Biofuels

by

Last Updated: July 2025 (Biofuels)

Biofuels

This article deals with ‘Biofuels – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Environment’, an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles on Science and technology, you can click here.

Introduction

  • Biofuels are renewable fuels made from biomass — organic materials such as plants, crop waste, used oils, animal waste, or industrial biowaste. Unlike fossil fuels like coal and petroleum, biofuels are cleaner and sustainable, releasing much fewer pollutants when burnt.
Biofuels
  • The two most common types of biofuels in use today are:
    • Ethanol (used with petrol)
    • Biodiesel (used with diesel)

Generations of Biofuels

Biofuels are categorized into four generations depending on the type of raw materials used and technology applied:

1G– Biofuels are produced from food crops (leading to the Food vs. Fuel debate).
– E.g., Ethanol produced from feedstock of sugarcane, cereals (rice, wheat, barley, corn & sorghum), sugar beet, etc.
2G– Biofuels are produced from crop residues and non-food biomass (e.g., rice straw, wheat husk, bagasse) (it addresses food vs fuel debate, but the process is net carbon positive)
– E.g., Ethanol produced from crop residues like wheat husk, rice straw
3G– Biofuels are produced from Algae. They absorb CO₂ while growing and are net carbon neutral.
– E.g., Ethanol produced from Microalgae.
4G– Biofuels are produced from Genetically Modified Organisms.
– Aim is to make the process net carbon negative and create artificial carbon sinks.

Ethanol

  • Ethanol (Ethyl Alcohol) is 99.9% pure alcohol.
  • It is manufactured from sugarcane, maize, and other sources with light starch content.
  • It is blended with petrol to reduce fossil fuel use and emissions.
  • The most common blend is E10 (10% ethanol + 90% petrol). India is aiming for E20 soon.

How is Ethanol Produced?

There are two main sources:

  1. Sugarcane Juice / Molasses: Easier and cheaper to convert into ethanol.
  2. Cereals like maize, rice, wheat: First require conversion of starch to sugar, hence more expensive and complex.

Benefits of Ethanol

Benefits of Ethanol
  • Cuts fuel import bills — India can save ₹30,000 crore per year
  • Reduces carbon emissions and air pollution
  • Helps farmers by creating demand for sugarcane and waste crops
  • Creates employment and supports rural economy
  • Enhances energy security and reduces dependence on fossil fuels

Ethanol Policy Landscape in India

Ethanol Blending Program (EBP)

  • Launched: 2003
  • The target is to achieve:
    • 10% blending by 2022 (achieved)
    • 20% blending by 2025-26 (earlier 2030

National Biofuel Policy, 2018

  • Promotes ethanol production from diverse feedstocks, including sugarcane, maize, surplus rice, and damaged grains, with the aim of achieving 10% blending by 2022 and 20% blending by 2025-26.

Dr Rakesh Sarwal Committee Recommendations

  • Dr. Rakesh Sarwal’s committee was formed to suggest a roadmap for ethanol blending in India from 2020-2025.
  • It gave the following recommendations
    1. Start using E10, i.e blending 10% Ethanol in Petrol from 2022.
    2. Start using E20, i.e. blending 20% Ethanol in Petrol from 2025.
    3. Invest in R&D for E20 compliant engines.
    4. Provide tax subsidies to purchase E20-compliant vehicles.
    5. The ultimate goal is  E100  (i.e.  Running a vehicle completely on ethanol,  without petrol) in the future.

Other Measures

  • Budget 2022: ₹2/litre excise duty on unblended petrol
  • GST on ethanol reduced to 5%
  • PM-JIVAN Yojana: Viability gap funding for 2G bio-refineries

Challenges Ahead

  • Competing demands: Ethanol is also used in alcohol, pharma, and other industries
  • Water Stress: Sugarcane is a water-guzzling crop, and its production for producing Ethanol can cause irreparable damage to the water tables. 
  • Cyclic sugar industry: Sugar industry is cyclic in nature due to availability of cane.
  •  Food security: Diverting food grains for ethanol can impact food availability

Biodiesel

Biodiesel is a type of biofuel made from natural, renewable sources like vegetable oils, animal fats, or even used cooking oil. Unlike traditional diesel, which is made from crude oil (a fossil fuel), biodiesel is biodegradable, non-toxic, and produces much less pollution.

Benefits of Biodiesel

  • Reduces Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Biodiesel produces up to 75% less carbon dioxide compared to regular diesel. 
  • Cleaner Air: It emits less particulate matter, sulphur, and carbon monoxide, improving air quality.
  • Can Be Used in Existing Engines: Biodiesel can be blended with regular diesel (e.g., B20 = 20% biodiesel + 80% diesel), requiring no major engine modifications.
  • Promotes Waste Management: Used cooking oil, which otherwise pollutes drains and soil, can be converted into biodiesel.
  • Supports Farmers: Raw materials for biodiesel like soybean, mustard, jatropha etc., can be grown by farmers — boosting rural incomes.

Challenges of Biodiesel

  • Food vs Fuel Debate: Using edible oils (like soybean or palm oil) for fuel can reduce food availability.
  • Limited Infrastructure: India still lacks large-scale facilities to produce and distribute biodiesel.
  • Seasonal Availability: Crop-based raw material supply is seasonal and dependent on monsoons.

India’s Initiatives

  • India launched the Biofuel Policy 2018, aiming to blend 5% biodiesel in diesel by 2030.
  • Focus on non-edible oil plants like Jatropha, grown on wastelands, is encouraged to avoid competition with food crops.

Side Topic: Jatropha Plant

  • Jatropha is a drought-resistant shrub that has gained attention in recent years for its potential as a biofuel crop, especially in countries like India.
  • Its seeds contain up to 30–40% oil, which can be converted into biodiesel
  • It is a hardy, non-edible plant that grows well on wastelands and marginal lands

Global Bio Fuel Alliance

  • Launched at the G20 Summit (held in India in 2023)
  • Led by India, the USA, and Brazil
  • Launched with nine initiating members–India, the US, Brazil, Argentina, Bangladesh, Italy, Mauritius, South Africa, and the United Arab Emirates. Now includes 29 countries & 14 international organisations
  • Aim: Promote global trade, cooperation, and sustainable use of biofuels

Can Biofuels Replace Fossil Fuels?

The search for alternatives to fossil fuels has brought biofuels into global focus due to their renewable nature and potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. However, the question remains: Can biofuels truly replace fossil fuels in a sustainable, equitable, and scalable manner?

Arguments in Favour of Biofuels as a Replacement:

  1. Renewable and Cleaner: Biofuels like bioethanol and biodiesel are derived from organic materials and are biodegradable and reduce net carbon emissions, especially in the case of sugarcane-based ethanol
  2. Energy Security: Biofuels offer countries like India a chance to reduce dependency on imported oil, thus improving energy security and supporting rural economic development through energy crop cultivation.
  3. Use of Waste Biomass (2nd Generation Biofuels): These involve converting agricultural waste like stalks, husks, and bagasse into biofuel, offering a sustainable solution without compromising food security.

Challenges and Limitations of Biofuels:

  1. Food vs Fuel Dilemma (1st Gen Biofuels): Using food crops like sugarcane, corn, and rice for fuel diverts resources away from food, worsening hunger and disproportionately impacting low- and middle-income populations, especially women and children.
  2. Ecological Damage:
    • Deforestation for energy crop cultivation (e.g., in the Amazon) disrupts ecosystems.
    • Monoculture practices reduce biodiversity.
    • Water-intensive crops strain freshwater supplies in already water-scarce regions.
  3. Socioeconomic Impact: Biofuel expansion has led to the displacement of indigenous communities and worsened climate variability in some regions.

While biofuels have a role to play in reducing fossil fuel use, they cannot fully replace fossil fuels without addressing serious challenges related to food security, ecology, emissions, and social justice. Thus, biofuels should be part of a broader energy transition strategy that includes solar, wind, hydrogen, and energy efficiency measures.

Climate Change Frameworks  – Kyoto Protocol and Paris Climate Deal

by

Last Updated: July 2025

Climate Change Frameworks  – Kyoto Protocol and Paris Climate Deal

This article deals with ‘Climate Change Frameworks  – Kyoto Protocol and Paris Climate Deal – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Environment’, an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles on Science and technology, you can click here.

India’s Stand on Climate Change

Stand 1: India wants developed countries to reduce their carbon space for developing countries to grow. For example, India’s per capita carbon emissions are one-third of the global average. Hence, developed countries should reduce their carbon emissions so that developing countries can grow. 

Stand 2: Since India’s contribution to the world’s cumulative emissions is less than 4%, it should be provided a greater share of the remaining carbon budget. Simultaneously, developed countries should strive towards sustainable consumption, acknowledging their historical consumption of carbon budget. 

Part 1: Kyoto Protocol

Climate Change Frameworks  - Kyoto Protocol and Paris Climate Deal

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

UNFCCC is an inter-governmental treaty that opened for signature at the ‘Rio Earth Summit’ in 1992 and entered into force in 1994.

Objectives of UNFCCC

  1. Stabilize the GHG concentration in the atmosphere to prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with climate systems.
  2. Ensure global food production is not threatened.
  3. Enable sustainable economic development.

Operating Mechanism of UNFCCC

  1. Conference of Parties (COP): All the countries that are parties to the convention meet every year at the Conference of Parties, which acts as the supreme decision-making body of the convention.
  2. Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (CMP): It oversees the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol.
  3. Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement(CMA): It oversees the implementation of the Paris Agreement. 

What is Kyoto Protocol?

  • The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty established as a result of the 3rd Conference of the Parties (CoP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) held in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997. 
  • Its primary objective is to address the issue of global warming by setting specific targets for industrialized nations to reduce their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
  • The protocol sets a target for industrialized countries to collectively reduce their GHG emissions by approximately 5.2% below the levels recorded in 1990.
  • Kyoto Protocol came into force after the required number of Annex 1 Countries (industrialized nations) ratified it. This milestone was achieved in 2008.
  • The Kyoto Protocol’s first commitment period was from 2008 to 2012. 

Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR)

  • CBDR suggests that while all nations share the common responsibility to reduce GHG emissions, there should be a distinction in the burden between developed and developing countries.
  • Developed nations, being historical culprits, bear a greater responsibility for emission reduction.
  • The Kyoto Protocol follows this principle.

Annex under Kyoto Protocol

Annex refers to additional information provided at the end of a book or treaty.

Annex under Kyoto Protocol
Annex A Gases under Kyoto Protocol

Side Topic: More about GHGs

GasGlobal Warming PotentialLifetime yrsRelative Contribution to Global Warming
CO2150-20060%
CH4211220%
Nitrous oxide3101206%
HFCs140-12001-27014%
PFCs6500-9200800-50,000Rank 5
SF623,9003200Rank 6

How the Kyoto Protocol really works

  • Under the Kyoto Protocol, every Annex 1 country was given a specific number of Kyoto Units called Target Quota. E.g. in 2009, Australia was given approximately 3 Billion Kyoto units (1 Kyoto Unit= 1 ton of CO2) 
  • If Australia limits their emissions within the target range, everything is well & good. The approach of the Australian government should be to take all steps so that they don’t cross the quota. E.g.
    • They can promote Solar energy and wind energy. 
    • Increase tax on polluting vehicles and industry.
    • Make strict Anti-pollution laws. 
  • But if the country fails to limit GHG emissions within Target Quota, then the country will have to buy additional units from another country. Kyoto Protocol has 3 mechanisms for this.
How the Kyoto Protocol really works

#1 Emission Trading

  • Each Annex 1 country gives a fixed quota to companies. 
    • Suppose an Iron factory was given 10 tons of GHG. 
    • Tyre company was also given 10 tons of GHG.
  • If the tyre company owner increases the efficiency and uses less than given Kyoto Units, he will have some spare quota. Suppose the Iron Company owner needs more Quotas due to an increase in demand or any other factor. In this case, the Iron company owner can purchase the spare quota of the Tyre company. It is called Emission trading.
  • Countries in Annex 1 can also do the same thing at national level if they think that they are breaching the limits.
Emission Trading

#2 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)

  • Suppose an Annex 1 country like the UK is given a quota of 500 units but emits 520 units of GHG. In this case, the UK can finance a solar or wind project in India or any other non-annex country. They will get a certificate that it led to a reduction of 20 units of GHG to remain within their limit.
  • Companies in Annex 1 country can also do the same thing if that company is breaching their limit. 

#3 Joint Implementation (JI)

  • JI operates similarly to CDM but involves Annex 1 countries conducting emission reduction projects in other Annex 1 countries.
  • In this context, the UK could initiate a beneficial project in another Annex 1 country, such as Australia, to offset excess emissions and earn certified emission reduction credits.

Time Frame

1992Earth Summit was held in Rio de Janeiro, and UNFCCC came into being.
1997Kyoto Protocol signed, setting emission reduction targets for Annex 1 countries.
2008The Kyoto Protocol came into force, but the US, the largest polluter at the time, did not ratify it (alleging that it would impact its economic interests negatively since China and India were not obliged to reduce their emissions)
2009The Copenhagen Accord was signed at CoP-15, held in Copenhagen, where it was agreed that all countries (including developing countries) should pledge to reduce GHG emissions. However, all of the pledges made under the Copenhagen Accord were voluntary.
2011Canada becomes the first country to quit the Kyoto Protocol, arguing its flaws and the exclusion of major emitters like the USA and China.
2015COP21 in Paris delivers the Paris Agreement as successor to the Kyoto Protocol.
4 Nov 2016Paris agreement entered into force, 30 days after being ratified by at least 55 countries representing 55% of global greenhouse gas emissions.

Part 2: Paris Climate Agreement

The Kyoto Protocol, established in 1997, marked the initial step in creating a framework for binding emission reduction commitments primarily for developed nations. However, it faced significant challenges, including the absence of major emitters like the United States and China.

The limitations of the Kyoto Protocol underscored the need for a more inclusive and flexible approach that could garner global participation. The Paris Climate Agreement, adopted in 2015 during the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP21), emerged as the successor to the Kyoto Protocol.

Outcomes of Paris Climate 

Limit Global Warming

  • Under the Paris Climate Agreement, 196 nations pledged to collaborate in efforts to restrict global warming, aiming to cap temperature increases at 2 degrees Celsius, with a stretch goal of keeping below 1.5 C (Compromise between Developed nations demanding 2 degrees & Small Island nations demanding 1.5 degrees Celsius).

Emission Cuts

  • Emission Cuts: There is no distinction between Developed & Developing nations wrt emission cuts. Every nation has to cut emissions based on its capability, known as its Nationally Determined Contributions. But there are no penalties for failing to achieve these targets
  • Global Stocktake (Pledge Review):  ‘Global Stocktake’ is a ‘five-yearly review’ of a country’s climate change actions. The first global stocktake happened in 2023.
  • Principle of Progression: Revised targets (after a period of 5 years) can’t be less than targets already submitted. At each round of review, there is an expectation of higher ambitions. 

