Environment

Before Independence

After Independence

The Biological Diversity Act, 2000 was enacted to fulfil India’s commitments under UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), signed in 1992 at Nagoya.

Aim

• Conservation of biological diversity. 
• Regulating the access to biological and genetic resources. 
• Ensure equitable sharing of benefits arising by using those biological resources.

Institutional Structure

• 3 -tier system was established with
  • National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) at Centre.
  • State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) in each state.
  • Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) function with local governments (both municipalities and panchayats).
• It also establishes the National and State Biodiversity Fund. 

Functions of NBA, SBB & BMC

1. National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)

• All foreign nationals require approval from NBA for obtaining Indian biological resources.
• All Indian individuals/organizations must seek NBA approval before transferring knowledge/research to foreigners.
• The NBA’s prior approval is required before applying for IPR based on research conducted on Indian biological material.
• Advise the Central Government on matters relating to (1) conservation of biodiversity, (2) sustainable use of its components and (3) equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of biological resource
• Advise the State Governments in the framing rules for managing Biodiversity Heritage sites.

2. State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs)

• It advises state governments on the matter relating to the conservation of Biodiversity.  
• It regulates the commercial use of bio-resources in the state by Indians (i.e. companies using biodiversity resources for a commercial purpose need to take permission from SBB ), excluding 1) Vaids and Hakims, practising Indian medicinal system 2) Local People using the bioresources for local use.
• It ensures equitable sharing of benefits arising from utilizing biological resources.

3. Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs)

• BMCs are constituted by the local bodies within their area of jurisdiction. 
• BMC will promote conservation, sustainable use and documentation of biological diversity.
• NBA and SBBs shall consult the BMCS while taking any decision relating to the use of biological resources and knowledge within the jurisdiction of the BMCS.
• BMC is mandated to prepare the People’s Biodiversity Register in consultation with local people. These registers will have comprehensive information about local biological resources and knowledge about their medicinal and traditional uses. 

Role of Indigenous & Local Community  (ILC)

• The act recognizes the role of ILCs in conserving biological resources over the years. Under the act, if the company uses local biological resources and has an annual turnover of more than Rs 3 crore, it will have to share 0.5% of sales with the local community.
• It also provides for the involvement of ILCs through biodiversity management committees (BMCs) in the preparation of people’s biodiversity registers (PBRs).

Biodiversity Heritage Sites

• Under the provisions of the Act, State Government, after consulting local bodies, can notify any area with biodiversity importance as Biodiversity Heritage Sites (BHS). 
• In consultation with the Central Government, the State Government may frame rules for the management and conservation of BHS.

Issues with Act

• Lack of Local Representation: Neither NBA nor State Biodiversity Boards have any representation from indigenous communities, forest-dwelling communities, or traditional knowledge practitioners. 
• Corporate Collusion:  Big players in this industry are yet not registered with the respective State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs). Hence, these corporations are able to bypass the provision of taking permission prior to using local biological resources and the subsequent requirement of sharing royalty.
• Less than 16% of local bodies had constituted Biodiversity Management Committees till 2016.
• Less than 3% of local bodies have prepared the People’s Biodiversity Registers (PBRs). The absence of PBRs puts several endangered species at the risk of extinction and denies benefits to locals from the commercial use of biological resources.

Divya Pharmacy Case (2019)

• Uttarakhand High Court has directed Divya Pharmacy to share part of its profits with the indigenous communities under the provisions of the Biodiversity Act, 2002. 
• Judgement has said that both Indian and foreign companies are liable to pay indigenous and local communities for using the biological resources under the Biological Diversity Act, as the latter kept the traditional knowledge of biological resources alive over the years.  

• TKDL was started in 2001.
• It is a collaboration project between CSIR & Ministry of AYUSH and implemented by CSIR.
• TKDL acts as a bridge between traditional knowledge information existing in local languages & patent examiners at IPO (International Patent Offices). Whenever any MNC or foreign company tries to get a patent on traditional knowledge of Indians, TKDL files a complaint against it to stop biopiracy.

• In the late 1990s, after granting Turmeric and basmati rice patents by the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) and the neem patent granted by the European Patent Office (EPO), respectively, the Indian Government successfully achieved their repudiation. Thereafter, the biopiracy and unethical bioprospecting issue made headlines. This led to the coming of more patent claims. Due to India’s vast traditional medicine knowledge in languages such as Sanskrit, Hindi, Arabic, Persian, Urdu, and Tamil, it became impossible for patent examiners to verify such claims at the international patent offices. Thus, the Department of AYUSH, Government of India, was encouraged for the creation of the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) in 2001.
• Achievements Till 2010,
  • TKDL had transformed 148 books in the public sphere based on Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha and Yoga languages into information consisting of 34 million pages, and further translated them into five languages, namely, English, German, French, Spanish and Japanese.
  • TKDL has already received information on Ayurveda’s 80,000 formulations, Unani’s 1,000,000 and Siddha’s 12,000.
  • TKDL also signed an agreement with the world’s leading international patent offices, such as the European Patent Office (EPO), the United Kingdom Trademark and Patent Office (UKPTO) and the United States Patent and Trademark Office with the primary objective of protecting conventional knowledge from biopiracy and further giving access to the database of TKDL by the patent examiners at International Patent Offices for enabling the purpose of patent search and examinations.
  • Pangaea Labs Limited (a UK-based company) filed a patent for a product based on Turmeric, pinebark, and green tea to treat hair loss. TKDL objected to this and proved it to be part of the Indian system of medicines like Ayurveda and Unani. As a result, Pangaea Labs withdrew its application. 
  • US company Colgate Palmolive applied for a patent for a mouthwash formula containing the herb Jayaphal (Nutmeg). The TKDL submitted proof against this, and the company withdrew the claim. 

