 2016, which focuses on the special needs of the elderly population in the region.
Analysis of Schemes
Low level of awareness and utilization about these schemes.
Gender differentials: Women face greater vulnerabilities and isolation in old age. However, government schemes often ignore this factor.
Lack of Geriatric care human resources: More than 10 million caregivers need to address the needs of the elderly population and a massive training programme to create a competent human resource.
This article deals with ‘Disabled Persons’. This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you canclick here.
These people told the
world that it is not the disability but one’s ability that counts.
Introduction
Persons
with Disability Act recognises 21 types
of disabilities like
Blindness
Low vision
Leprosy cured
Hearing impairment
Locomotor disability
Mental retardation
Mental illness
Acid Attack victims
Dwarfism
2011
Census says 2.21% of the Indian population is
disabled (which is an underestimation).
Issues with Disables
Disability is not measured correctly in India. Census depends on self-reporting of disability,and many don’t report owing to social stigma.
India looks at disability from a medical or pathological angle only. Most developed countries look from a social angle.
Lack of Institutional and Infrastructural Support for the disabled in India.
Lack of schools for disabled
Physical infrastructure is not disabled-friendly.
Under the new GST regime, almost all disability aids and appliances are to be taxed at the rate of 5% or 12%.
Employment: Private sector is reluctant to employ the disabled.
Inaccessible Infrastructure: Physical accessibility in buildings, transportation, access to services etc., remains a challenge for the physically disabled.
This article deals with ‘Minorities ’. This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you canclick here.
Why do Minorities need protection?
In democratic politics, it is always possible to convert a numerical majority into political power through elections. It makes minorities politically vulnerable.
State Machinery, mainly under the majority community, can suppress religious or cultural institutions of minorities.
In the Constitutional Assembly debates, Ambedkar described the minorities are an explosive force that, if erupts, can blow up the whole fabric of the state. The history of Europe bears ample and appalling testimony to this fact.
Sachar Committee Recommendations
Main Recommendations
Set up an Equal Opportunity Commission
The delimitation procedure should not reserve constituencies with a high minority population for Scheduled Castes.
Increase employment share of Muslims
Work out mechanisms to link madrasas with the school board.
Recognise degrees from madrasas for eligibility in defence, civil and banking examinations.
Population of different Religious Groups
The population of
various religious groups in India is as follows.
Although the Muslim population has increased, but the reason is low socio-economic development. Sachar Committee estimated that Muslims’ proportion will rise from 18% to 21% by 2101 under different scenarios.
States
with the highest percentage of Muslims include J&K (67%), Assam (30.9%), West Bengal (25.2%), and Kerala
(24.7%).
School Education of Minorities
The educational Status of Muslims is marginally higher than SC/ST.
Contrary to the common belief that a large number of Muslim children attend madrasas for primary education, only 4% of Muslim children among the school-going age go to madrasas.
Instead, many Muslim children are enrolled in Maktabs, which provide supplementary religious education to children enrolled in public schools.
Job Share
Job Share
of Muslims in any government job is not near their population proportion
Schemes for Minorities
USTAAD
USTAAD Scheme is used for skilling minority artisans.
The scheme primarily focuses on arts like Kashmiri embroidery, Bengali jardosi, Sikh phulkari embroidery, Buddhist Thangka paintings etc.
Nai Manzil
Nai Manzil is used for skilling the Madrassa passouts with skills such as computer education, English speaking etc. so that they can join the mainstream.
Udaan
Udaan Scheme is used for skilling J&K youth.
Sikho aur Kamao
Under the scheme, a person belonging to Minority Community can get computer knowledge, tailoring skills etc. from Private institutions and the Government to reimburse that institution.
Nai Roshini Yojana
Nai Roshini Scheme is used for generating Leadership among Minority Women.
Garib Nawaz Skill Development Centres
Under the scheme, the Skill Development Centres will be established in 100 districts.
Employment-oriented skill development courses of short term (2 to 6 months) in fields such as mobile and laptop repairing, security housekeeping training, etc., will be given to minority students.
Jiyo Parsi
Jiyo Parsi is a scheme focussed on Parsi Community.
Need of the Scheme: The population of the Parsi community in India declined by 50% in the last 60 years.
Objective: To increase the Total Fertility Rate of the Parsi community.
This article deals with ‘LGBT’. This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you canclick here.
What constitutes LGBT?
Problems faced by the LGBT community
Intolerance, discrimination and harassment are faced by them in society, including at home and schools.