Finance 

  • Financial Commitment: Developed countries pledged to provide $100 billion annually from 2020 to address climate change issues. Developed countries have succeeded in inserting a provision asking developing countries to also raise financial resources, even as a voluntary effort.
  • Balanced Allocation: Allocation of finances has to be balanced between the mitigation & adaptation needs of developing countries

Regarding Concept of Common But Differentiated Responsibility

  • CBDR Diluted: There is no differentiation between developed and developing nations regarding emission reductions, although distinctions remain in terms of finance and capacity building. Each nation is required to reduce emissions based on its capabilities, indicating a dilution of the CBDR principle. Although CBDR still figures, historical responsibility finds no mention in the text. 

Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC)

  • Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) is each country’s self-declared plan to cut greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and adapt to climate change. It follows a bottom-up approach, shaped by national circumstances and capacity, aiming collectively to limit warming to 1.5–2°C above pre-industrial levels.
  • NDCs are submitted before ratifying the Paris Agreement; once ratified, they become NDCs (Nationally Determined Contributions) and are legally binding under international law.
  • They are applied equally to both developed and developing countries when ratified.

UNFCCC Ratcheting Mechanism

  • NDCs must be submitted and updated every 5 years, as per the Paris Agreement’s ratchet mechanism
  • In line with this, countries were urged to strengthen their 2030 targets by 2022. India responded by submitting its updated NDC in August 2022

India’s NDC

Drawing inspiration from Gandhi—”Earth provides enough for everyone’s need, not for everyone’s greed”—India’s climate targets have grown more ambitious:

CommitmentOriginal INDC 2015Updated NDC 2022
Emission Intensity33–35% reduction (2005–2030)45% reduction (2005–2030)
Non-fossil Energy Share40% of power capacity50% of installed capacity by 2030
Carbon Sink2.5–3 billion t CO₂ eqSame

Additional qualitative commitments include promoting sustainable lifestyles, climate resilience in vulnerable sectors, and financing mechanisms.

As of July 2025, more than 50% of India’s electricity generation capacity comes from non-fossil fuel sources. Hence, India has achieved commitment #2 five years ahead of schedule.

Failures of the Paris Deal

  • Commitments are voluntary, lack penalties for non-compliance, and set no clear trajectory for limiting global warming below 2 degrees Celsius.
  • The Paris Deal is not legally binding in its entirety, diminishing its effectiveness in ensuring adherence to commitments.
  • The commitments of rich countries are not enough to meet their historical obligations. US comes in for particular blame (26-28% than 2005 levels) 
  • The Paris Agreement calls for decarbonization but doesn’t distinguish between fossil carbon and dynamic forest carbon. Fossil carbon is generally static, whereas trees & forest carbon, which is in an active carbon pool (atmosphere & biosphere), can be easily released through activities such as forest fires 
  • The promise of contributing $100 bn annually to the Green Climate Fund by developed countries is enormously short of what is needed.

Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)

  • The European Union (EU) realized a problem: its domestic industries had to follow strict carbon emission rules under the Emissions Trading System (ETS). But imported goods—say, steel from India or cement from China—are not held to the same standards. This created what’s called “carbon leakage”: industries moved production to countries with looser rules to escape EU climate costs.
Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)
  • To address this issue, the EU introduced CBAM
    • It proposes a carbon tax on imports of carbon-intensive goods like steel, cement, aluminium, fertilisers, and electricity starting from 2026.
    • Importers in the EU will have to equal to the amount of carbon emissions embedded in the goods they bring in. If the product has already been taxed for carbon in the country of origin, that amount will be deducted.
    • The main idea is to ensure that foreign manufacturers do not get an unfair advantage over EU companies.
  • The EU argues this levels the playing field.
  • Concerns of Developing Countries like India:
    • Violates “Common But Differentiated Responsibilities” under the Paris Agreement.
    • Seen as a trade barrier that hurts exports from developing nations.
    • Unilateral in nature – introduced without global consensus.

Global Stocktake

  • The Global Stocktake (GST) is a formal process under the Paris Agreement to assess whether the world is on track to meet its climate goals, especially the goal of limiting global warming to well below 2°C, preferably 1.5°C.
  • It was agreed in the Paris Agreement (2015) that such a review would take place every 5 years, with the first-ever stocktake conducted in 2023 during the COP28 in UAE.
  • The process looks at the collective progress of all countries (not individual country performance) and aims to inform future Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).

Key Highlights of the 2023 Global Stocktake

  • The report confirmed that the world is currently off track to meet the Paris climate targets.
  • To limit warming to 1.5°C, global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions must be reduced by 43% by 2030, compared to 2019 levels.

Major Developments

COP / EventYear & LocationMajor Outcomes / Highlights
COP21 (Paris)2015, ParisParis Agreement adopted — goal to limit warming to well below 2°C, pursue 1.5°C; NDCs introduced; universal participation.
COP22 (Marrakesh)2016, MoroccoMarrakech Action Proclamation to implement Paris Agreement; established “Marrakech Partnership” for climate action.
COP23 (Bonn)2017, Germany (Fiji presided)Fiji-led COP; advancement on rulebook development; focus on vulnerable countries and adaptation.
COP24 (Katowice)2018, PolandKatowice Climate Package adopted — detailed rulebook for Paris Agreement operationalisation; transparency guidelines agreed.
COP25 (Madrid)2019, SpainDelayed decisions on carbon markets (Article 6); calls for increased ambition; discussions on loss & damage finance.
COVID-19 Pandemic Impact2020COP26 postponed to 2021; many countries re-assessed climate ambitions.
COP26 (Glasgow)2021, UKGlasgow Climate Pact: phase down coal, boost finance to developing countries, methane reduction pledge, Article 6 carbon market rules agreed.
U.S. Rejoins Paris Agreement2021U.S. formally rejoins Paris Agreement, submitting updated NDC with higher targets.
COP27 (Sharm El-Sheikh)2022, EgyptEstablished loss and damage fund for vulnerable countries; focus on adaptation finance; continued dialogue on mitigation.
COP28 (Dubai)2023First Global Stocktake to assess collective progress; called for urgent action to close gaps in emissions reductions.
COP29 (Baku)2024, Azerbaijan– New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG) on climate finance: mobilize $1.3 trillion/year by 2035, immediate $300B/year commitment.
– Operationalization of Article 6.4 carbon market mechanism under UN oversight.
– Loss & Damage Fund operationalized.
– Launch of “Baku Dialogue on Water for Climate Action.”

Numismatics  (UPSC Notes – Ancient History)

by

Last Updated: July 2025 (Numismatics  (UPSC Notes – Ancient History))

Numismatics  (UPSC Notes – Ancient History)

This article deals with ‘Numismatics  (UPSC Notes – Ancient History)’ . This is part of our series on ‘Ancient History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here.

Relevance to UPSC Syllabus

  • Prelims: Ancient History – factual details like coin types, dynasties, symbols, trade links.
  • GS Paper I – Mains:
    • Art & Culture – artistic quality of coins (Gupta coins = golden age of numismatics).
    • Ancient Indian History – political, social, economic, and religious developments.
  • Essay or Optional History Paper: Coins as material evidence to build historical narratives.

In this article, we will study the overview and basic concepts related to Numismatics in Ancient India, including the origin, evolution, and significance of coinage. The detailed analysis of coinage systems of individual dynasties—such as the Mauryas, Satavahanas, Kushanas, Guptas, and others—will be covered separately in their respective articles.

Introduction

  • Numismatics is the study of coins.
  • Coins are more than just currency, they are tiny time capsules offering deep insights into our history, politics, economy, religion, and art. Numismatics turns coins into storytellers.
  • Coins weren’t always around. So let’s begin at the beginning—when India had no coins at all.

Indian Coinage history

1. The Pre-Coin Era: Barter & Beginnings

1.1 Stone Age

  • No coins or currency.
  • Exchange of goods occurred via barter system.

1.2 Chalcolithic Cultures (Copper Age)

  • Continued reliance on barter trade.

1.3 Harappan Civilization (~2600–1900 BCE)

  • Had extensive trade, including overseas (Mesopotamia), but no coinage.
  • Trade was still barter-based, possibly aided by weighing stones and seals.

1.4 Vedic Period (1500–600 BCE)

  • Early Vedic texts like the Rigveda mention Nishka and Nishka-Griva—gold ornaments—but these cannot be equated with coins.

2. Birth of Coinage: 6th Century BCE

The emergence of states (Mahajanapadas) and urban centres in the 6th century BCE created the need for a standard medium of exchange—thus began Indian coinage.

3. Evolution of Indian Coins

3.1 Punch-Marked Coins (from 6th Century BCE)

  • These were the first coins used in India.
  • Mostly made of silver, but a few were of copper.
  • The metal was cut into pieces, and then different symbols were stamped (punched) onto them using tools.
Punch-Marked Coins
  • These coins had no writing or names—only symbols like sun, animals, or trees.
  • They are called Karshapanas in old Buddhist texts written in Pali.
  • These coins were used widely in North India, and in some parts of South India, they were used for an even longer time.

3.2 Uninscribed Cast Coins

  • These came soon after punch-marked coins.
  • The method changed: instead of cutting and punching, metal was melted and poured into clay or metal moulds to make the coins.
  • These coins were also without writing—they had shapes or symbols, but no names or words.
  • Found in most parts of India, except the deep South.
Uninscribed Cast Coins

3.3 Die-Struck Coins (from 2nd Century BCE)

  • This was a new and advanced way of making coins.
  • Metal pieces were pressed (struck) using dies to create clear designs and images on both sides of the coin.

Indo-Greek Coins

  • These were the first coins made using the die-struck method in India.
  • Usually round and made of silver.
  • One side (front) had the portrait (face) of the king, and the other side (back) had religious or cultural symbols.
  • These coins were the first to have writing—they included the king’s name and titles.
  • Showed realistic artwork, with clear details on the king’s face and dress.
Indo-Greek Coins

Kushana Coins (1st to 4th Century CE)

  • The Kushana kings were the first in India to issue gold coins on a large scale.
  • They also made silver and big copper coins.
  • One side of the coin had the image, name, and title of the king.
  • The other side showed gods and goddesses from many religions—Hindu, Buddhist, Greek, and Zoroastrian. This tells us that India was a religiously diverse land, and people followed different faiths peacefully.
  • The large number of coins shows there was a strong money-based economy, and India had active trade with other regions.
Kushana Coins

Satavahana, Western Kshatrapa, and Roman Coins in the Deccan (Central-South India)

  • Satavahana coins had local symbols, and some even had the picture of a ship, which shows that sea trade was important in the Deccan region.
  • Western Kshatrapa coins also followed the die-struck method and had bilingual inscriptions.
  • Roman coins were found in large numbers in South India. These were not made in India but came here through foreign trade, especially with the Roman Empire. This proves that India had active trade relations with Europe, even 2000 years ago.
Roman Coins in the Deccan

Imperial Gupta Coins (4th to 6th Century CE)

  • The Guptas issued some of the most beautiful gold coins in Indian history.
  • These coins had images of kings performing rituals, especially the Ashvamedha Yajna (horse sacrifice).
  • They also had mythological scenes, such as gods and goddesses.
  • The coins had clear writing in Sanskrit, showing that the language and script had become standardized.
  • Gupta coins are often called the golden age of Indian numismatics because of their beauty and artistic value.
Imperial Gupta Coins

Coins as Source of History

Coins may look small and ordinary, but they tell us a lot about ancient India. Historians treat coins like puzzle pieces that help build the picture of our past.

Language and Script

  • The writing on coins helps us understand which languages and scripts were used during that time. For example, Greek, Brahmi, and Kharosthi scripts appear on Indo-Greek coins.
  • Coins help us track the development of scripts like Brahmi into later Indian languages.

Economy and Trade

  • The number and spread of coins show how much trade happened in that period. For example, a large number of Kushana gold coins tells us that trade was booming.
  • Satavahana coins with pictures of ships prove that people were doing sea trade, especially in the Deccan region.
  • Roman coins found in India show that India had strong trade links with the Roman Empire.

Archaeology and Dating

  • When archaeologists find coins while digging, they use them to determine the age of the layers (strata) where they are found.

Political History and Empire Boundaries

  • Coins tell us about kings and rulers—even those who are not mentioned in texts. For example, many Indo-Greek kings are known only through their coins.
  • Coins also show the area of circulation, which helps us guess the size of their kingdom. But we have to be careful—since coins travel through trade, they can reach places beyond the king’s control.

Type of Government (Polity)

  • Some coins mention the word “Gana”, which means republic or group. For example, Yaudheya and Malava coins mention “Gana”, so historians believe these were republican states, not monarchies.
  • Some coins are named after cities like Ujjayini or Taxila.This shows that certain cities had power to issue coins, meaning they might have had some local self-governance.

Biographical Details

  • Sometimes coins give us personal details about rulers that we don’t find in texts.
  • For example:
    • Chandragupta I’s marriage to a Lichchhavi princess is known only through a commemorative coin.
    • Samudragupta and Kumaragupta I issued coins showing them performing the Ashvamedha Yajna (horse sacrifice)—telling us about their ritual practices and power.

Religious Beliefs and Practices

  • Many coins show deities (gods and goddesses). This helps us understand what religion the king followed and what religious symbols were popular at that time.
  • For example:
    • Kushana coins show gods from Hinduism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, and Greek mythology.
    • Indo-Greek king Agathocles issued coins showing Krishna and Balarama, proving that the cult of these deities was active in that region (present-day Afghanistan) in the 2nd century BCE.

Military Insights

  • Some coins show kings with weapons, bows, or in battle poses. This helps us understand how rulers wanted to project themselves as strong warriors or military leaders.
  • For example, some Gupta coins show Samudragupta playing the Veena (symbol of culture) while others show him performing rituals and holding weapons—showing a balanced image of a king.

Neolithic Age (UPSC Notes – Ancient History)

by

Last Update: July 2025 (Neolithic Age (UPSC Notes – Ancient History))

Neolithic Age (UPSC Notes – Ancient History)

This article deals with ‘Neolithic Age (UPSC Notes – Ancient History)’ . This is part of our series on ‘Ancient History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here.

Introduction

  • The Neolithic Age, or New Stone Age, marks a major turning point in human history. It was a time when humans transitioned from hunting and gathering to agriculture and settlement, leading to the rise of villages, crafts, pottery, and eventually civilizations.
  • Early evidence of Neolithic culture is found in the Fertile Crescent region of Egypt and Mesopotamia, the Indus region, the Ganges valley of India, and China.
  • Relative Chronology: In the Indian Subcontinent, Neolithic period can be placed between 5,000 BCE to 1,500 BCE.
    • The oldest Neolithic cultures are found in the north-western part dating c. 7000 BCE. One of the most important site is Mehrgarh.
    • The Neolithic sites of the central India can be traced back to 4000 to 5000 BC.
    • In the other parts like Northern Neolithic (Kashmir), Eastern Neolithic (Assam, Bihar) and Southern Neolithic, it can be traced back to 2500 to 1500 BC.
  • Neolithic Age in India is generally associated with:
    • Food production
    • Pottery
    • Sedentary village life

Neolithic Revolution

The Neolithic Revolution refers to the profound changes brought about by the shift from a nomadic and hunter-gatherer lifestyle to a settled and agricultural way of life.

Neolithic Age (UPSC Notes - Ancient History)

Key developments:

  • Domestication of plants (like wheat, barley, rice) and animals (like cattle, sheep, goats).
  • Surplus food allowed permanent settlement.
  • Pottery was invented to store grain and water.
  • Specialized professions (like artisans, traders) emerged.
  • Art and decoration flourished (e.g., figurines, decorated pots)

This period set the foundation for all future human civilizations.