Introduction

• IUCN, established in 1948, is one of the world’s oldest global environmental organizations.
• It is an organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources.
• IUCN is headquartered in Gland (Switzerland). 
• Its members include both Nation States and NGOs. 
• It has observer status at United Nations General Assembly.

Main functions of IUCN

• IUCN’s mission is to encourage, influence, and assist societies worldwide to conserve nature and ensure sustainable and equitable use of natural resources  
• It influences governments and industries through partnerships by providing information and advice. 
• The organization collects, compiles and publishes the IUCN red list of threatened species.

Red List of IUCN

• The Red Databook or Red list is a system of classifying plants and animals on the basis of their likelihood of extinction.
• The concept of the Red list was mooted in 1963. Each year, scientists worldwide assess or reassess species & IUCN Red List is subsequently updated. The latest list was released in 2021.
• This list helps Governments and NGOs prioritize their efforts to save the particular plant, animal etc. Special emphasis should be paid to species on the red list, and their trade should be banned CITES.

It has divided all flora and fauna into 9 groups

1. Extinct (Ex)

• The last individual has died.

2. Extinct in Wild (EW)

• Only surviving in captivity.

3. Critically Endangered (CR)

If the organism satisfies any one of the following conditions

4. Endangered (EN)

If the organism satisfies any one of the following conditions

5. Vulnerable (VU)

If the organism satisfies any one of the following conditions

6. Near Threatened (NT)

• Doesn’t qualify above three but is close to qualifying in future.

7. Least Concern (LC)

• These have widespread & abundant taxa.

8. Data Deficient

• Enough data is not available to conclude.

9. Not Evaluated

• Species that are not evaluated at all 

Note: Critically Endangered, Endangered and Vulnerable are also known as Threatened Species. 

Limitations of IUCN Redlist

• IUCN Red List contains 9 groups & the 9th group is not evaluated. It contains thousands of species.
• It is also likely that many species have or are in the process of becoming extinct but not receiving government protection efforts because they are in the 9th or 8th group.

Introduction

• CITES or Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna & flora is the brainchild of IUCN.
• It is headquartered in Geneva. 
• It is an inter-governmental treaty to ensure that trade in the wildlife species doesn’t threaten their survival. 
• It is also known as Washington Convention.
• Limiting the trade of wildlife flora and fauna has become even more important due to frequent epidemics in the past few years like the SARS epidemic (bats), MERS-CoV (camels), Ebola (bats or non-human primates) and Nipah virus (bats).

Why illegal trade?

• According to WHO, more than 50% of people in the world still use traditional medicines derived from animals and plants. In traditional Chinese and Asian medicine, the bones, tissues, and blood of tigers and the ivory of elephants are used to treat diseases like arthritis and impotence.
• It is a multibillion-dollar industry, just like narcotic drugs trade with large supply chains.

How CITES work?

CITES has no enforcement authority of its own. It relies on the cooperation of various nations and classifies species into 3 Appendices to regulate their trade  

CITES and India

• CITES has undertaken many projects, especially with the help of the Wildlife Crime Control Bureau under the Ministry of Environment. E.g., Project MIKE (Monitoring Illegal Killing of Elephants), Haathi Mere Saathi etc.
• In recent times
  1. India has demanded to transfer Small Clawed Otters and Indian Star Tortoise from Appendix II to Appendix I.
  2. On the opposite side, India has also proposed to remove Rosewood from Appendix II.

Criticism

1. It has no enforcement agency of its own

• Hence, it depends on the agencies of different nations and their laws, which vary greatly 

2. Arena of the fight between Developed nations vs Developing nations 

• CITES has become an arena of battle between developed nations, which promote a ban on trade in endangered species and developing nations, which see such trade as an economic resource. 

3. Introduction of Non-Native species

• Sometimes, confiscated endangered species are released into nature in a country where it is confiscated instead of sending it back to their native habitat. It has potential ecological impacts. E.g., Malayan Pangolin was released in China. 

4. Placing species in the Appendix is counterproductive

• If any species is included in Appendix I, it drives up the prices for that species, encouraging more hunting and poaching for trade. It was seen in the case of rhinoceros horn, elephant ivory, and tiger bone.  

• WWF = World Wide Fund for Nature.
• It was established in 1961.
• Mission: “To conserve nature and reduce the most pressing threats to the diversity of life on Earth.”
• Headquarters: Gland, Switzerland
• It runs a large number of projects in partnership with governments and bodies.