Marginalization in a society where heterosexuality is the only accepted norm.
LGBT face continuous harassment at the workplace, and they can’t express their sexual orientation at the workplace.
They face barriers to healthcare and housing.
Impact of above problems on LGBT community
They tend to drop out of school and leave home and family.
They are unable to find regular jobs.
They become prone to drug abuse and suicide.
They are prone to sexual diseases such as HIV.
Issue 1: Section 377 of IPC
Whoever voluntarily has carnal intercourse against the order of nature with any man, woman or animal, shall be punished with imprisonment for life and shall be liable to fine.
Course of Things
1870
IPC came to force
2009
Naz foundation case: Delhi High Court declared Section 377 to be unconstitutional. It was held that Section 377 violated Articles 21 & 14 of the Indian constitution.
2013
– Suresh Kumar Kaushal case – Supreme Court reversed the previous judgement of Delhi High Court & held the validity of Section 377. – Supreme Court left it on Parliament to change it.
Supreme Court’s judgement in the Suresh Kumar Kaushal vs NAZ Foundation Case was equalled by experts with the Dred Scott case(1857), where the US Supreme Court denied the right of equality to negros.
2014
NALSA vs Union of India: Supreme Court recognised the third gender status for transgender people. Also directed the state to provide affirmative action to the LGBT community.
2018
Navtej Singh Johar v/s Union of India, 2018 case declared Section 377 of IPC as unconstitutional. – Discrimination based on ‘carnal intercourse against the order of nature‘ is arbitrary and cannot be used as classification criteria for the purpose of legislative protection under the right to equality. – Constitutional morality privileges over social or majoritarian morality.
Arguments to scrap 377
1. Cultural Aspect
It is based on Victorian Era Morality, where sex without intent to produce a child was considered a sin.
Books like Kamasutra, Mrichchhakatikam etc., shows that it isn’t part of Hindu culture. Hindu texts are not just open to homosexuality but treat gender as a fluid concept—for example, Lord Shiva’s depiction as Ardhnarishwara, i.e. half man & half woman.
2. Constitutional Aspect
It
infringes upon fundamental rights like
Right to Equality
Right to Expression (sexual Expression)
Right to Privacy (Part of Right to life after Justice Puttaswamy Judgement)
3. International Situation
United States, Britain (from where we introduced this law in India) & Nepal (other Hindu nations) etc., have recognised LGBT rights.
4. Health Aspect
It has led to the criminalisation of homosexuality as harassment by law enforcement agencies drives the LGBT community underground and increases the risk of HIV among the LGBT community.
5. Biological Aspect
It is not against the order of nature.
Homophilia is found in 450 species.
NALSA vs Union of India, 2015
The Supreme Court
declared that
Transgender people to be recognised as a ‘Third Gender.’
Gave them the right to self-identification of gender as male, female or third gender.
Transgender people are socially and economically backward classes; they should be granted reservations in admissions to educational institutions and jobs.
Issue 2: Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019
Provisions of the Act
Definition of Transgender: Transgender means a person whose gender does not match the gender assigned to a person at birth.
Prohibition of denial of service to transgender people.
Right of residence: Transgenders have the right to reside in their household.
Welfare measures like rehabilitation, vocational training etc., should be provided to the transgender by the government.
District Magistrate has been authorized to issue a Certificate of identity to transgenders.
Offences and Penalties: Provision of imprisonment between 6 months and 2 years, and fine.
National Council for Transgender persons (NCT) to be constituted to advise the central government wrt transgender persons.
Critical Appraisal of the Act
In the NALSA v. Union of India judgment, the Supreme Court gave Transgenders the right to self-identify their gender as male, female or transgender. But the act doesn’t allow self-recognition of gender as male or female. It only provides for identity certificates as ‘transgender’. Ireland, Argentina and Denmark allow the transgender community to self-determine gender
Supreme Court in NALSA Case provided for 2% reservation. But the act does not have the provision of reservation.
It does not give positive rights such as the Rights of transgenders to the inheritance of property.
This article deals with ‘Manual Scavengers’. This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you canclick here.
Introduction
Manual Scavengers are mostly Scheduled Castes (Balmiki caste) involved in manually removing the human excrement from the dry toilets of higher-caste families.
Issues with Manual Scavenging
In 1901, Mahatma Gandhi termed manual scavenging a national shame.
They gave low life expectancy. Unhygienic work makes them vulnerable to various infections. A large number of them die while cleaning excreta.