Tools Associated

  • Neolithic tools were more advanced than those of the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods.
  • Grinding and polishing of tools started. Grounded and polished tools are known as Celts.
  • Types of tools included
    • Agricultural Tools: Sickles, hoes, and ploughs for farming.
    • Grinding Tools: Mortars and pestles for processing grains.
    • Weapons: Axes, spears, and arrows for hunting and protection.

Climate

  • The Neolithic period coincided with the Holocene epoch, characterized by a relatively stable and warm climate.

Subsistence Pattern

  • Domestication of Plants and Animals: The Neolithic Age marked the beginning of agriculture in India, with the domestication of plants and animals.
  • Hunting and Gathering Continued: While agriculture became dominant, hunting, gathering, and fishing continued as supplementary subsistence activities.

Side Topic: What is Domestication

  • Domestication can happen in both plants and animals.
  • Plant collection means gathering wild grains and eating them all. Plant domestication begins when some grains are saved and planted for the next season.
  • Animal keeping is when people capture and keep wild animals. Animal domestication happens when animals are bred and raised by humans under controlled conditions for use or profit.

Settlement Patterns

  • Permanent Habitations: People built permanent houses using materials like mud bricks, wood, and stone.
  • Rural Settlements: The Neolithic Age saw the emergence of rural settlements, which later evolved into urban centers during the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages.

Important Neolithic Cultures

The Neolithic cultures of India are divided into various regional cultures and they flourished in different time periods

Important Neolithic Cultures

1. North-Western India

  • The earliest evidence of the domestication of plants and animals is found in North-Western India.
  • Important Neolithic Sites include  Mehrgarh,  Sarai Khola, Rana Ghundai, and Jalilpur (all in Pakistan now)
  • The site of Mehrgarh (located in the Bolan Valley of Baluchistan) is the most important as
    • The earliest evidence of Neolithic times dating c. 7000 BCE comes from this site.
    • Evidence suggests that cattle, sheep and goats were domesticated, and wheat and barley were cultivated. 
    • Pottery (both handmade and wheel made) was used.
    • Beadmaking was practiced. Beads were made from semi-precious stones such as lapis lazuli, turquoise, and agate, as well as of terracotta and shell.
    • Evidence of Lapis Lazuli, a semi-precious stone not found locally, points toward presence of trade.
    • People buried the dead and grave goods such as ornaments have been found.

2. Kashmir

  • Neolithic culture of Kashmir was contemporary to the Indus Valley Civilization.
  • The sites include Burzahom, Gufkral and Pampora which lies in the Karewa zone.
  • Most important site is Burzahom with following characteristics
    • Pit Houses: People lived in Pit Houses below the earth to escape the cold weather.
    • Domestication: Sheep and goats were domesticated, and plants were cultivated.
    • Trade with Harappans: They traded with Harappans.
    • Pottery: Mostly, handmade pottery was used.
    • Tools: Wide variety of stone and bone tools were used including perforated ‘harvesters.’
    • Burials: Humans were sometimes buried with animals such as deer, leopard, sheep, goat etc. An interesting find is the dog buried with humans suggesting dog might have been buried with his master.

3. Ganga Valley and Central India

  • Neolithic Cultures of Ganga Valley and Central India are found at  Lehuradeva, Chopani Mando, Mahagara and Damdama
  • Important characteristics of Neolithic sites in Ganga Valley and Central India include
    • Evidence of plant and animal domestication.
    • Early evidence of rice cultivation is also found.
    • Pottery with cord impression was used.

4. South India

  • Important Neolithic sites in South India include
    • Karnataka: Brahmagiri, Maski, Piklihal and Hallur 
    • Andhra Pradesh: Utnur, Nagarjunakonda and Ramapuram 
    • Tamil Nadu: Paiyyampalli 
  • Important feature of Neolithic sites in South India include ash mounds in the centre with settlements around them. Studies have revealed that ash is of burnt cow dung (but the exact function remains unknown).

5. Other

  • Kucha (Odisha), Sarutaru, Daojali Hading, and Marakdola (Assam)  show early Neolithic settlements in the East and North-East India.

Jainism (Ancient History-UPSC Notes)

by

Last Updated: July 2025 (Jainism (Ancient History-UPSC Notes))

Jainism (Ancient History-UPSC Notes)

Jainism (Ancient History-UPSC Notes)

This article deals with ‘Jainism (Ancient History-UPSC Notes)’ . This is part of our series on ‘Ancient History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here.

Introduction

Jainism, one of the oldest philosophical and religious traditions of India, offers a rich and deeply ethical worldview grounded in non-violence, self-realization, and the pursuit of liberation (moksha). For UPSC aspirants, understanding Jainism is crucial, particularly for the Prelims under Ancient and Medieval History, and for Mains under Indian Philosophy, Society, and Religion.

Mahavira: Life and Legacies

Timeline of Jainism

In c. 300 BCE, the Jaina community was split into two main sects i.e. Digambara (“sky-clad”) and Shvetambara (“white-clad”). Both sects developed different hagiographies (life stories) of Mahavira. They agree on some aspects but differ on others.

Birth and Early Life

  • Year: 599 BCE (agreed by both sects)
  • Place: Kundagrama, near Vaishali (capital of Videha)
  • Father: Siddhartha – Chief of the Jnatri clan
  • Mother: Trishala – Sister of the king of Videha
  • Shvetambara version: Mahavira was originally conceived by a Brahmana woman named Devananda, but Indra (Shakra) transferred the embryo to Trishala’s womb, because a Brahman woman or one from low family was not worthy of giving birth to future Tirathankara . The significance lies in the interpretation, not the story itself.

Renunciation

Both sects have their own versions

  • Shvetambara:
    • He had extraordinary concern for ahimsa even before his birth. Hence, he laid absolutely still in Trishala’s womb so as to not cause her any pain & discomfort
    • He realised that how easy it is to cause parents pain & anxiety, Vardhamana vowed  there and then not to renounce world as long as his parents are alive
    • He renounced when he was aged 30 after his parents death 
  • Digambara:
    • Renounced the world at 30 while his parents were still alive, but with their permission.

Marriage

Both sects have differences

  • Shvetambara: Married Yashoda and had a daughter, Priyadarshana.
  • Digambara: Never married.

Enlightenment

Both sects agree on the Enlightenment.

  • He practiced severe austerities for 12 years.
  • Attained Kevalajnana (infinite knowledge) near Jambhikagrama, on the banks of the Rijupalika river.

Post-Enlightenment Life

Both sects have differences here

  • Digambara:
    • Mahavira freed from defects of ordinary human existence such as hunger, thirst, sleep & disease. He no longer engaged in mundane activities & sat fixed
    • Task of teaching was that of Gandharas (chief disciples ) . First disciples were Brahmin named Indrabhuti Gautama  & his two brothers. Hence, sangha was created & later it expanded
  • Shvetambara:
    • Mahavira actively travelled and taught his doctrine himself.

Death

  • Both traditions agree that he died at Pava/Papapuri (near modern-day Patna) at the age of 72 in 527 BCE.
  • This marks the start of the Vira-nirvana Era (used as a calendar by Jainas).

Jain Councils: Codifying the Faith

The evolution of Jainism was not just spiritual but also institutional. Key efforts to preserve and organize the vast oral teachings of Jainism culminated in two major Jain councils, each marking a turning point in the development of the religion’s doctrinal framework.

First Jain Council (c. 300 BCE) – Pataliputra

  • Venue: Pataliputra (modern-day Patna, Bihar)
  • Presided by: Sthulabhadra, a senior monk and contemporary of Bhadrabahu
  • Royal Patronage: Likely convened under the auspices of Chandragupta Maurya, who had embraced Jainism late in life under Bhadrabahu’s influence

The council was held in the aftermath of a devastating famine that had caused a major migration of monks to southern India. When the monastic community regrouped, there were concerns about the dilution of teachings. As a response, Sthulabhadra and his associates compiled the Jaina canon into 12 Angas (primary sections). However, this codification was accepted only by the Shvetambara sect. The Digambaras did not recognize it, maintaining that the original teachings were lost during the migration and famine.

Second Jain Council (c. 512 CE) – Vallabhi

  • Venue: Vallabhi (in present-day Gujarat)
  • Presided by: Devardhigani Kshemasramana, a prominent monk of the Shvetambara sect
  • Royal Patronage: Not clearly documented, though it likely had the support of regional monarchs of western India

This council was exclusively Shvetambara and was called to further compile and preserve Jain scriptures that were at risk of being forgotten. The existing canon was reaffirmed, and additional texts, known as Upangas (secondary texts), were appended to the main corpus. These texts offered interpretations, narratives, and commentaries crucial for ritual and philosophical understanding.

Jainism Philosophy

Jaina Doctrine is much older than Buddhist Doctrine (but difficult to ascertain exact dates). Buddha & Mahavira were contemporaries & there are similarities in some of their teachings e.g. rejection of authority of Vedas , emphasis on renunciation & human efforts to attain salvation, establishment of monastic order for men & women.

Pancha Mahavratas

  • Mahavira accepted most of the religious doctrines laid down by Parsvanatha. However, he made some alterations and additions to them. The five doctrines of Jainism (five vows), known as Panchamahavratas, are for the monks.
  • 4 doctrines advocated by Parsvanatha
    1. Ahimsa (Non-violence) – Absolute abstention from causing harm to any living being, in thought, word, or deed.
    2. Satya (Truthfulness) – Commitment to speaking the truth without distortion or deceit.
    3. Asteya (Non-stealing) – Refraining from taking anything that is not willingly given.
    4. Aparigraha (Non-possession) – Renunciation of material wealth and attachments.
  • 5th Doctrine: Mahavira retained all four of Parsvanatha’s vows but introduced a fifth and more rigorous vow:
    1. Brahmacharya (Celibacy or Chastity) – This went beyond mere control of desires and required complete celibacy, even in thought. For Mahavira, spiritual progress was impossible without strict restraint over sensory pleasures.
  • These were to be observed in their strictest form by Jaina monks and nuns, while lay followers were expected to follow Anuvratas—less intense versions of the same vows adapted to household life.

Doctrines of Truth and Perception

  • Anekantavada: Reality is manifold and complex. Different perspectives reveal different facets of truth.
  • Syadavada: No statement is absolutely true. Truth depends on context, condition, and perspective. Thus, every statement is qualified by the phrase “syat” (maybe).
  • Together, these doctrines reject absolutism and advocate for intellectual tolerance and philosophical humility.

Nature of the Jiva (Soul)

  • Jainism posits an infinite number of jivas (souls), each with inherent qualities:
    • Chaitanya (consciousness)
    • Sukha (bliss)
    • Virya (energy or power)
  • Jiva has no fixed shape and becomes co-extensive with the body it inhabits—like light filling a room.

Karma and Transmigration

  • Karma in Jainism is a physical substance—minute particles that attach to the jiva due to passions (kasayas) like anger, pride, deceit, and greed.
  • The most harmful karmas are mohaniya karmas (deluding karmas), which obscure the true nature of the jiva.
  • These karmas distort the soul’s inherent qualities and lead to bandha (bondage).

Liberation Process

  • Some jivas possess bhavyatva—an innate potential to attain liberation.
  • Liberation involves two main steps:
    • Samvara: Blocking the influx of new karma through right conduct and restraint.
    • Nirjara: Gradual shedding of existing karma through austerity and self-purification.
  • When all karmic particles are removed, the jiva attains moksha—a state of pure knowledge, bliss, and infinite energy.

Jina & Tirthankara

  • Jaina means follower of Jina which means victor, a person who has attained infinite knowledge and teaches others how to attain moksha, i.e., liberation from the cycle of rebirth.
  • Tirthankara is another word for jina and means ‘ford builder,’ i.e., one who builds fords that help people across the ocean of suffering.

Concept of Time

  • Time is cyclic and divided into two half-cycles:
    • Utsarpini: Ascending arc – a progressive phase where happiness increases.
    • Avasarpini: Descending arc – a regressive phase with increasing sorrow.
  • These half cycles last vast span of time & further divided into 6 stages known as Kalas
  • There are supposed to be 24 Tirathankaras in each half cycle to guide beings to liberation.

Jaina Tirathankaras in present half cycle

  • Present half cycle is Avasarpani ie regressive happiness period
  • First tirathankara of this age => Rishabadeva
  • Historicity of most of the tirathankaras are not easy to ascertain .
22NeminathaBelong to Saurahtra region of Gujarat
23ParshavanathaLived in Benaras
24Vardhamana aka Mahavira the most historically verifiable and prominent Tirthankara.

Jaina Discipline

  • Triratna (three gems) of Jainism consists of
    • Right Faith (Samyag-Darshana)
    • Right Knowledge (Samyag-Jnana)
    • Right Conduct (Samyag-Charitra)
  • Ahimsa is central to Jainism, and it is the first vow for renunciants as well as the laity. The extent to which Jainas carry this principle is connected to their idea of different forms of life.
    • Jaina doctrine recognizes four main forms of existence—of gods (deva), humans (manushya), hell beings (naraki), and animals and plants (tiryancha).
    • Animal and plant category is further sub-divided into smaller sub-categories on the basis of their sense faculties. The lowest category comprises the single-sense bodies (ekendriya).
  • Renunciant is supposed to take the observation of ahimsa to a higher level in his daily living.
    • Laypersons are supposed to avoid harming beings with two or more senses
    • But the renunciant is supposed to refrain from harming even single-sense beings (ekendriya) and element bodies (sthavara). Monks and nuns must not dig the earth, lest they kill earth bodies. They must avoid bathing, swimming, or walking in the rain, lest they kill water bodies. They must not light or extinguish flames, to avoid harming fire bodies. They must not fan themselves, to avoid harming air bodies
  • Of the differences in daily practices between Digambara and Shvetambara monks, the most important relates to clothing. Both traditions agree that Mahavira and his early disciples had moved around naked. The Digambaras follow that tradition strictly. According to them, a monk must renounce all possessions, including clothes. The only things a monk can carry are a small broom for brushing insects away before sitting down and a water gourd (kamandalu) for toilet hygiene. The Shvetambaras, on the other hand, wear white robes; they view nudity as a practice that had fallen into abeyance and was now unnecessary.
  • Jaina texts list six occupations—governing (asi), writing (mashi), farming (krishi), the arts (vidya), trade (vanijya), and the practice of various crafts (shilpa). Of these, governing and agriculture potentially involve injuring life (insects are destroyed while tilling the soil, while governing can involve warfare) and therefore tend to get ruled out. Trade is likely to cause less injury and it remains a preferred occupation for Jainas even today.

Social Composition of Jaina Sangha & Laity

Kshatriya Superiority

  • Jaina texts reflect the idea of Kshatriya varna’s superiority over others.
  • These texts criticize Brahmanas, their rituals, and their arrogance.

Caste Inclusivity and Practice

  • Theoretically, people from all varnas could enter the sangha. For instance, Uttaradhyayana Sutra narrates story of Harikeshiya—a monk from a Chandala background.
  • Notwithstanding the theoretical position, key disciples of Mahavira were Brahmanas.
  • Among laypersons, Jainism had strongest following among the urban merchant class.

Women in Jainism

  • Jaina texts, like Buddhist ones, depict women as obstacles to monk celibacy.
  • Despite this, a monastic order for women was established.
  • According to the Kalpa Sutra, when Mahavira died, there were 14,000 monks and 36,000 nuns, 159,000 laymen, and 318,000 laywomen.

The Digambara–Shvetambara Schism

  • The schism between the Digambara and Shvetambara sects is explained differently by both groups:
    • Digambara tradition: Attributes the split to a migration led by Bhadrabahu during a famine. The monks spent 12 years in the Karnataka region. Upon returning to Pataliputra, they found that local monks under Sthulabhadra had started wearing clothes and had codified the Jaina canon. The Digambaras rejected both practices, leading to the formation of the two sects. The Digambaras saw the Shvetambaras as having deviated from the original path.
    • Shvetambara tradition: Claims the Digambara sect originated from a monk named Shivabhuti, who revived the old practice of nudity on his own initiative. According to them, there was no forced migration or famine-related schism.
  • Modern historians regard both these explanations as doctrinal rather than historical. Archaeological and inscriptional evidence indicates a gradual transition among Jaina monks from complete nudity to wearing clothes.
  • The Council of Valabhi in the 5th century CE played a significant role in institutionalizing the division. This council, attended only by Shvetambara monks, formally compiled their canon. Digambara monks did not participate and rejected the textual compilation.
  • Geographical separation further cemented the division:
    • Shvetambaras became prominent in western India.
    • Digambaras established their stronghold in the south.
  • Over time, these differences evolved into distinct theological, ritualistic, and cultural practices.

Image Worship & Temple starts

  • Early Image Evidence: One of the earliest archaeological findings linked to Jainism is a naked and headless stone torso found at Lohanipur near Patna, believed to belong to the Maurya period. Scholars have tentatively identified it as a depiction of a Jaina Tirthankara, though this remains debated.
  • Inscriptions and References: The Hathigumpha inscription of King Kharavela (1st century BCE) refers to the retrieval of a Jina image, making it the earliest known epigraphic reference to image worship in Jainism.
  • Development of Temple Cult: From around 200 BCE onwards, Jaina image worship became more prominent. However, Jainism followed a distinct path in temple development compared to Buddhism. While Buddhist monastic orders held authority over shrines, Jainism saw the temple tradition grow outside the direct control of the monastic order. Instead, lay followers and wealthy patrons often managed temple activities and maintenance.
  • Sectarian Influence: Despite doctrinal differences between Digambaras and Shvetambaras, both sects embraced the practice of building temples and worshipping Tirthankara images, though with variations in iconography and ritual emphasis.

Jaina Literature

Jainism boasts a rich literary tradition that has played a crucial role in preserving its philosophy, history, and culture. Most of the early Jaina canonical texts were composed in Prakrit, and they were systematically compiled during the 6th century CE at the Valabhi Council in Gujarat.

Canonical Texts

  • The core canonical scriptures of Jainism are primarily written in an eastern dialect of Prakrit called Ardhamagadhi. – These include the
    • Angas, which form the principal sections of the Jaina canon
    • Upangas, which are supplementary texts expanding on various doctrines.

Non-Canonical Literature

Beyond the canonical works, Jainism developed a vast body of non-canonical literature composed partly in various Prakrit dialects—especially Maharashtri Prakrit—and partly in Sanskrit. This corpus includes:

  • Commentaries on canonical texts, such as the Churnis, which help explain and elaborate the original scriptures.
  • The Jaina Puranas, which are hagiographical narratives detailing the lives and deeds of the 24 Tirthankaras. A notable example is the Adi Purana, which chronicles the life of the first Tirthankara, Rishabhanatha (Adinatha).

However, Jaina texts arent studied as extensively as Buddhist sources.

Relevance of Jain Ideology in today’s World

The core principles of Jainism remain profoundly relevant in addressing the ethical, environmental, and social challenges of the modern era. Rooted in peace, restraint, and holistic understanding, Jain doctrines offer timeless guidance to bring about harmony in both individual lives and society at large.

  • Anekantavada (Multiplicity of Views): In an increasingly polarized and ideologically fragmented world, Anekantavada fosters intellectual tolerance and social harmony. It teaches that truth is multi-faceted, encouraging dialogue over dogma and helping societies embrace diversity of thought.
  • Ahimsa (Non-violence): In today’s world threatened by nuclear weapons, terrorism, and violent conflicts, the Jain emphasis on absolute non-violence promotes peace-building and conflict resolution. It also extends to environmental ethics and animal rights, making it deeply aligned with current global concerns.
  • Aparigraha (Non-possession/Non-attachment): Amid rising consumerism, climate crisis, and mental stress from material excess, this principle encourages minimalism and mindful consumption. It can serve as a philosophical tool to curb greed, reduce ecological footprints, and promote sustainable development.
  • Triratna (Three Jewels: Right Faith, Right Knowledge, Right Conduct): The Triratnas offer a universal framework for personal transformation. In a world facing ethical degradation, these can guide individuals—irrespective of gender or background—towards moral living, self-discipline, and liberation from societal subjugation.

Practice Questions

  1. Which language is primarily associated with the canonical Jaina texts compiled at the Council of Valabhi?
    a) Sanskrit
    b) Pali
    c) Ardha-Magadhi
    d) Prakrit Maharashtri
    Answer: c) Ardha-Magadhi
    (Explanation: The canonical Jaina scriptures were composed in Ardha-Magadhi, an eastern dialect of Prakrit.)
  2. The Jain canonical scriptures include which of the following?
    1. Angas
    2. Upangas
    3. Vedas
    4. Agamas
      Select the correct answer:
      a) 1 and 2 only
      b) 1, 2 and 4 only
      c) 2 and 3 only
      d) All of the above
      Answer: a) 1 and 2 only
      (Explanation: Jain canonical texts include Angas and Upangas. Agamas are Buddhist scriptures, and Vedas are Hindu texts.)
  3. Which council is credited with compiling and preserving the Jaina canonical texts?
    a) First Buddhist Council
    b) Council of Valabhi
    c) Fourth Buddhist Council
    d) Synod of Kalinga
    Answer: b) Council of Valabhi
    (Explanation: The Valabhi council in Gujarat during the 6th century CE compiled the Jain canonical texts.)
  4. Which of the following languages is NOT commonly found in Jaina non-canonical literature?
    a) Sanskrit
    b) Prakrit Maharashtri
    c) Tamil
    d) Pali
    Answer: d) Pali
    (Explanation: Jaina non-canonical texts are in Sanskrit, various Prakrit dialects, and regional languages like Kannada and Tamil, but not Pali which is primarily associated with Buddhist texts.)
  5. The ‘Adi Purana’ is a Jaina text that primarily deals with:
    a) The life of Mahavira
    b) The history of Jain monastic orders
    c) The life of the first Tirthankara, Rishabhanatha
    d) Rules of Jain temple worship
    Answer: c) The life of the first Tirthankara, Rishabhanatha

Pharma Sector (in India and World)

by

Last Updated: July 2025 (Pharma Sector (in India and World))

Pharma Sector (in India and World)

Pharma Sector (in India and World)

This article deals with the ‘Semi-Conductor Industry (in India and World).’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Link with UPSC Syllabus

  • Geography (GS1): Industrial location factors, resource distribution
  • Economy (GS3): Manufacturing, exports, employment
  • Sci-Tech (GS3): Biotech, IP, pharma innovation
  • International Relations (GS2): Health diplomacy, soft power

Introduction

Every morning, when millions of Indians swallow a pill for blood pressure, diabetes, or fever, they rarely stop to wonder—where was this medicine made? How did a factory in Baddi (Himachal) or Hyderabad (Telangana) become a global hub for life-saving drugs?

The answer lies in a complex interplay of geographical, economic, and policy factors that make India the ‘Pharmacy of the World’.

Why Do Pharma Industries Locate Where They Do?

1. Proximity to R&D 

  • Pharmaceutical manufacturing is science-intensive. R&D is crucial for developing new drugs, vaccines, and biosimilars.
  • For instance
    • Indian companies like Sun Pharma, Dr. Reddy’s, Biocon invest in in-house R&D, often in Hyderabad, Bengaluru, and Pune.
    • Switzerland (Basel) thrives due to investment in biotech and R&D (Novartis, Roche HQs).

2. Availability of Raw Materials and APIs

  • Pharmaceutical production requires a large number of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs) and chemical intermediates. Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs) are the “active” part of any medicine.
  • China’s Hebei and Jiangsu provinces dominate global API production due to cheap chemical inputs and scale.
  • Earlier, India imported ~70% of APIs, mostly from China. But now, India is shifting to self-reliance in API manufacturing, e.g.,:
    • Vizag (Andhra Pradesh) → API cluster under PLI scheme
    • Solan (Himachal Pradesh) → Bulk drug park

3. Availability of Skilled Manpower

  • Pharma requires chemists, biotechnologists, clinical researchers, and data analysts.
  • For instance
    • Boston (USA) and Cambridge (UK) excel due to presence of world-class universities (Harvard, MIT, Oxford).
    • India has 20% of the world’s pharma engineers, with institutes like NIPER, BITS Pilani, and IITs producing talent.

4. Transport and Export Facilities

  • Pharma requires:
    • Quick supply to hospitals, chemists
    • Cold chain for vaccines and sensitive drugs
    • Ports and airports for export
  • Preferred Zones:
    • Mumbai-Pune-Navi Mumbai belt – Access to JNPT port
    • Ahmedabad – Linked to Kandla port and roadways
    • New Jersey (USA) and Hamburg (Germany) have port access for global exports.

5. Regulatory Environment and Government Policy

  • Pharma industry is tightly regulated. Ease of approvals, IP laws, and export-import policies matter.
  • For Example
    • Ireland and Netherlands attract pharma MNCs due to low taxes and business-friendly laws.
    • Belgium is known for its rapid drug approval systems.
    • Baddi (Himachal) – low land cost + tax holidays
    • In India, schemes like Pharma PLI Scheme, Bulk Drug Parks and 100% FDI via Automatic Route are aimed at promoting pharma sector.

6. Cluster Effect

  • Presence of supporting industries like packaging, chemicals, logistics, and contract research creates economies of scale.
  • Examples include
    • Silicon Valley model applied to pharma in Boston and Basel.
    • Hyderabad Pharma City: World’s largest integrated pharma cluster under development.

7. Water and Power Requirements

  • Pharma plants require ultra-clean water and uninterrupted electricity for chemical processing, sterilization, and cleanroom operations.
  • Example:
    • Many API parks are located in coastal Andhra Pradesh (e.g., Vizag) due to water availability.
    • Singapore: Biopolis cluster provides reliable utilities with centralized wastewater treatment

8. Market Access & Proximity to Healthcare Hubs

  • Pharma industries tend to locate near urban health ecosystems to supply to hospitals, get real-world data, and conduct clinical trials.
  • Example:
    • Mumbai, Hyderabad, and Delhi-NCR — access to super-specialty hospitals, diagnostic labs, and testing infrastructure.
    • New Jersey/NYC corridor — world’s densest hospital-Pharma-R&D ecosystem

Global Pharma Industry

Global Pharma Industry

United States – World Leader

  • Presence of global pharma giants like Pfizer, Johnson & Johnson, Merck
  • Ivy League and top research universities (Harvard, MIT)
  • Strong IP protection and venture capital ecosystem
  • Note: The US leads in new drug discovery and biotech research, not just generics

Switzerland – Precision Pharma

  • Presence of global pharma giants like Novartis and Roche
  • Swiss pharma is highly innovation and research-intensive—often setting global standards.
  • Strict quality control and regulatory standards

Germany – Europe’s Pharma Powerhouse

  • Companies: Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim
  • Germany focuses on both bulk drug production and high-end medical research.

United Kingdom – Research and Exports

  • Companies: GlaxoSmithKline (GSK), AstraZeneca
  • Presence of Prestigious research institutions like Oxford
  • UK played a major role during COVID-19 with Oxford vaccine collaboration

China – Global Leader in Bulk Drugs

  • Dominates bulk drug and API manufacturing with large-scale, low-cost production
  • Backed by strong government support under the “Made in China 2025” initiative
  • Limitation: Still lags behind countries like the USA in original patent drug innovation

India – Generic Medicine Leader

  • Major hubs: Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Mumbai, Baddi, Sikkim, Vizag
  • Known as the “Pharmacy of the Global South”
  • Focus on generics, vaccines, and bulk drugs

India- Pharmacy of the Global South

India’s Position in Global Pharma

  • Third largest producer of pharmaceuticals by volume
  • Supplies over 60% of global demand for vaccines
  • Accounts for 20% of global generic drug exports
  • Major destinations: USA, Africa, EU
  • Pharma exports: $25+ billion annually
  • Employs over 3 million people (direct + indirect)

Pharma Industry Location in India

India is home to both global and domestic pharmaceutical giants such as Sun Pharma, Dr. Reddy’s, Cipla, Lupin, Biocon, Aurobindo Pharma, and Zydus Lifesciences. 

Region/CityHighlights
Hyderabad
(Telangana)		– Known as the Bulk Drug Capital of India.
– Also hosts R&D centres and global pharma companies like Dr. Reddy’s, Aurobindo, Divi’s, and Natco Pharma.
– Home to the upcoming Hyderabad Pharma City, world’s largest integrated pharma cluster.
Ahmedabad-Baroda
(Gujarat)		– Companies like Zydus, Cadila, and Torrent Pharma operate here. 
Mumbai-Pune Belt
(Maharashtra)		– Headquarters of several major companies like Cipla, Glenmark, and Lupin.
– Strategic location with access to ports and international airports for exports.
Baddi
(Himachal)		– Hosts the largest number of pharmaceutical units in India.
– Grew rapidly due to tax holidays and industrial incentives.
– Contract manufacturing of pharmaceuticals happen here.
Bengaluru
(Karnataka)		– Biotech and pharma R&D hub. Home to Biocon and multiple biotech startups. 
Visakhapatnam
(Andhra)		– Emerging API and bulk drug cluster.
– Hosts Ramky Pharma City and upcoming Bulk Drug Park under PLI scheme.
Sikkim– Hub for formulation plants due to tax exemptions. Many companies shifted facilities here in 2000s.
Indore, Nagpur
(Central India)		– New pharma SEZs and industrial parks coming up. 

Why Is India Called the “Pharmacy of the Global South”?

India is globally recognized as the “Pharmacy of the Global South” — a title earned through its high-volume, low-cost production of generic medicines, crucial for public health systems in developing countries.

  • Largest provider of generic drugs globally — exporting to over 200 countries, including Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia.
  • Supplies over 60% of global vaccine demand (e.g., via Serum Institute of India).
  • Plays a critical role in affordable access to life-saving medicines like antiretrovirals (HIV/AIDS), TB drugs, and malaria treatments.
  • Supported countries through initiatives like Vaccine Maitri during COVID-19.

India supplying low-cost drugs to developing countries (Africa, LATAM) improves its image as a “Vishwaguru” and strategic partner.

Side Topic: What Are Generic Drugs?