They have low wage payments and no financial security.
Lack of Human Dignity: The Manual Scavengers suffer due to a lack of dignity as people treat them badly due to their association with dirty work.
Their numbers
The number of manual scavengers in India was 13,384 in 2018.
According to social activist Bezwada Wilson, 472 people have died in India due to manual scavenging between 2016 to 2020.
Initiatives already taken
1. Legal Measures
1.1 Manual Scavengers (Prohibition and rehabilitation) Act,2013
A “manual scavenger” is defined as a person engaged in manually cleaning human excreta in an insanitary latrine or an open drain, or on a railway track.
If anyone employs a manual scavenger or constructs an insanitary latrine, he can face imprisonment up to one year or a fine of Rs 50,000 or both.
Each occupier of an unsanitary latrine is responsible for demolishing it at his own cost.
Responsibility to identify Manual Scavenger is with the Local Government.
Tasks the government to rehabilitate them in other jobs after training.
1.2 National Commission for Safai Karamchari
Giving recommendations to the Government regarding specific programmes for the welfare of Safai Karamcharis.
Monitor implementation of Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013.
Enquire into complaints regarding contravention of the Act.
2. Judicial Support
In
2014, Supreme court
Manual scavenging has to be ended.
Directed the centre & states to rehabilitate the scavengers.
3. Technology use
The government has installed bio-digesters at public places, especially in the railways.
4. Swachh Bharat
The scheme has a provision to construct the flush toilets and penalize the dry toilet pit construction.
5. Other Initiatives
Valmiki Malin Awas Yojana: To provide housing to the safai karamcharis.
National Scheme for Rehabilitation of Scavengers: To provide training & rehabilitate them.
Why we aren’t able to stop it till now
Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: Currently, Rs. 12,000 is given to build a latrine. But latrines of poor quality requiring regular cleaning is built with such a low budget.
The term is not defined properly as if protective gear is used; then government don’t count it as manual scavenging.
Western toilets are used in India. But they require more water which is scarce in villages. It compels people to go for a dry toilet.
Last Updated: May 2023 (Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe)
Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe
This article deals with ‘Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe’. This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you canclick here.
Safeguarding Measures for SC and ST
1. Constitutional Measures
1.1 Affirmative Action
Article 15(4)
The state can make special provisions for the advancement of socially and educationally backward (SEB) classes of citizens, including SCs and STs.
Article 16(4)
Reservation in public services
Article 355
Claims of SCs and STs shall be taken into consideration in making appointments to the public services.
1.2 Protective Measures
Article 17
Abolition of Untouchability
Article 23
Forced labour is prohibited.
Article 25
The state is empowered to throw open Hindu religious institutions to all classes and sections of Hindus
1.3 Political Measures
Article 330
Reservation of seats in Lok Sabha in the proportion of their population
Article 332
Reservation in Legislative Assembly
Article 243-D(1)
Reservation in Panchayat
Article 243-T(1)
Reservation in Municipality
1.4 Administrative rights
Schedule 5
Provisions
for Scheduled Areas
Schedule 6
Provisions for Tribal Areas
Article 338
National Commission for SC
Article 338-A
National Commission for ST
1.5 Specifically for STs
Article 19(5)
The state can impose restrictions on freedom of movement or residence for the benefit of Scheduled Tribes.
Article 164
Appoint special minister for tribal welfare in MP, Bihar, and Orrisa.
Schedule 5 & 6
Discussed in Polity
2. Legal Measures
2.1 For Scheduled Castes
Protection of Civil Rights Act (PCRA), 1955: The act deals with untouchability
Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of the Atrocities) Act, 1989
Prevents commission of atrocities against SC/ST by a person other than SCs & STs.
Establishment of special courts for speedy trial of such offences.
Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013
2.2 For Scheduled Tribes
Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of the Atrocities) Act, 1989
PESA, 1996
Forest Rights Act, 2006
How particular tribe is added to the list of Scheduled Tribes?
It is
done under the provisions of Article 342 in the following way
President, by public notification, specifies the tribal communities to be declared as Scheduled Tribe.
Parliament amends the list for including or omitting names of communities in the Constitution (Scheduled Tribes) Order, 1950.
SCs and STs (Prevention of the Atrocities) Act, 1989
Meaning of the Atrocities
The term atrocity is not defined in law (but the list of atrocities is given).