Generic drugs are bioequivalent versions of branded medicines whose patents have expired. They have the same dosage, safety, strength, quality, and efficacy as the original, but are:

  • Far cheaper
  • Made without repeating expensive R&D
  • Widely accepted under WHO and FDA standards

India’s pharma sector thrives on these, making healthcare accessible and affordable, especially in the Global South.

Government Initiatives to Promote Pharma Industry

1. Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme

  • Under the PLI Scheme, companies get financial incentives for increasing their production over a set base year. Higher production compared to previous years = more incentive.
  • In the pharma sector, this means: If a company manufactures important raw materials for medicines — like Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs) — in India instead of importing them, the government gives them a financial reward. This encourages companies to set up factories in India, create jobs, and reduce our dependence on countries like China for raw materials used in life-saving drugs.

2. Bulk Drug Parks

  • Special zones in Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh for API manufacturing
  • They benefit from state/central subsidies

3. 100% FDI via Automatic Route

  • Attracts foreign capital and technology transfer

4. Jan Aushadhi Scheme

  • Government initiative to provide low-cost generic drugs through Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Jan Aushadhi Kendras
  • Helps achieve universal health coverage

Challenges Faced by Indian Pharma Sector

  1. Overdependence on API Imports: India imports ~70% of its Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs), mainly from China. It creates vulnerability to global supply shocks and geopolitical tensions.
  2. Low Innovation Focus: Majority of Indian pharma companies rely on generic drug production. There is minimal investment in original drug discovery and patented molecules.
  3. Quality and Safety Concerns: Some small and medium manufacturers face criticism for inconsistent quality. Frequent inspections by USFDA and EU regulators, warning letters and import bans affect credibility and exports.
  4. Government Pricing Controls: The National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority (NPPA) caps prices of essential drugs. It reduces profit margins and may discourage investment in R&D.

Food Processing Industry in India

by

Last Updated: July 2025 (Food Processing Industry in India )

Table of Contents

Food Processing Industry in India

This article deals with ‘Food Processing Industry in India – UPSC GS3 Notes.’ This is part of our series on ‘Economics’, which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction – From Farm to Fork

Food Processing Industry in India

Imagine a farmer named Ramesh from Maharashtra. He grows tomatoes. After harvesting, if Ramesh doesn’t sell them quickly, they will rot. He will lose money, and consumers will pay more for tomatoes in the market.

Now imagine, instead of selling raw tomatoes, Ramesh sells them to a food processing unit that converts them into packaged tomato puree, ketchup, or sun-dried tomatoes. Not only does Ramesh get a better price, but these products reach far-off consumers with a longer shelf life.

This is the power of Food Processing Industry—it acts as a bridge between farmers and consumers, between agriculture and industry.

What is Food Processing?

In simple terms:

  • It means adding value to harvested crops, dairy, fish, meat, or poultry using various techniques.
  • The goal is to make them longer-lasting, more convenient, market-ready, and consumer-friendly.
  • For example:
    • Wheat → Flour → Bread/Biscuits
    • Milk → Cheese / Paneer / Flavored Milk
    • Mango → Mango Juice / Aam Papad
What is Food Processing?
  • Food processing is a sunrise industry, i.e. it has
    1. High growth potential 
    2. High employment potential
  • Food Processing Sector is a Sunrise Sector contributing
    • 1.8% to the total GVA to the country (FY 2021-22)
    • Employing 20 lakh people
    • AAGR of 7.25% (from 2014 to 2022)
    • Estimated market size to touch $535 billion by 2025

How can the Food Processing Industry benefit India

Food processing is crucial because it acts as a linkage between agriculture and industry.

Employment

  • The Food Processing Industry can generate direct & indirect employment.
  • For example: A new milk processing plant in Punjab creates jobs for dairy farmers, transporters, machine operators, and marketers.

Addressing Agriculture Stress

  • Food Processing can help increase farmers’ income and act as the central pillar of doubling farmers’ income.

Curb Food Inflation

  • Food Processing helps increase the shelf life of products and contain food inflation during the lean season. 
How can the Food Processing Industry benefit India

Crop Diversification

  • In the absence of the food processing industry, farmers are left with no choice but to grow wheat and rice. The development of the Food Processing Industry will lead to crop diversification as it will generate a market for fruits, vegetables, milk, fish, meat, poultry, grain, etc.

Increase in Value Addition

  • The gross value addition will increase. E.g., exporting processed mushrooms or fish will fetch more in monetary terms than exporting raw fish or mushrooms.

Reducing Malnutrition

  • Processed food can be fortified with minerals and vitamins to fight the issue of malnutrition in the population. 

Reduce Food Wastage

  • According to UN Report, 40% of food is wasted due to post-harvest losses. However, this loss can be contained with the help of food processing close to the farm-gate.

Preserve Nutritional  Value

  • Modern techniques like flash freezing, vacuum packaging and dehydration help retain nutrients.

Increases Consumer’s Choices

  • It increases the food choices available to the consumer. For example, with the help of the food processing industry, consumers can enjoy a meal of carrot (a winter vegetable) even in the summers.

Increase Foreign Earnings

  • India can export agricultural products to other countries and earn substantial foreign reserves. E.g., Indian Basmati has massive demand in the Middle East, Indian wheat has high demand in Iran, Spices are considered exotic produce in the EU and North America. 

For India, it is a strategic sector that connects the farm to the fork, and the village to the global market.

Evolution of FPI in India

Phase 1: Before the 1960s – Ignored Agriculture and Industry-Centric Approach 

  • After Independence, India’s focus was on building a self-reliant industrial base (especially capital goods industries).
  • Despite agriculture contributing 48% of GDP in 1950-51, agriculture and food processing remained neglected.
  • Food Processing Industry was virtually non-existent, except for basic flour mills, oil mills, and small-scale cottage industries.

Phase 2: 1960–1990 – Agricultural Focus, Green Revolution & Food Buffer Building

  • 1960s food crisis forced the government to shift focus towards agriculture and self-sufficiency in food production.
  • Major developments included Green Revolution (1966 onwards, creation of Buffer Stock, land reforms etc. But government’s focus was not on Food Processing Industry.

1991 Onwards – LPG Reforms and Opening up of Food Processing Sector

  • The 1991 Economic Reforms (Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization – LPG) became a watershed moment for all industries, including food processing.
  • Food processing identified as a “Sunrise Sector” due to its high growth potential, employment creation ability, and export opportunities. Major Government initiatives started (like Mega Food Parks, Agro-Processing Clusters, etc.).

Scope /Potential of Food Processing Industry 

The Food Processing Industry (FPI) in India holds tremendous potential but remains underdeveloped compared to other countries like the USA and China.

1. Abundant Raw Material

Due to the well-developed agriculture sector and diverse agro-climatic conditions, India has abundant raw materials required for Food Processing Industry. E.g., India is

Ranked 1Milk, Banana, Guava, Papaya, etc.
Ranked 2Rice, Wheat, Potato, Green Peas, Sugarcane, Tea etc.
Among top fiveCoffee, Tobacco, Spices etc.

2. Geographical Advantage –  Diversity of Soil, Climate, Coastline  & Animals

India’s diverse natural endowments support year-round agricultural production.

  • 46 types of soils (e.g., alluvial, black, red soil) are present in India.
  • More than 26 types of climatic conditions are present in India (from tropical to temperate). Hence, India can cultivate a large variety of fruits, vegetables etc.
  • India has a large coastline suitable for the development of the fishing and seafood processing industries.
  • A variety of animals like cows, goats, chickens, lambs etc., are found in India.

3. New Demand

The demand for processed food in India is high because of the following reasons 

  • India has a growing youth population that doesn’t shy away from trying new products.
  • The number of nuclear families has been increasing, and as a result, they have less cooking time.
  • Due to rising income and the creation of the middle class, a large population can afford processed foods.
  • Media penetration can help to create demand for processed food.

4. Government Initiatives for FPI

  • Many food processing sectors earlier reserved for small scale industries have been de-reserved.
  • FDI limit has been relaxed.
  • The government is promoting the FPI sector with various schemes like Pradhan Mantri SAMPADA Yojana. 
  • Many states have overhauled their APMC Acts and allowed contract farming to promote Food Processing Industry.

Obstacles to FPI

The Food Processing Industry is less developed in India, corroborated by the following stats

Country%age food processed
India6%
China~20%
USA~70%

1. Dis-economies of Scale

  • Most of the Food Processing Industry in India is in unorganised sector. Food Processing Units are small in size. As a result, they can’t reap the benefit of economies of scale, like negotiating the price with the supplier, bulk purchase inputs, or invest in large-scale infrastructure.

2. Lack of Testing Facilities

  • The number of HACCP or Codex certified laboratories in the country is insufficient. The Indian labs aren’t equipped to test antibiotic residues and toxic contaminants, due to which Indian products face frequent rejections from the US and EU.
Obstacles to FPI in India

3. Preference For Fresh

  • Due to cultural factors and the traditional mentality that fresh means nutritious, Indians prefer freshly cooked products compared to packaged products. It negatively impacts Food Processing Industry.

4. Packaging

In India, Packaging cost is very high, which discourages the food processing industry. E.g.

Processed FoodPackaging cost as %age of total cost
Potato Chips20%
Fruit Juice19%

High packaging cost increases the final retail price, making processed foods less affordable for lower-income groups.

5. Difficulty in doing Contract Farming

  • Legal barriers (like restrictive APMC Acts) in many states prevent easy procurement of raw materials directly from farmers. This increases procurement costs, middlemen dependency, and supply uncertainties for processors.

6. Logistics

  • Logistics cost in India is around 12% of the total product price, much higher than developed countries (6–8%).
  • Poor last-mile connectivity, high fuel costs, and overburdened road networks add to the problem. Indian National Highways, though forming only 2% of total road length, carry 40% of cargo, causing severe congestion. This delays transport of perishables, leading to spoilage and wastage.

7. Inadequate Infrastructure – Especially Cold Chain

  • India suffers from a chronic shortage of cold chain and post-harvest management infrastructure.
  • Additionally, cold storages are mostly concentrated in a few states (like UP, Punjab, Maharashtra) and are largely used for single commodities like potatoes, neglecting other perishables.

What is Cold Chain Infrastructure?

Cold Chain Infrastructure
  • A Cold Chain refers to a temperature-controlled supply chain system that ensures the storage, transportation, and distribution of perishable products (like fruits, vegetables, dairy, fish, meat) at specific temperature ranges, from farm to fork.
  • It includes:
    • Pack-houses near farm gates
    • Cold storage warehouses
    • Refrigerated trucks and containers

8. Taxation

  • In India, the tax on processed food is disproportionately high. It has to be noted except India; no country distinguishes between branded and unbranded food sectors as far as taxation is concerned.
Wrong Taxation of Processed Food in India
  • This discourages branding, packaging, and organized sector growth.

9. Inspector Raj

  • The Food Inspectors cause harassment and demand bribes under the provisions of outdated acts.
  • Result: Fear of inspections keeps small processors in the unorganized and informal sector.

10. Lack of Manpower

  • There is a lack of a trained workforce in the Food Processing Industry as few universities offer special courses for food processing. Hence, there is a shortage of food technologists, quality control experts, cold chain managers, etc.

11. Post Harvest Losses

  • Post Harvest losses in India are between 10-25% of the produce, which is significantly higher than first-world nations.

India’s Food Processing Industry is a classic case of “High Potential but Low Performance”. While the agricultural base, market demand, and government focus are strong enablers, the structural, logistical, regulatory, and infrastructural obstacles hold it back.

Issue: Food Safety & Laws in India

Food Safety and Standards Authority of India

  • FSSAI (Food Safety and Standards Authority of India) was established as a statutory body under FSSAI Act, 2006.
  • FSSAI Act replaced outdated food laws like the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFA) and other old food-related “Orders”.
  • FSSAI is responsible for:
    • Guidelines: Frame and enforce scientific food standards + Set guidelines for food lab accreditation
    • Advisory Role: Provide scientific advice and technical support to Central and State Governments.
    • Survey: Collect data on food consumption, contamination, biological risks, etc.
    • Human Resource Development: Conduct training for food business operators and other stakeholders

Why FSSAI Became an Obstacle for FPI Growth?

The ‘Maggi Row’ (2015) highlighted serious gaps in both regulatory oversight and unnecessary red tape.

  • Approval Delays: Slow clearance of new food products discourages investors
  • Arbitrary Norms:  FSSAI’s packaging and labelling rules differ from global standards, leading to product rejections
  • Discretionary Rejections: Clearances often withheld for petty reasons, increasing costs and time for companies
  • Regulatory Failure: Example: Maggi was initially FSSAI-approved, but later failed safety checks, raising doubts about FSSAI’s testing processes

Codex Standards

  • Set up in 1960s by FAO (Food & Agriculture Organization) and WHO (World Health Organization).
  • Governing Body: Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC)
  • Headquarters: Rome, Italy
  • Members: 189 countries including India
  • When India exports food items like fruits, groundnuts, or seafood to countries like the USA or European Union, these countries check if the food meets international safety and quality standards made under Codex Standards.
  • HACCP
    • Full Form: Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points
    • It is an international food safety certification system adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (under FAO & WHO).
  • Many Indian food exports fail these tests. Common reasons include
    • Shrimps : Found with Antibiotic Residues
    • Groundnuts : Contain Aflatoxins (harmful natural toxins from fungi)
    • Fruits: Contaminated with Fruitflies (major pest concern abroad)
Indian Food Exports Rejected - Codex- HACCP

Government & Food Processing Industry

Recognizing the gaps mentioned above, the Government of India has taken several steps over the years to boost the Food Processing Industry (FPI)—an important bridge between agriculture and industry.

Ministry: Ministry of Food Processing Industry (MoFPI)

  • The key government department responsible for the food processing sector is the Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MoFPI).
  • It runs various schemes to promote food processing industry in India.

Scheme: PM Kisan Sampada Yojana

  • The full form of SAMPADA is: Scheme for Agro-Marine Processing and Development of Agro-Processing Clusters
  • Year of Launch: Launched in 2017
  • Budget Allocation: ₹6,000 crore was allocated for the scheme

Why was SAMPADA launched?

  • India produces huge amounts of fruits, vegetables, grains, dairy, and marine products. But according to estimates, 30-40% of this is wasted due to lack of storage, cold chains, and processing facilities.
  • SAMPADA was designed to solve this problem by creating infrastructure, reducing wastage, generating jobs, and promoting value addition.

Major Schemes under SAMPADA (Umbrella Scheme)

SAMPADA combines and integrates all major schemes run by the Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MoFPI).

Sub-schemeFocus Area
Mega Food ParksCreating large industrial zones for food processing with facilities like cold storage, testing labs, and logistics support (dealt in detail below)
Integrated Cold Chain and Value Addition InfrastructureSetting up modern cold storage chains, reefer vans (refrigerated trucks), and packaging centers to prevent spoilage of perishable items.
Food Safety and Quality Assurance InfrastructureBuilding food testing labs and quality control facilities to meet domestic and international food standards 
Infrastructure for Agro-Processing ClustersDeveloping small-scale food processing clusters in rural areas to encourage local entrepreneurship and rural employment.
Creation of Backward and Forward LinkagesConnecting farmers (producers) with food processors and linking processors with retailers/exporters.
Creation of Food Processing and Preservation CapacitiesEncouraging private companies and cooperatives to set up new food processing units or expand existing ones.
Operation Greens (TOP Scheme)Launched specially to tackle price volatility in Tomato, Onion, and Potato (TOP) crops by building storage, transportation, and processing facilities.

Objectives of PM Kisan SAMPADA Yojana 

The government aims to achieve multiple goals through this single umbrella scheme:

  • Reduce Food Wastage: India loses food worth thousands of crores annually due to lack of storage and processing. SAMPADA focuses on creating infrastructure to minimize this loss.
  • Employment Generation: SAMPADA creates direct employment in factories, logistics, and storage units, and indirect employment for farmers, transporters, and packaging industries.
  • Increase Farmer Incomes: By offering farmers better prices for their produce and creating new markets for processed goods, SAMPADA aligns with the goal of doubling farmers’ income.
  • Encourage Private Investment: The scheme offers financial assistance to private companies, farmer groups, and cooperatives to invest in food processing infrastructure

Scheme: Mega Food Parks

  • Mega Food Parks are large, well-equipped industrial zones where farm produce is collected, processed, tested, packaged, stored, and transported—all in one integrated facility.
  • Launched under the Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MoFPI), MFPs aim to provide modern infrastructure for food processing close to the production areas (farm gates).

How does a Mega Food Park work? (The Hub-and-Spoke Model)

Think of it like this: Imagine a big hub (Central Processing Centre – CPC) surrounded by many small satellite points (Collection Centres and Primary Processing Centres

ComponentRole
Collection Centres (CCs)Small hubs in villages where farmers deliver their produce for initial aggregation.
Primary Processing Centres (PPCs)Early-stage processing happens here—like cleaning, sorting, grading, and packing. Facilities like refrigerated trucks also start from here to transport goods further.
Central Processing Centre (CPC)The main industrial unit with modern facilities for full-scale food processing, quality testing, value addition, packaging, cold storage, and dispatch to markets.
  • This Hub-and-Spoke Model ensures minimal time delay and prevents spoilage at every stage.

Financial Provisions

ProvisionDetails
Project Cost Sharing– General Areas: 50% of project cost covered by Government (excluding land cost) – North Eastern States: 75% covered
Maximum Government Grant₹50 crore per project
Minimum Land Requirement50 acres (Land cost excluded from project grant)
Execution ModelImplemented by a Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) which can include farmers’ associations, private investors, financial institutions, and state government agencies as equity partners.

Challenges / Problems 

Despite the good intentions, implementation hasn’t been easy.

  • Land Acquisition Issues:  Acquiring a continuous 50-acre plot, especially near production areas, is tough. Also, changing land use from agriculture to industrial takes time.
  • Attracting Stakeholders:  SPVs struggle to attract Primary Processing Centres (PPCs) and Collection Centres (CCs), making the network incomplete.
  • Power Shortages: Some MFPs (especially in UP) shut down due to inadequate electricity supply.
  • Finance and Credit Bottlenecks: Banks hesitate to fund MFP projects as the concept is new and many projects struggle to achieve financial closure.
  • Quality of Raw Materials: Lack of uniform quality in farm produce affects food processing units inside MFPs, which need consistency for mass production.
  • APMC and Contract Farming Restrictions: Many states haven’t reformed APMC Acts, making direct purchase from farmers difficult. First sale often still has to happen in APMC Mandis.
  • Export Connectivity Weakness: Limited focus on global value chains. Poor logistics and infrastructure limit India’s food export potential.

Way Forward 

To make Mega Food Parks successful:

  • Flexibility in Land Requirements Reduce rigid 50-acre requirement or allow phased land acquisition.
  • Land Use Reforms: Fast-track the process to convert agricultural land for industrial use.
  • Encouraging Contract Farming: Promote legally binding agreements to ensure consistent supply and quality from farmers.
  • Private Sector Financing: Allow SPVs to raise capital more easily from private investors and international partners.
  • Power Infrastructure Development: Ensure uninterrupted power supply in rural areas where MFPs are located.
  • Link to Global Value Chains: Upgrade quality standards, logistics, and infrastructure to attract foreign investors and boost exports.

Scheme: Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme for Food Processing Industry

  • Launched: March 2022
  • Ministry Involved: Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MoFPI)

How does the PLI Scheme work?

  • The government gives financial incentives (cash back/subsidy) to companies based on how much they increase their production and sales of eligible food products every year over a base year.
  • This reward (incentive) is linked to actual output performance, not just promises or paperwork.

Target Sectors under PLI  Scheme for Food Processing Industry

The scheme focuses on sectors where India can become a world leader:

High Growth Potential SegmentsExamples
Marine ProductsFrozen seafood, prawns, fish fillets
Processed Fruits & VegetablesPackaged mango pulp, tomato puree, frozen peas
Ready-to-Eat / Ready-to-Cook ProductsPackaged curries, instant mixes, frozen parathas
Others (Indian Brands for Global Promotion)Indian snacks, ethnic food products

Scheme: Krishi UDAN 2.0

  • Full Form: Krishi UDAN = Krishi Ude Desh ka Aam Nagrik
  • Launched: October 2021
  • Aim: Boost air transportation of perishable agricultural products (like fruits, vegetables, fish, meat, dairy, processed foods, etc.)
  • Focus Regions:
    1. Hilly Areas
    2. North Eastern States
    3. Tribal Areas
    4. Other remote locations

Scheme: Operation Greens

  • Budget 2018: Operation Greens announced  under Ministry of Food Processing Industries 
  • It is modelled on the lines of Operation Flood (for milk) for enhancing production & reducing price volatility of fruits & vegetables. 
  • It was started with Tomatoes, Onion and Potatoes (TOP). But the scope of the scheme has been increased to 22 perishables , including mango, apple, garlic, ginger, etc.

Finance in Food Processing Industry

One of the biggest hurdles the Indian Food Processing Industry faces – Shortage of Funds and Investment.

FDI100% FDI is allowed in Food Processing Industry
NABARDOffers refinance facilities for food processing, agri infrastructure, development
SIDBIGives loan to Micro Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) in the country
MoFPIProvides capital grants and financial assistance under schemes like Mega Food Park Scheme (up to ₹50 crore per project) and PM Kisan SAMPADA Yojana.
Venture Funds/Angel investorsNon-existent for food processing sector.

Despite these measures, finance is still a major bottleneck for the Food Processing Sector.

Supply Chain Management of Food Processing Industry

  • A farmer in Punjab grows tomatoes. A ketchup company in Delhi needs tomatoes. A grocery store in Bangalore wants to sell that ketchup. What connects all three? The Supply Chain.
  • Supply Chain = system that links company with suppliers & customers

Understanding “Upstream” and “Downstream” (Simple Terms)

Think of a river 

  • Upstream = Where the water (inputs) comes from
  • Downstream = Where the water (output) goes
Point of ReferenceUpstream (Who gives input)Downstream (Who buys output)
FarmerSeed companies, fertilizer suppliersMiddlemen, mandis, food companies
Food Processing CompanyFarmers, mandi agents, packaging suppliersDistributors, wholesalers, retailers, customers

So, Upstream = Input Side, Downstream = Output Side.

Supply Chain Management of Food Processing Industry

Forward and Backward Integration

TypeMeaningWhy?Real Example
Backward IntegrationCompany expands towards raw material sourceTo get cheap, steady, uniform-quality supplyAmul creating village milk cooperatives
Forward IntegrationCompany expands towards final customerTo control sales and customer experienceAmul opening own ice cream parlours and pizza outlets
Both (Vertical Integration)When a company controls both upstream and downstreamFull control from farm to customerShell Oil owning oil wells + refineries + petrol pumps

Why Vertical Integration is Difficult in Indian FPI

Unlike giant oil companies or global food chains, India’s food entrepreneurs are mostly small players.

ReasonExplanation
Lack of FundsVertical integration needs huge capital investment, which small units don’t have.
APMC LawsOutdated Agricultural Produce Market Committee (APMC) Acts in many states force farmers to sell only via mandis. Companies can’t buy directly from farmers easily.
Infrastructure GapsLack of cold chains, warehouses, and transport facilities makes managing the whole chain difficult.

Approach for Food Processing Industry Questions

Whenever there is a question on the Food Processing Industry (FPI) in Mains (GS3), ALWAYS structure your answer by covering these three stages:

1. Upstream Issues (Before Processing Stage)

Think of everything before raw material reaches the factory, like:

  • Agricultural inputs
  • Crop variety
  • Contract farming challenges
  • Post-harvest losses
  • Storage and transport issues
  • Farmer-level problems

2. Processing Stage Issues (Inside the Factory)

Think of what happens inside the food processing units, like:

  • Infrastructure gaps (Cold chain, Mega Food Parks etc.)
  • Financial issues (FDI, NABARD, SIDBI etc.)
  • Regulatory hurdles (FSSAI, Codex, HACCP)
  • Technology, skill gap, and R&D
  • High packaging and logistics cost
  • Quality control and certification

3. Downstream Issues (After Processing till Final Customer)

Think of everything that happens after food is processed, like:

  • Supply chain and distribution network problems
  • Export barriers (like SPS, Codex issues, rejections in EU/US)
  • Cold chain gap in retail
  • Consumer awareness and preference for fresh over processed food
  • High logistics and retailing cost
  • Marketing and branding challenges

Way Forward / Solutions

After covering the three stages, always conclude with:

  • Infrastructure improvement
  • Policy reforms (APMC, FDI, contract farming, etc.)
  • Cold chain and logistics investment
  • FSSAI and quality standard reforms
  • Promoting exports and integration with the global value chain
  • Consumer awareness and retail ecosystem strengthening

Case Study: Fruits & Veggies

India is the world’s second-largest producer of fruits and vegetables. Despite this, the share of processing remains below 2%, leading to significant post-harvest losses, farmer distress, and missed export opportunities. The problems can be analyzed at three levels – upstream, processing, and downstream stages.

Food Processing Industry Case Study )UPSC Economics)

Upstream Issues

Before any fruit or vegetable reaches a food processing factory, it goes through multiple stages like cultivation, harvesting, collection, and transportation. These stages are collectively called the “Upstream” part of the supply chain.

Simply put: Upstream = Everything that happens before raw materials (fruits/vegetables) reach the processing company.

1. Wrong Varieties for Processing

  • Most of the fruits and vegetables grown by Indian farmers are not suitable for industrial processing.
  • For example:
    • Indian oranges are often too bitter to make packaged orange juice.
    • Indian potatoes are not of uniform size and have high sugar content, making them unsuitable for making chips or French fries like you see from brands like Lay’s or McCain.
  • The government and food companies need to promote new crop varieties that meet industry standards.

2. Lack of Direct Link Between Farmers and Companies (Contract Farming Issues)

  • In most parts of India, food companies can’t directly sign contracts with farmers to grow specific quality or varieties of crops because of old APMC (Agricultural Produce Market Committee) laws, farmers are forced to sell their produce in government mandis. This prevents food processing companies from supplying uniform seeds, giving inputs, and buying produce directly.
  • Impact:
    • No control over quality
    • No steady supply
    • Farmers don’t get long-term price assurance
    • Companies can’t plan production smoothly
  • States should relax APMC rules and allow contract farming. This way, companies can partner with farmers for better, uniform quality raw material.

3. Inadequate Cold Storage Facilities

  • Fruits and vegetables are perishable by nature. Without proper cold storage, they start rotting within a few days. India faces a severe shortage of cold storage infrastructure.
  • This leads to:
    • High post-harvest losses
    • Distress sales during harvest season
    • Seasonal price fluctuations

Solution:

  • Provide subsidized loans, tax benefits, and affordable electricity rates for cold storage units.
  • Encourage private sector participation.

4. Poor Transport Infrastructure

  • Even after harvest, the transportation from farm to processing unit is full of hurdles owing to
    • Poor village roads
    • Lack of refrigerated vans (called Reefer Vans)
    • Railways don’t run enough special freight trains for horticulture products
  • Solutions:
    • Improve rural road network
    • Offer easy loans to buy reefer trucks
    • Indian Railways should run more horticulture trains on priority routes.

Unless we fix these upstream issues, food processing companies will continue to struggle with poor quality inputs and erratic supply, leading to low capacity utilization and higher costs.

Processing Stage Challenges

Once the fruits and vegetables leave the farm and reach the food processing company, the next stage is “Processing”. This includes steps like cleaning, grading, cutting, freezing, juicing, preserving, and packaging. But the Indian Food Processing Industry (FPI), especially for fruits and vegetables, faces many challenges at this stage too.

1. Underutilized Processing Units

  • Many food processing factories are running at less than full capacity. For example: A juice processing plant designed to process 100 tons per day may end up processing only 40-50 tons.
  • Why? Because raw material doesn’t arrive in required quantity or quality at the right time.

2. Inconsistent Quality of Raw Material

  • Even when raw material comes, quality is inconsistent. For example:
    • Tomatoes may have different water content
    • Potatoes may differ in size
    • Oranges may vary in taste and acidity
  •  Why does this matter? Inconsistent quality makes it difficult to produce a uniform final product. For industries like chips, juices, or frozen vegetables, standardization is critical to meet consumer expectations and export standards.

3. Outdated Technology

  • Many small and medium-sized food processing units use old machines, manual handling, and low-tech preservation techniques.

4. Food Safety Compliance Issues

  • For food exports, companies need certifications like HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points). But most Indian processing units lack such certifications.
  • Why?
    • Lack of trained manpower
    • Poor awareness
    • Expensive certification process
    • Lack of accredited testing labs nearby

Downstream Challenges

Once the fruits and vegetables are processed (like cut, frozen, juiced, packaged), the next challenge is getting them to the market or to the final consumer. This is called the “Downstream” stage. But in India, the downstream supply chain for processed fruits and vegetables faces several issues.

1. High Transportation and Export Costs

  • For perishable fruits and vegetables like strawberries or mangoes, air transport is preferred for exports. However, in India:
    • Air cargo costs are very high
    • There are extra charges like fuel surcharge, handling fees, and terminal charges
  • Even when the product is suitable for sea transport (like potatoes or onions), India’s port handling charges are very high compared to other countries.
  • Result: Indian fruits become more expensive in foreign markets, reducing their demand.

2. Rejection in Foreign Markets due to Quality Issues

  • Developed countries like EU and USA follow strict quality standards (Codex standards) for imported food products.
  • Indian fruits and vegetables face frequent rejection in international markets due to non-compliance with Codex standards and WTO SPS measures.

3. Poor Domestic Marketing Channels

  • Consumer Awareness is low:
    • Most Indian consumers still prefer fresh, unpackaged produce
    • There is lack of trust in packaged food, especially for fruits and vegetables
  • Retail infrastructure for processed food is weak:
    • Few dedicated outlets for selling frozen peas, ready-to-cook veggies, or fruit pulps
    • Rural areas are still untapped markets for processed food

4. Limited Export Branding

  • India has not built strong global brands for processed fruits and vegetables, like Del Monte or Dole from other countries.

French Revolution (UPSC World History)

by

French Revolution (UPSC World History)

This article deals with ‘French Revolution (UPSC World History)’ . This is part of our series on ‘World History’ which is an important pillar of GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

In 1789, two significant global occurrences took place. 