Applicable to
The act is applicable in connection with Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes who are subjected to violence and brutalities by any person who is not a member of a Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
Atrocities mentioned in the Act
Atrocities under the act include (but are not limited
to):
Social discrimination
Beating, lashing and other forms of torture
Arson-the burning of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes communities and their homes
Violence against women
Bonded labour
Denial of rights, especially land rights
Deny to give job or do business with a person belonging to SC/ST
Forcibly remove cloth
Forcing to eat something
Denying access to a public place
Police abuses against Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and custodial abuse
Imprisonment
The person will be put behind bars at the same instant when FIR is lodged against the person.
There is no provision of Anticipatory Bail. Only High Court can grant bail.
The act has the provision of imprisonment ranging from 6 months to life.
Regarding Government Servant
If any government servant indulges in such activity, there is a provision of imprisonment of 6 months to 1 year.
The case can be registered against a government servant only when he is found guilty in the investigation.
Other Provisions
Special Courts have been established to deal with these cases.
SC/ST are provided with financial aid and a lawyer to fight the case.
Working Appraisal of Act
There are only 194 Special courts which amount to only 1 out of 3 districts having special courts.
The conviction rate is very low,
The awareness about the act is very low among the community it is designed to protect.
The police, which in most of the states is filled up with dominant caste, guard the door to justice by not filing FIRs.
Forest Rights Act,2006
Forest Rights Act or Scheduled Tribes and Other Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act came into force in 2006.
It has been enacted to recognize and vest the forest rights and occupation of forest land in forest-dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers, who have been residing in such forests for generations, but whose rights could not be recorded.
Main provisions of the act
The authority to vest forest rights in forest-dwelling Scheduled Tribes and traditional forest dwellers have been vested with the Gram Sabha.
It guarantees the following rights
Title Rights: The right in the land is granted to STs and the people who have been residing there for 75 years but don’t have documents (maximum 4 hectares)
Right of use of resources. E.g., Minor Forest Produce (honey, herbs etc.), common property resources etc.
Relief and Developmental Rights: In case of any displacement of tribals, proper relief packages should be given.
Forest Management Rights of the Forest Dwellers to protect forests and wildlife.
Issues wrt Forest Right Act
The task of documenting the claims of communities is very tedious.
Reluctance on the part of the bureaucracy
The narrow interpretation of the law
Opposition from wildlife conservationists
The Forest Rights Act is often in conflict with other laws, e.g., rights in protected areas like wildlife sanctuaries, national parks, etc.
Dalit Capitalism
Dalit activist Chandra Bhan Prasad coined the term.
It is a process in which capitalism is seen as a solution for the upliftment and emancipation of dalits.
It wants to correct one exploitative system, i.e. Caste System, using another exploitative system, i.e. capitalism.
Dalit Capitalism will not uplift the poorest of poor dalits.
Stand Up India
Every
bank branch will provide
a loan from Rs 10 lakh to Rs 1 crore
to one Dalit or Adivasi member and one woman each
For greenfield enterprises in the non-farm sector without collateral.
Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTG)
1973: Dhebar Commission created Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs) as a separate category, who are less developed among the tribal groups.
2006: The government of India renamed it to Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs).
At present, they are 75 in numbers like Asurs of Bihar, Seharias of Rajasthan, Jarawas, Sentinelese and Onges of Andaman and Nicobar.
PVTGs have some basic characteristics
Problems faced by them
The growth of PVTGs’ population is either stagnating or declining.
The health status of PVTGs is in awful condition because of poverty, illiteracy, lack of safe drinking water, bad sanitary conditions etc.
The condition of education is also deplorable, with an average literacy rate of 10% to 44% in PVTGs.
Scheme: Scheme for Development of PVTGs
It identifies 75 PVTGs as the most vulnerable among the Scheduled Tribes.
It gives state governments flexibility in planning initiatives.
Long term Conservation cum Development plan for five years for each PVTG to be established by States.
The scheme is funded entirely by the Central government.
Eklavya Schools
The government opened Eklavya Schools in budget 2018.
Eklavya schools were established in all Tribal blocks with more than 50% ST population.
Eklavya schools provide boarding and lodging facilities to tribal students.
These schools will have special facilities for preserving local art and culture besides providing sports and skill development training.
Aadi Mahotsav
Aadi Mahotsav is an annual initiative of TRIFED to showcase the tribal culture on the national stage and promote tribal crafts, cuisines and culture.
TRIFED or Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation of India
TRIFED was formed in 1987.
It works under Tribal Ministry
It performs the following two functions
Minor Forest Produce Development
Retail Marketing Development of tribal products
Pradhan Mantri Van Dhan Yojana
The Van Dhan Vikas Yojana aims to promote the development of tribal communities by fostering the creation of groups that focus on enhancing the value of forest resources through processing.
The initiative provides essential support to these groups, including infrastructure, tools, and equipment, as well as training in value addition and entrepreneurship.
Umbrella Scheme for SCs
After rationalization of Centrally Sponsored Schemes, all the Schemes for Scheduled Castes are taken under one Grand scheme, Umbrella Scheme for Scheduled Castes, which is Core of the Core Scheme and is 100% Centrally Sponsored.
Some of the Schemes under this are
1. Educational Empowerment
Pre-Matric Scholarships to SC Students
Post Matric Scholarship for SC students
Full financial support for pursuing studies beyond 12th class, in notified institutes of excellence like IITs, NITs, IIMs, reputed Medical/Law and other institutions.
National Fellowship: Financial assistance to SC students for pursuing research studies
National Overseas Scholarship: for pursuing higher studies of Master level and PhD programmes abroad.
This article deals with ‘ Demographic Theories.’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.
What is demography?
Demography is the statistical study of the human population. It includes the study of size, structure and distribution of population as well as changes in time and location in response to birth, migration, ageing and death.
Demographic Theories
Malthusian Theory
Humanity is condemned to live in poverty forever because Human population grow at a much faster rate than food resources. According to Malthusian Theory
Food production increases in Arithmetic Progression (AP) while
Population increases in Geometric Progression (GP).
Hence, to make a balance between population vs food supply nature uses positive checks
Positive
checks by nature
famine
disease
Preventive
checks by humans
delayed marriage
Family Planning
According to Malthus, famines and diseases were inevitable as they are nature’s way of dealing with the imbalance between food supply and increasing population.
Debate: Has the Malthusian theory lost its significance?
Some experts opine that with the world surplus of food and advances in medical science, the theory of positive checks of nature of Malthus has become obsolete.
Whereas other experts are of the view that we are observing the change in positive checks of nature. These include
With world temperature rising due to global warming, theocean level is rising.
Increase in frequency of natural disasters due to climate change
Attack of new pests on crops.
The new type of pandemics caused by new pathogens like the Corona Virus.
Demographic Transition Theory
Phase-1: Period of stagnant or stationary
The period from 1901-1921.
The growth rate during this phase was very low, even recording a negative growth rate during 1911-1921.
Both the birth rate and death rate were high keeping the rate of increase stagnant.
Poor health and medical services, illiteracy of people at large and inefficient distribution system of food and other necessities were largely responsible for a high birth and death rates in this period.
Phase-2: Period of steady population growth
The period from 1921-51.
An overall improvement in health and sanitation throughout the country brought down the mortality rate. At the same time, better transport and communication system improved food distribution system. But birth rate remained high in this period leading to a higher growth rate than the previous phase.
Phase-3: Period of Population Explosion
Period of 1951-1981.
This was caused by a rapid fall in the mortality rate due to control over famines and epidemics but a high fertility rate of population in the country. (It should be noted that death rates can be brought down relatively quickly through advanced methods of disease control, public health, and better nutrition. However, it takes longer for society to adjust to change and alter its reproductive behaviour.)
Phase-4: Period of Moderate Growth
Period post-1981 till present.
The growth rate of the country’s population though remained high, started slowing down gradually. This was due to a moderate decline in fertility due to the use of modern contraceptives.
Phase 5 : Period of Contraction
India has not entered this phase. Developed countries like Japan and western European nations are in this phase.
During this phase, the population starts to contract due to low birth rate although the death rate is also very low.
This article deals with ‘ Migration.’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here .
What is Migration?
Migration refers to spatial mobility between one geographical unit and another, generally involving a change of residence for a considerable period.
The Census defines a migrant as a person residing in a place other than their place of birth or who has changed his/ her usual residence to another place.
Migration includes both additive (at the place of destination) and separative (at the place of origin) aspects.
Types of Migration in India
India has witnessed waves of migrants coming from Central and West Asia. The history of India is a history of waves of migrants arriving and settling one after another in different parts of the country. Similarly, many people from India have been migrating to places in search of better opportunities, especially to the Middle East, Western Europe, America, Australia and East and South East Asia.