  • Firstly, the United States implemented its new federal Constitution, marking a pivotal moment in its history. 
  • Secondly, a revolution erupted in France. The profound turmoil in France had repercussions beyond its borders, profoundly impacting the entire European continent.

Before the French Revolution, France had a political and social structure known as the Ancien Régime (Old Order). Louis XVI, a young monarch from the Bourbon dynasty, governed France while being married to Mary Antoinette, an Austrian princess. Society was divided into three main estates: the clergy (First Estate), the nobility (Second Estate), and the Third Estate, consisting of the rest of the population.

Societal Structure

  • In French society, there were three primary divisions or estates: the Clergy, representing the priestly class; the Nobility, consisting of the landed and aristocratic class; and the commoners, who constituted the unprivileged class.
  • Privileged classes, i.e. nobility & clergy, enjoyed exemption from taxes & had a monopoly of honours & emoluments.
  • 3rd Estate i.e. bourgeoisie, labourers & peasants bore whole burden of tax & excluded from places of authority 
French Revolution (UPSC World History)

Clergy (1st Estate) 

  • It consisted of less than 1% of the population but controlled 20% of the land.
  • The clergy were exempted from taxes. 
  • It wasn’t a homogeneous class and could be divided into Upper Clergy and Lower Clergy.
    1. Upper Clergy (bishops, abbots): Wealthy, from noble families, held comfortable positions but often neglected spiritual duties.
    2. Lower Clergy (parish priests): Did real spiritual work, lived in poverty, resented the upper clergy.

Nobility (2nd Estate) 

  • Comprised 2–4% of the population.
  • Controlled about 25% of land.
  • Also exempted from taxes.. 
  • The French Aristocracy wasn’t a single social unit but a series of differing groups.
    • Nobles of the Sword: Traditional aristocracy with hereditary titles.
    • Nobles of the Robe: Wealthy professionals who had purchased noble titles (mainly judges and administrators).
  • Over time, the difference between them faded. Many intermarried. Ironically, Nobles of the Robe were often richer than Nobles of the Sword.
  • With a centralized government, the Nobility didn’t perform any real governance function — they just enjoyed privileges without responsibilities, making the system increasingly intolerable.

Third Estate

  • It consisted of a vast population & was not a homogenous body. 
  • Paid all taxes but had no voice in governance.
  • It consisted of various sections. The important ones included 

🧑‍💼 Bourgeoisie (Upper Middle Class)

  • Educated and wealthy, consisting of businessmen, professionals, bankers, and lawyers.
  • Owned land and industries but were excluded from top positions due to noble birth rules.
  • Deeply frustrated by their social inferiority despite economic success.

🧑‍🔧 Artisans and Labourers

  • Worked in towns and cities.
  • Lived hand-to-mouth, often unemployed or underpaid.
  • Dependent on the bourgeoisie for work.

🚜 Peasants:

  • Worked on the land — often under feudal obligations like forced labour and dues.
  • Owned about 40% of the land, but were crushed under heavy taxation.
  • Still, they were more prosperous and aware than peasants in other European countries.

Political Structure of France

To understand why it happened, it is crucial to analyse the political structure of France in the 17th and 18th centuries, especially under the reigns of Louis XIV, Louis XV, and Louis XVI.

Louis XIV: The Absolute Monarch (1643–1715)

Louis XIV, known as the Sun King, ruled France for an unparalleled 72 years and is often considered the epitome of absolute monarchy in Europe.

  • Absolute Monarchy at its Peak: Louis centralised power by diminishing the influence of the nobility and concentrating authority in the monarchy. He famously declared, “L’État, c’est moi” (“I am the state”).
  • Lavish Lifestyle and Extravagance: His reign was characterised by grandiose projects such as the construction of the Palace of Versailles, which became a symbol of royal opulence.
  • Costly Wars and Financial Strain: Louis engaged France in numerous expensive wars (e.g., the War of Spanish Succession), draining the royal treasury.
  • Tax Burden on Commoners: To finance his ambitions, he imposed heavy taxes mainly on the peasantry and bourgeoisie, as the nobility and clergy were largely exempt.

This centralisation of power and extravagant spending placed immense pressure on France’s economy, laying the groundwork for future unrest.

Louis XV: The Declining Monarch (1715–1774)

Louis XV inherited the throne at the age of five and ruled during a period of shifting political dynamics.

  • Rise of the Parlement: The Parlement of Paris, originally a royal advisory court, gained the power to approve or reject royal decrees, especially taxation policies.
  • Nobility Regains Power: Unlike Louis XIV’s suppression of the nobles, Louis XV’s reign saw the aristocracy regaining influence and opposing royal authority.
  • Taxation Conflicts: Attempts to impose new taxes were consistently blocked by the Parlement and nobility, who resisted paying taxes themselves.
  • René de Maupeou’s Reforms: In a bid to bypass opposition, Louis XV appointed Maupeou as Chancellor, who tried to curb the Parlement’s power by replacing its members with loyalists. However, this reform was reversed after Louis XV’s death, and the Parlement regained influence.

The weakening of royal authority, combined with noble resistance, weakened the monarchy’s capacity to govern effectively and finance the state.

Louis XVI: The Last King of the Old Regime (1774–1792)

Louis XVI ascended the throne amid escalating economic turmoil and social tensions.

  • Financial Crisis: France’s national debt had skyrocketed due to previous wars and the extravagant spending of his predecessors.
  • Support for American Revolution: Louis XVI’s decision to support the American colonies against Britain further drained the treasury, exacerbating fiscal instability.
  • Weak Leadership: Despite his intentions to reform, Louis XVI was indecisive and heavily influenced by court factions that resisted change.
  • Influence of Marie Antoinette: The Queen, daughter of Austrian Empress Maria Theresa, was unpopular due to her foreign origins, lavish spending, and perceived interference in politics, which added to the monarchy’s unpopularity.

Ultimately, Louis XVI’s inability to address the structural problems of taxation, noble privileges, and financial insolvency led to the collapse of the Ancien Régime and triggered the French Revolution.

Causes of the French Revolution

Cause: Inequality of taxes

  • Exemption of Privileged Classes: Under the Ancien Régime, French society was divided into three estates. The clergy and nobility—the privileged classes—enjoyed exemptions from most taxes. This left the Third Estate—peasants, urban workers, and the middle class—to bear the heavy tax burden. This glaring inequality fueled resentment and deepened social divides.
  • Oppressive Tax Collection Methods: Tax collection was often outsourced to Tax Farmers, private individuals who paid the state for the right to collect taxes and exploited the people ruthlessly, worsening public discontent.

Cause:  Absolutism

Louis XIV’s reign marked the height of absolute monarchy, centralising power and eliminating institutions like the Parlement, which previously checked royal authority. His famous statement, “I am the state,” symbolized this concentration of power. However, his successors were weak and indulgent, allowing corrupt courtiers to dominate governance. Arbitrary tools like letters de cachet—which allowed imprisonment without trial—exemplified the monarchy’s oppressive power, increasing popular frustration and desire for change.

Cause: Intellectual Revolt

The Enlightenment challenged the old order through ideas of liberty, equality, and reason:

  • Montesquieu advocated the separation of powers and criticised absolute monarchy in The Spirit of Laws.
  • Voltaire attacked the Church’s power and superstition, promoting reason and tolerance, though he favored enlightened despotism over democracy.
  • Rousseau introduced the Social Contract theory, emphasising popular sovereignty and the right to revolt against unjust rulers. His ideas inspired later revolutionary movements despite some risk of authoritarian misuse.
  • The Encyclopaedists, led by Denis Diderot, published the Encyclopedia. It proved to be a mine of information and a manifesto of radicalism with expert criticism of current institutions, society and government
  • Physiocrats promoted free trade and a single land tax, influencing early revolutionary economic thought.

These thinkers exposed the flaws of the old regime and inspired widespread demands for reform

Their writings exposed the evils of the old regime and aroused the passion of people by instilling new ideas and doctrines in them. Philosophers dismantled the old French structure in the minds of the French people long before the Structures were actually brought down. 

Cause: Role of Salons

  • Salons were the elegant drawing rooms of the wealthy urban elite where philosophers and guests gathered and often engaged in academic and intellectual conversations centred on new ideas. 
  • Salons were crucial in spreading Enlightenment ideas. They became hubs for reform-minded deputies like Mirabeau and Robespierre, who later led revolutionary efforts.

Cause: Condition of Finances 

  • When Louis XVI became king, France was near bankruptcy, with a deficit of 20%. Wars and royal extravagance worsened finances. Tax reforms were necessary, but the privileged estates resisted giving up exemptions, while the Third Estate was already overburdened. This deadlock threatened the state’s survival.

Cause: Economic Crisis 

  • France faced rising prices and inflation due to population growth, increased credit, and limited production. The Franco-British Trade Treaty (1786) exposed French workers to competition from cheaper British imports. Poor harvests in 1787-88 caused widespread hunger and social unrest, driving desperate rural populations to cities and escalating tensions.

Cause: Role of the American Revolution

  • The success of the American Revolution inspired French revolutionaries with ideals of liberty and republicanism. French officers, such as the Marquis de Lafayette, brought back revolutionary zeal.
  • At the same time, France’s financial and military support for the American Revolution deepened its debt crisis, accelerating unrest at home.

Immediate Cause

Louis XVI’s attempts at tax reform faced fierce opposition from privileged classes. Mounting debt from wars, especially the American Revolution, forced him to call the Estates-General in 1789. This assembly became the platform for the Third Estate to voice grievances, transforming into the National Assembly and sparking the French Revolution.

Events of French Revolution

The French Revolution wasn’t a single event but a series of dramatic political, social, and economic developments that completely transformed France and had ripple effects across Europe.

The Beginning: Aristocratic Revolution (1787–89)

  • The revolution started with the aristocracy, not the commoners.
  • In the mid-1780s, France was on the verge of bankruptcy. The monarchy tried to reform taxation and end aristocratic privileges. But the nobility resisted, demanding the convening of the Estates-General (a representative assembly), which hadn’t met since 1614.
  • This marked the first phase of the Revolution, often called the Aristocratic Revolution.

Estates General and ,the Rise of the Third Estate (May-June 1789)

  • Estates-General was convened in May 1789 at Versailles.
  • Representation of the 3 Estates were as follows:
    • First Estate (Clergy) – 300
    • Second Estate (Nobility) – 300
    • Third Estate (Commoners – Bourgeoisie, Lawyers, etc.) – 600
  • Core Issue: Main question here was on voting.
    • Traditional Method: One vote per Estate → Favoured Nobility & Clergy.
    • Third Estate demanded: One vote per head (which would give them majority).
  • Result: Stalemate. On 17 June 1789, the Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly, claiming to represent the nation.

Tennis Court Oath (20 June 1789)

  • King under pressure from court sought to oppose revolutionary proceedings of 3rd Estate & closed the hall in order to prevent session of National Assembly . Members rushed to neighbouring tennis court & took oath not to separate till constitution of realm had been definitely established. Mirabeau, a nobleman, and Abbé Sieyès, a member of the clergy, led this act of protest.

The Storming of the Bastille (14 July 1789)

  1. King Louis XVI, under pressure from Courtiers, brought troops to Paris. Public anger was already high due to bread shortages and high prices.
  2. On 14 July, a Parisian mob stormed the Bastille prison, seen as a symbol of royal tyranny. This marked the start of the French Revolution.
  3. This was followed by assuming control of city where new form of Municipal Government was established  and National Guard(city militia) was organised to maintain order in city with Lafayette as commander

Peasant Revolution (Summer 1789)

  • It also had its impact on countryside .
  • Peasant also rose. Anti Aristocratic feelings were high & peasants started to attack houses of the nobles and burnt the records containing feudal dues owed by Peasants. 

King taken Prisoner (5 Oct 1789 )

  • There was shortage of bread aka Terror of famine→ suspicion was that royalty was hoarding grain.
  • 7,000 women marched to Versailles, demanded bread, and forced the royal family to shift to Paris.
  • King Louis XVI became a virtual prisoner at the Tuileries Palace – closer to the people, under surveillance.

Constitution of 1791 – Start of Constitutional Monarchy

The National Assembly was converted to Constituent Assembly and they prepared the Constitution with following major provisions

  • A Legislative Assembly (LA) of 745 members (2-year term, elected with property-based suffrage).
  • King as executive head, but no power to make laws.
  • France divided into 83 departments of equal size.
  • Church lands nationalised, and Assignats (paper currency) issued against them.
  • Drastic actions taken against the Church like (i) Abolition of tithes, (ii) nationalisation of church property and (iii) old Dioceses were abolished & Bishops and Priests were to be elected by popular vote & paid by state.

War against Austria and Prussia

  • Monarchies in Europe (esp. Austria & Prussia) feared spread of revolution. They feared that the rise of common people might bring to an end the rule of monarchs and so they sent their troops to France to contain the revolution.
  • Meanwhile the National Assembly declared war against Austria and Prussia. 

Attempted Escape by the King

  • In June 1791, King Louis XVI made a secret attempt to flee Paris and join foreign monarchies (Austria and Prussia), who were gathering counter-revolutionary armies on France’s border. His escape plan, however, failed. He was captured by local militia and brought back to Paris. This incident eroded public trust and further radicalized the revolution.

Formation of Clubs

  • Constitution didn’t satisfy the poor – as there was no universal suffrage.
  • Political clubs emerged as forums of debate and agitation. Most important among them were
    • Jacobin Club – They were most radical. Their members were small traders, artisans, and wage earners.
      • Called themselves Sans-Culottes (without knee-breeches).
      • Leaders: Robespierre, Danton, Marat.
    • Cordeliers Club – more populist; also led by Danton.

Girondins and Jacobins

Within the powerful Jacobin Club — the most influential political club of the time — differences started emerging.

Girondins (a.k.a. Brissotins)

  • Named after leader Jacques Pierre Brissot, the Girondins were a moderate faction within the Jacobin Club.
  • They represented the propertied middle class, mainly from provincial France.
  • Believed war against Austria and Prussia would strengthen the revolution and unite the country against a common external enemy.
  • Argued that war would expose royalist conspiracies and bring down counter-revolutionaries.

Jacobins (Radicals)

  • Led by Maximilien Robespierre and Georges Danton.
  • Represented the urban poor and radical elements of Paris.
  • Opposed the idea of war with foreign powers.
  • Robespierre warned that a war might strengthen the monarchy, allow foreign intervention, and open the gates for counter-revolution.

This Girondin-Jacobin divide marks an important turning point in the French Revolution. It highlights the internal ideological conflicts and the shifting power dynamics among revolutionary leaders, which would later culminate in the Reign of Terror under Robespierre.

Fall of Monarchy & National Convention (1792)

  • War went badly. Public anger turned towards monarchy.
  • On 10 August 1792, Jacobin supporters stormed the Tuileries, killed royal guards an imprisoned Louis XVI.
  • A new body – National Convention – was elected by universal male suffrage. It abolished monarchy on 21 September 1792, declared First French Republic.

September Massacres

  • After the overthrow of the monarchy, the people believed that political prisoners in the jails were planning to join a plot of the counterrevolutionaries. So the mob descended on the prisons and summarily executed those they believed to be royalists. Commencing on 2 September 1792, at Abbaye prison in Paris, it continued in the next four days in other prisons of the city.  In all about 1,200 prisoners were killed in what came to be known as the September Massacres.
  • The September Massacres were publicised abroad as proof o the horrors of revolution. The Girondins blamed their more radical enemies, especially Marat, Danton and Robespierre.