Based on Origin and Destination
Migration
can be divided into the following types based on origin and destination:
Rural to Rural R → R (mostly in cases of marriages only)
Rural to Urban R → U (also known as Urbanisation)
Urban to Urban U → U
Urban to Rural U → R (very unlikely. It includes government employees going to a village for a job or reverse migration of the earlier migrant)
Based on Country of Destination
Another
basis of division can be whether within or outside the country.
Internal Migration: Internal Migration occurs within the same country. It can further be divided into
Intra-state: Within State
Inter-state: Between States
International Migration: International Migration occurs from one country to another country.
Based on Duration
Migration
can also be classified based on the duration.
Permanent Migration
Semi-Permanent (due to a lack of economic resources, people cannot sustain their living in the destination regions and are forced to migrate back).
Seasonal / Circular (because of the rainfed nature of our agriculture and the lack of employment opportunities, people migrate to other areas during lean season and return to the source region once that period is over).
Trends of migration in India
According
to Census 2011, 45.36 crore people, i.e.
37% of the population or every third citizen of India is a migrant
—now settled in a place different from their previous residence.
1 . Intrastate Migration
About three-fourths of all intrastate migrants were females, demonstrating that marriage is the prime reason for such migration. Most people, 49%, migrate for marriage (while globally, migration is an attempt by people to survive and prosper, in India, marriage appears to be the biggest reason why people migrate).
Other reasons
Rural to Urban in search of good jobs and educational facilities.
Urban to Urban: Due to job transfers
2 . Interstate Migration
In India, people migrate from underdeveloped states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar etc., to comparatively developed regions like Maharashtra, Punjab, NCR Delhi, Chandigarh etc.
As per the 2001 census, Maharashtra occupied first place in the list with 2.3 million net in-migrants, followed by Delhi, Gujarat and Haryana. On the other hand, Uttar Pradesh (-2.6 million) and Bihar (-1.7 million) were the states which had the largest number of net out-migrants from the state.
Interstate Migration is also of two types with different destinations.
2.1 Rural as Destination
Agricultural labourers from underdeveloped states migrating to Punjab, Haryana etc.
2.2 Urban as Destination
These include groups of industrial labourers.
Due to the ICT revolution, there is large migration of skilled professionals in IT sectors to Bangalore, NCR, Mysore, Hyderabad, Chandigarh etc., where BPOs are situated.
3 . International Migration
Large-scale
international migration is seen from the whole country, especially Kerala &
Punjab.
Kerala
Mainly
to Gulf Nations
Punjab
Mainly
to Canada, UK, Australia and to lesser extend to Gulf nations
Side Topic : Curious Case of Mexican International Migrants
Mexico’s emigration problem is a unique one, with more than 98% of all Mexican migrants living in the U.S.A, the country with which Mexico shares a border that runs 3110 km in length.
The Mexican emigration rate increased substantially since the 1960s and, with more than 11% of Mexicans living abroad, Mexico is the country with the largest number of emigrants in the world.
Side Topic: Brain Drain
Brain drain is related to the selective migration of educated people. Some countries are losing the most educated segment of their population. It can be both a benefit for the receiving country and a problem for the country of origin.
Impact on receiving country
Receiving country gets highly qualified labour which contributes to the economy right away.
It promotes economic growth in strategic sectors, especially science and technology.
Receiving country doesn’t have to pay for education and health costs; for example, 30% of Mexicans with a PhD are in the US.
Country of origin
Education and health costs are not paid back to the country of origin.
It has a long-term impact on economic growth. It has the possibility of getting remittances. Many brain-drain migrants have skills that they can’t use at home. The resources and technology may not be available there.
Theories of Migration
1. Ravenstein’s Gravity Model
According to Ravenstein’s Model, the movement of the population gravitates around the centres of socio-economic opportunities.
Ravenstein’s model accepts the Distance Decay Principle, according to which ‘as distance increases, the tendency to migrate decreases’.
2. Pull-Push Hypothesis
Migration is the
result of an interplay between expulsive forces at the place of origin and
attractive forces at the destination.
Push Factors
1. Famine & Floods 2. War 3. Huge Crime Rate 4. Low Jobs 5. Harsh Climate
Pull Factors
1. Better Jobs 2. Good education opportunities 3. Cleanliness 4. Better Standard of living 5. Better Climate
3. Cost and Benefit Model
Difference between
cost and benefits that will accrue after migration determines Migration.
Cost of Migration
Cost of travelling
Costs of searching job
Getting training
Psychic costs
Benefit
More earnings
Better living standard
Enhancement of prestige
Causes of Migration
1 . Push Factors
Push factors are the factors forcing a person to leave his residence and move to some other place.
1.1 Economic Causes
Lack of jobs
Rural Poverty
Low levels of Economic development.
Development-led migration: For example, building a dam can force a number of villages to be evacuated.
The pressure of population has resulted in a high man-to-land ratio.
1.2 Socio-Cultural Causes
Caste System: Dalits feel suffocated in villages due to the low status bestowed upon them by the caste system. Hence, they migrate to an urban place where they can live anonymously.
Higher pressure on limited land in bigger families forces some members to migrate and search for jobs other than agriculture.
Marriage: Most people, 49%, migrate for marriage purposes.
Family conflicts also cause migration.
1.3 Political Causes
Targeted violence against the community creates fear among the survivors. It forces them to migrate. E.g., Large Sikh migration from Delhi to Punjab post-1984 riots and exodus of Kashmiri pandits from the valley.
Adoption of the ‘sons of the soil policy’ by the State governments. E.g., The rise of Shiv Sena in Bombay, with its hatred for the migrants and the occasional eruption of violence in the name of local parochial patriotism.
2. Pull Factors
Migrants are lured by the attractive conditions in the new place, called Pull Factors.
2.1 Economic Causes
Economic opportunities & jobs in cities and abroad act as an incentive to migrate.
Better standard of living, health & educational facilities at the destination point act as a huge pull factor to migrate. E.g., In recent years, the high rate of movement of people from India to the USA, Canada & Middle East is due to better employment opportunities, higher wages & better amenities.
2.2 Socio-Cultural Causes
Due to urban anonymity, caste doesn’t play a significant role in urban areas.
2.3 Political Causes
People want to enjoy political freedom in western countries.
3. Pull Back Factors
Pull-back is a recent phenomenon. With better opportunities for employment (due to MGNREGA and other schemes), individuals are pulled back to their native places.
Side Topic: Internal Migration due to disasters
India had the highest number of internally displaced people (IDP) due to disasters worldwide (five million till 2020).
IDPs are different from refugees. Having not crossed a border, international refugee protections do not typically cover them. They remain subject to national laws and, as such, are afforded less protection.
Consequences of Migration
1. On the destination
Migration creates pressure on urban infrastructure due to increased traffic, competition for housing facilities & water etc.
Create social and ethnic tensions and xenophobia due to a clash of interests between migrants and locals.
Mismanaged migration leads to the formation of slums and ghettos and acts as the source of the outbreak of diseases.
It leads to a skewed sex ratio in favour of males.
2. On the source
Cost of Migration on the Source
Migration
results in the separation of individual migrants from their origin &
relatives.
It results
in a loss of human resources for the state, especially if the migration
is of employable people.
Impact on women: It leads to ‘Feminisation of labour &
agriculture’ at
the source. Additionally, because of the male migration, wives suffer from
neurosis, hysteria and depression.
Benefits of Migration on the Source
Migrants act
as agents of social change. Internalised urban values are transmitted to
the native place.
Remittances sent by migrants have an important impact. Remittances are mainly
used for food, repayment of debts, treatment, marriages, children’s
education, agricultural inputs, construction of houses, etc. For thousands
of the poor villages of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh,
Himachal Pradesh etc., internal remittance works as the lifeblood of their
economy.
Migration
leads to the evolution of composite culture and broadens the
mental horizon of
the people at large.
Migration
also changes the demographic profile of rural areas in
following ways following ways
Reduced family size among the migrants as compared to
non-migrants. The separation of rural male migrants from their wives for
long durations tends to reduce the birth rate.
Ageing of Villages as migrants are young, leaving old age in
villages.
Increased Sex Ratio in villages as men usually migrate, leaving females
behind.
3. On migrants
The problem of identity documents deprives them of social security benefits and government socio-economic programs.
Migration and slums are inextricably linked. The migrants inhabit most slums. Such slums are deprived of primary healthcare and sanitation facilities.
Limited access to Formal Financial Services results in them being exploited by their employers, and they risk theft and personal injury while transferring their earnings.
They face political exclusion because they often don’t have voting rights at their place of destination. Further, they are the target of political rhetoric of local identity politics and are subjected to violence and abuse.
Augmenting Human capital: Evidence reveals that with rising incomes, migrant remittances can encourage investment in human capital formation through increased expenditure on health and education.