Trial & Execution of the King

  • The war with Austria and Prussia — initiated under the influence of the Girondins — marked a decisive phase in the French Revolution. On 20 September 1792, the French revolutionary army successfully stopped the foreign invasion at the Battle of Valmy. This military success boosted revolutionary confidence. Seizing the moment, the newly elected National Convention took a historic step – On 21 September 1792, it abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic.
  • But the revolutionaries were not done yet. King Louis XVI, already discredited due to his attempted escape and secret correspondence with foreign powers, was now put on trial.
    • He was charged with treason for seeking foreign help against his own countrymen.
    • Found guilty, he was executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793.
    • His wife, Marie Antoinette, faced the same fate soon after.

Reign of Terror (1793–94) – Rule of Jacobins

  • France faced extreme crisis with hunger, protests, and counter-revolutionary uprisings (e.g., Vendee and Lyons).
  • The Convention used military force against agitating citizens instead of addressing demands like price controls and grain supply.
  • Robespierre and the Jacobins took control, starting a dictatorial regime known as the Reign of Terror.
  • Thousands, including Girondin leaders and Danton, were executed by guillotine.
  • Radical reforms were introduced:
    • Abolition of slavery in all French colonies (4 Feb 1794)
    • Wage ceilings, rationing of food like bread and meat
    • Price controls on agricultural goods
    • Use of “citizen” instead of titles like Sir/Madam
    • Churches were turned into military barracks
  • Robespierre’s extreme measures alienated even his supporters.
  • He was arrested and executed in 1794, ending the Reign of Terror.
  • Power shifted to moderate leaders (Thermidorians), who rolled back radical reforms.

Weak Rule of the Directory (1795–1799)

  • A new Constitution of 1795 established the Directory: a 5-member executive with a bicameral legislature.
  • However, it was marked by:
    • Corruption and inefficiency
    • Lack of public support
    • Economic problems (inflation, food shortages)
    • Frequent uprisings (Royalists on one side, radicals on the other)
  • The Directory relied heavily on the military to suppress revolts, leading to growing power of generals—especially Napoleon.

Military Successes of Napoleon

  • Napoleon emerged as a national hero through his military campaigns:
    • Suppressed Royalist uprising in Paris (1795)
    • Won major victories in Italy (1796–97) against Austria
    • Gained fame for his daring Egyptian expedition (though militarily mixed, politically it added to his image)
  • Amid political chaos and lack of strong leadership, people longed for order. Napoleon was seen as a man of action, stability, and national pride. He also gained support from both moderates (who wanted peace) and radicals (who liked his revolutionary ideals).

Coup of 18 Brumaire (9 November 1799)

  • By 1799, the Directory had lost all credibility. It was seen as corrupt, inefficient, and incapable of solving France’s problems—be it the economic crisis, war fatigue, or political instability.
  • Napoleon Bonaparte, already a celebrated military general, returned from Egypt and gained support from influential politicians like Emmanuel Sieyès (one of the original revolutionaries) and Roger Ducos.
  • With the backing of the French army, Napoleon staged a bloodless coup on 18 Brumaire, Year VIII (9 November 1799 in the revolutionary calendar). He stormed the Council of Five Hundred, dissolved the legislature, and forced members to resign at gunpoint.
  • The Directory was abolished, and a new government called the Consulate was formed. It had three consuls, but real power was concentrated in the hands of Napoleon, who became First Consul. Though France remained a republic on paper, Napoleon now ruled as a dictator in all but name.

Land Ceiling

by

Last Updated: June 2025 (Land Ceiling)

Land Ceiling

This article deals with ‘Land Ceiling.’ This is part of our series on ‘Economics’, which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

Land Ceiling

Imagine this…

A small village called Sundarpur. Here, one landlord owns most of the village land — fields, orchards, and even wastelands. Most villagers work on his land, but don’t own even an inch of it. They grow crops but give away half their produce as rent. Now imagine what happens if the landlord is limited in how much land he can own — and the rest is given to the poor farmers.

This is exactly what India tried to do through Land Ceiling Laws.

What is Land Ceiling?

Land Ceiling means putting a legal cap on the amount of land an individual or a family can own. Any land above that limit is considered “surplus” and can be redistributed.

Surplus land can be used in following ways

  • Distributed among small farmers, tenants or landless labourers
  • Handed over to Village Panchayat
  • Given to Cooperative Farming Societies

The idea of land ceiling was not a sudden move — it was the result of years of policy discussions, expert committees, and planning documents post-independence.

Year Development
1947Economic Program Committee, chaired by Jawaharlal Nehru, recommended that: “The maximum size of holdings should be fixed. Surplus land must be acquired and placed at the disposal of the village.”
1949Congress Agrarian Reforms Committee, chaired by J.C. Kumarappa, suggested: Land ceiling should be 3 times the size of an ‘economic holding’
1951First Five-Year Plan endorsed the concept. States to fix their own limits based on local conditions.
1959The Swatantra Party was formed by leaders like C. Rajagopalachari and N.G. Ranga. They oppose land ceiling and nationalisation of private property, viewing them as anti-growth and against individual rights.
By 1961All states had passed Land Ceiling Acts, though implementation was slow and varied in effectiveness.

Arguments for Ceiling on Land Holding

Constitutional Provisions

Indian Constitution says

  • Article 38: Reduce inequalities in wealth, status, facilities.
  • Article 39(b)(c): Prevent concentration of wealth & resources.

Land ceiling minimise inequality in land ownership, income and prevents concentration of wealth.

Providing Cover fire to Zamindari Abolition

  • After Zamindari Abolition, landlords found ways to bypass reforms by showing all the land as their personal land. Land Ceiling was the second layer of reform — a “cover fire” to prevent this phenomenon.

Avoid Misuse of Tax Exemption on Agricultural Income

  • Since agricultural income was (and still is) exempted from income tax, many wealthy individuals from cities began buying large farmlands — not to cultivate, but to avoid taxes and park their black money. Land ceiling laws aimed to prevent farmland from becoming a tax shelter for the rich.

Lack of Industrial Jobs at That Time

  • In the early decades after independence, India didn’t have a strong industrial base. So, there weren’t enough jobs in factories to absorb surplus rural labour. It was important to keep villagers self-employed on land, even if the holdings were small.

Reduce Naxalism

  • Land inequality was a major reason behind rural unrest. Ceiling helped reduce class tensions.

Arguments Against Land Ceiling

While the Land Ceiling policy had noble intentions, several economists, policymakers, and political groups raised concerns about its economic practicality and long-term impact.

Hinders Capitalist Farming & Investment

  • Large landholdings allow for the development of capitalist agriculture, where modern technologies, irrigation systems, fertilizers, and research-based practices can be deployed at scale. Profits from such farming can be reinvested in agriculture — improving productivity, storage, and market access. Land ceilings discourage large-scale investment

Small Farms = Less Mechanisation & Efficiency

  • Small farms are not productive because they hinder mechanised farming.
  • Smaller fields lead to lower economies of scale, higher per-unit costs, and more wastage

Disguised Unemployment

  • Simply distributing land doesn’t guarantee meaningful employment. On marginal farms, many people are underemployed, doing work that doesn’t match their potential productivity. This leads to disguised unemployment — more people working than needed.

Administrative Challenges & Corruption

Implementation of ceiling laws often led to:

  • False land transfers to avoid surplus declaration
  • Benami holdings (land in name of relatives)
  • Disputes & litigation, clogging revenue courts

This created a parallel system of corruption and inefficiency in land records management.

Limitations of Land Ceiling in India

While the idea behind land ceiling was revolutionary, its implementation faced several serious challenges. As a result, the expected social justice and land redistribution were not fully achieved.

Very Little Land Was Actually Redistributed

Even though most states passed land ceiling laws by 1961, the ground reality was disappointing:

  • By 1970, only 3% of total cultivated land was declared surplus.
  • In states like Bihar and Rajasthan, not even a single hectare was declared surplus during that period.

This shows that the impact was more on paper than on the ground.

Ceiling Applied to Individuals, Not Families

  • The laws were designed to limit land per individual, not family. Wealthy landlords exploited this loophole by transferring land to the names of their: Wives, children, extended relatives, or even fake family members (benami transfers)
  • This way, they broke up large holdings on paper but retained control in reality.

Ceiling Limits Were Too Generous

  • States were allowed to set their own ceiling limits — and many set them too high, defeating the purpose:
    • Andhra Pradesh: Up to 312 acres
    • Maharashtra: Up to 216 acres
    • Punjab: 60 acres
  • At a time when the average landholding was just 5 acres in the 1970s!

Too Many Exemptions

  • The Second Five-Year Plan allowed exemptions for:
    1. Tea, coffee, and rubber plantations
    2. Farms used for cattle breeding or dairying
    3. “Efficiently managed farms” with high investment
  • These categories were vague and loosely defined, making it easy for rich landowners to claim exemption, even if the land wasn’t being used productively.

Delays Helped Landowners Escape

  • State governments took lot of time to pass laws & in this  big farmers got enough time to sell their lands or transfer to relatives etc .

Zamindari Abolition in India

by

Last Updated: June 2025 (Zamindari Abolition in India)

Zamindari Abolition in India

This article deals with ‘Zamindari Abolition in India.’ This is part of our series on ‘Economics’, which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

Imagine this: You’re a hardworking farmer, toiling in the sun all day, but at the end of the harvest, most of your grain goes to a man who neither ploughed the field nor watered the crops. That man was the Zamindar.

Under British rule, especially in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, the colonial government outsourced land revenue collection to these Zamindars. But they weren’t just tax collectors — they were given proprietary rights over land, turning them into mini-landlords who owned vast stretches of land and ruled over the lives of tenant farmers.

Zamindari Abolition in India

These intermediaries often:

  • Forced free labour (called Begari) from farmers.
  • Evicted tenants at will — farmers had no security of tenure.
  • Lived lavish lives but invested nothing to improve agricultural productivity.

The result? High rent, stagnant productivity, and widespread rural poverty.

Constitutional Backing for Abolition

After Independence, the Constitution laid a clear path to end such exploitation:

  • Article 23: Prohibited Begari (forced labour).
  • Article 38: Called for reducing inequality.
  • Article 39(b): Urged equitable distribution of resources.
  • Article 48: Suggested modernizing agriculture and animal husbandry.

Even the First Five-Year Plan (1951–56) prioritized removal of intermediaries to unlock rural growth.

1st Constitutional Amendment (1951)

  • Initially, when states like UP, Bihar, and Bombay introduced Zamindari Abolition Bills, Zamindars approached courts, arguing violation of Right to Property.
  • In response, the 1st Amendment added Article 31B and Schedule 9. It states that any law listed in Schedule 9 became immune from judicial review, even if it violated Fundamental Rights. This helped shield Zamindari Abolition Acts from legal hurdles.

Timeline: Zamindari Abolition by states

1948 to 50sMadras, Bombay and Hyderabad states
1951Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Assam
1952Orissa, Punjab, Swarashtra and Rajasthan
1953Vindhya Pradesh and Bhopal
1954West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh and Delhi.

Note: Land is a State Subject, hence each state passed its own law.

Salient Features of Zamindari Abolition Acts

Land is a State Subject, hence each state passed its own law. But there were some general similarities in them .

Side Topic: Zamindar has two type of lands

  • Zamindari Lands: He was the owner of lands in whole Zamindari. Even those he wasn’t cultivating. He got rent from these land from the tenants. 
  • Personal Land: His personal land which he was cultivating (either himself or by some sharecroppers) .

Compensation

  • Ownership of Zamindari lands & revenue related rights were abolished and land was transferred to tenants.
  • Compensation paid was paid to the zamindars which totalled ₹680 crore across states. But different states used different criteria to. For Example:
    • In UP, Small Zamindars got 20x their annual income; large ones got 2–4x.
    • In Jammu and Kashmir, no compensation was paid.

Common Land Restoration

  • Zamindars earlier charged villagers for using ponds, forests, and grazing lands.
  • These were restored as village commons under Panchayat control.

Personal Cultivation Exemption

  • Land personally cultivated by Zamindars was not seized — it was used as a major loophole.

Obstacles in Zamindari Abolition

While the idea of abolishing Zamindari was revolutionary, its implementation faced serious roadblocks. The reform, although strong on paper, stumbled on the ground due to a mix of legal, administrative, and social hurdles:

1. Legal Delays and Resistance by Zamindars

  • After the laws were passed, Zamindars quickly approached the High Courts and Supreme Court to stall the process.
  • Even after the 1st Constitutional Amendment tried to shield these laws, many Zamindars simply refused to cooperate.
  • Worse, some revenue officials sided with them, either out of old loyalties or in exchange for bribes — making enforcement weak and selective.

2. Loophole of ‘Personal Cultivation’

  • The laws exempted land that was under ‘personal cultivation’ by Zamindars. But this term was vaguely defined, and many Zamindars falsely claimed large chunks of land as personally cultivated. This allowed them to evict genuine tenant farmers and retain control over most of their estates — defeating the very purpose of the reform.

3. Rise of New Intermediaries

  • In many regions, the reform simply replaced one set of landlords with another. Instead of the original Zamindars, occupancy tenants or ‘superior tenants’ got the land titles. These new owners started leasing the land again to poorer tenants, creating a new form of Zamindari under different names.

4. No Transformation in Agriculture

Zamindari abolition only changed who owned the land, not how the land was used.

  • There was no push for modern farming, no land consolidation, and no improvement in agricultural methods.
  • The structure of small, fragmented landholdings remained the same.

So, while the intermediaries were legally removed, agriculture itself remained backward and inefficient in many areas

Benefits of Zamindari Abolition in India

Despite many challenges, Zamindari Abolition had some important positive outcomes, especially in terms of social justice, economic empowerment, and rural transformation.

Boost in Agricultural Productivity

In many cases, absentee landlords who earlier lived off rent began to cultivate their lands directly after losing revenue rights. With access to capital, they invested in:

  • High-Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds
  • Fertilizers and Pesticides
  • Tractors and Irrigation

This shift from rent-collection to direct, capital-intensive farming led to increased agricultural productivity in several regions.

Emancipation of the Rural Poor

With the removal of forced labour (begar) and eviction threats, farm labourers and tenants gained bargaining power.

  • They could now demand fair wages, reducing exploitation.
  • Incomes rose modestly, helping many escape chronic poverty.

This reform laid the groundwork for greater dignity and voice for the rural working class.

Shift in Rural Power Structures

Zamindars earlier controlled common village resources like:

  • Grazing lands
  • Ponds and water bodies
  • Forest patches

After abolition, these lands were declared community property and brought under Panchayat control. This weakened the economic dominance of Zamindars and restored villagers’ collective access to vital resources.

Rise of a Rural Middle Class

Perhaps the most far-reaching outcome was the emergence of a new farming class.

  • Former tenants who became landowners no longer paid heavy rents.
  • With direct control over their produce and income, many could save, invest in education, and improve their standard of living.

Over time, these families formed the backbone of India’s rural middle class, contributing to local leadership, education, and entrepreneurship.