Legal Measures and Government Schemes
Inter-State Migrant Workmen Act, 1979, requires all establishments that hired inter-state migrants to be registered and all contractors who recruited these workers to be licensed. The aim was to protect the migrant workers. But it has major lacunae as it covers only those migrant workers who are hired through contractors.
Schemes
‘One Nation One Ration Card’ scheme: The government of India started the ‘One Nation One Ration Card’ scheme in 2021 to benefit the migrant population. The migrants don’t need to make separate Ration Cards at each place, and the same Ration Card can work throughout the country.
(State Specific) Project Changathi: Implemented by the Kerala State Literacy Mission, this is a literacy scheme targeted at migrant children to learn Malayalam. It helps in better integration of migrants into the local society.
Way forward
There is legislation, i.e. Interstate Migrant Workmen Act of 1979, which aims to safeguard migrant workers. But its ambit needs to be increased (as suggested above).
Rather than treating migration as a problem, destination states should aim to accommodate them into the state’s economy. There is ample evidence to support the fact that migrants generally take up those jobs and businesses, which the locals do not do.
The planning of cities should keep in mind the needs of the migrants.
Political class, civil society and NGOs should conduct inter-group interactions to ward off mistrust between natives and migrants.
This article deals with ‘Women Safety in India .’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.
Introduction
Women’s Safety includes various dimensions like sexual harassment in the workplace, rape, marital rape, dowry, acid attack etc.
India is the 4th most dangerous country in the world for women (Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Congo are ahead of India).
NCRB data (2019) shows that 88 rape cases are recorded daily in India.
Factors aggravating & affecting women safety
1 . Socio-Economic-Cultural Factors
Patriarchal nature of society: Due to the patriarchal nature of Indian society, women are considered inferior to men leading to gender-based crimes like rape, domestic violence, workplace harassment etc. Furthermore, patriarchal attitudes also create barriers for women seeking help and support.
Objectification / Commodification of women: In Indian society, women are viewed as objects to be used for men’s pleasure. It leads to a disregard for their rights and safety.
Influence of “Western culture”: The encroachment of Western values like consumerism and hedonism has changed social norms as Indians have started prioritizing personal pleasure and self-gratification over the welfare of others.
2 . Institutional Failures
Poor enforcement of laws and present laws have various lacunae.
The poor conviction rate in crimes against women.
Slow criminal justice system
Inadequate gender sensitization of law enforcing agencies like police, judiciary etc.
3 . Lack of Reporting
Women don’t complain due to various reasons like women are afraid to speak out, lack of faith in the legal system, family pressure to keep quiet, complex and lengthy legal process etc.
4. Infra Gaps
Poorly lit urban spaces and inadequate police patrolling make it easy for criminals to hide and carry out their nefarious activities. Due to this, women who go out in the evening are more likely to become victims of crimes, such as sexual assault and molestation.
Note – Not only in physical spaces, but women are not safe in India, even in digital spaces (Internet).
Justice Verma Committee
Justice Verma Committee was formed after the horrific event of
Nirbhaya’s death.
Recommendations of the committee
It rules out the death sentence for rape convicts.
Life Imprisonment in the case of rape should mean imprisonment for the entire natural life of the convict.
Stalking is to be viewed as a serious offence.
It observed that Law Enforcement Agencies are gender insensitive. Hence, an officer who doesn’t report an FIR or delays it for a rape case should be punished.
Marital rape should be made an offence under IPC.
Government schemes in this regard
1 . Acts and legal measures
Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act 2013
Various provisions under IPC
States also have specific laws. Some states, like Maharashtra, have amended their statutes making their provisions more stringent. Under the new Shakti Act 2020, provisions include the death penalty for rape, a fine up to Rs 10 lakh on perpetrators of violence, an investigation to be completed within 15 days after an FIR is filed, the trial has to be completed within 30 days after the chargesheet is filed against an accused.
2 . Surakshit Nari , Sashakt Nari
The
following things have been done under this scheme
Panic Button has been introduced in Mobiles.
181 – Universal Women Helpline number has been started.
Himmat App: To raise SOS alert has been started.
CCTV Surveillance cameras have been installed in trains.
3. Sakhi-One Stop Centre Scheme
It provides support to women affected by violence.
Scheme offers Medical Aid, Police Assistance, Legal Aid, counselling and shelters.
4 . Transportation Schemes
Pink Auto initiative of Odisha: Pink autos drivershave undergone psychological tests and training.