• BNHS is an autonomous organization.
• It deals with the conservation of flora and fauna, education and ecological conservation.
• It is headquartered in Coimbatore. 
• It has partnered with the Government of India to establish Salim Ali Centre on Ornithology and Natural History, which is an institute of higher learning which gives MPhil and PhD in Ornithology and Natural History.

• It is an organization under the United Nations.
• It was formed in 1972 as a direct result of the Stockholm Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment. 
• It is headquartered in Nairobi.

• 1992 marked the 20th anniversary of the Stockholm Declaration (United Nations Conference on the Human Environment).
• Earth Summit or United Nations Conference on Environment and Development was held in Brazil’s Rio de Janeiro to commemorate this and discuss further steps.
• It led to the following important conventions wrt Biodiversity, Climate Change and Desertification.
  1. United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity 
  2. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change  
  3. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification 

Introduction

• Since the domestication of the first crops & farm animals, humans have altered their genetic makeup through selective breeding & cross-fertilization. But in recent years, advances in biotech techniques have enabled scientists to cross the species barrier. E.g., Tomato has been modified using a gene from cold-water fish to protect plants from frost.
• Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) have become part of an increasing number of products, including foods, food additives, beverages, drugs, fuels etc. It has raised concern about side effects on human health & environment, including risk to biodiversity. 
• Cartagena Protocol (under the Convention of Biodiversity) was signed in 2000 to address the potential risks posed by the cross border trade & accidental release of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs).
• India is a member of the Cartagena Protocol.

Provisions

1. Advanced Informed Agreement

• Advanced Informed Agreement (AIA) is to ensure that member countries have access to the necessary information to make an informed decision before importing such organisms into their territory.

2. Biosafety Clearing House

• To signal whether the country is willing to accept the import of agricultural commodities, including LMOs.

3. Clear Labelling

• Commodities that may contain LMOs are to be clearly labelled when they are being exported.

Can a country ban import of LMO

• The country can ban the import of genetically modified organisms if they feel there is not enough scientific evidence that the product is safe.

• Full Name: Nagoya Protocol on the access to genetic resources & fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from their utilization.
• The Protocol was signed at the Conference of Parties-10 (CoP-10) to Convention on Biodiversity, which was held in Nagoya (Japan) in 2010. If Kyoto entered history as a city where the climate accord was born, Nagoya would be remembered as a city where Biodiversity Accord was born. Subsequently, it became operational in 2014 at Pyeongchang CoP (South Korea).
• It is a legally binding agreement.
• Only those countries that are members of the Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) can sign the Nagoya Protocol. Hence, USA and Andorra are not the members.

What is sharing the benefits of genetic resources?

• Most of the world’s biodiversity is found in developing countries which consider it a resource for fuelling their economic & social development. Foreign bio-prospectors have searched for natural substances to develop new commercial products such as drugs & medicines. The product such developed would often be sold & protected by patents or other IPR without giving fair benefit to source countries. Hence, in the whole process, all parties suffer because biopirates don’t share profit, and as a result, countries are unwilling to share their genetic resources with MNCs (biopirates).
• The provision of access and benefit-sharing comes into the picture in such a situation. Under access and benefit-sharing, if any foreign or Indian company or any individual wants to get access to Indian biological resources like medicinal plants or traditional knowledge associated with that, that entity has to take consent from National Biodiversity Board. The board can impose a condition on the entity to share benefits in the form of royalty fees or profit-sharing arising from the commercialization of that product. 

Basis of Nagoya Protocol

• CBD recognizes national sovereignty on all genetic resources & provides that access to valuable biological resources be carried out on mutually agreed terms & subject to prior informed consent of the country of origin.
• When a microorganism, plant or animal is used for a commercial application, the country from where it has come has the right to benefit.
• Such benefits include 
  1. Cash 
  2. Samples of what is collected from the source country 
  3. Participation or training of national researchers 
  4. Transfer of biotech equipment & know-how 
  5. Shares of any profit from the use of resource 
• Nagoya protocol covers  
  • Genetic resources 
  • Derivatives (antibodies, vitamins, enzymes, active compounds & metabolics)
  • Traditional Knowledge associated with genetic resources 
• It doesn’t apply on 
  • Genetic resources covered under special access & benefit sharing agreements like (1) Framework for Pandemic Preparedness of WHO and (2) International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for food & agriculture.
  • Human genetic material  
  • Genetic resources acquired before the protocol 

Obligations of the country under Nagoya Protocol

1. Obligations related to access to genetic resources
   • Each party is required to create unambiguous & clear legal processes related to access to genetic resources.
2. Obligations related to benefit-sharing 
   • It provides for fair & equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources with the contracting party providing genetic resources subject to mutually agreed terms.
   • The benefit may be monetary (royalties) or non-monetary (sharing of research results).
3. Compliance obligations  
   • Party should cooperate in cases of the alleged violation of another contracting party’s requirement.

Implications of Nagoya Protocol on the economy such as India

• India would benefit as it is the most genetically diverse nation in the world.
• Now MNCs / bio-prospectors making use of Indian genetic resources in making commercial products would have to share profit with India.

Conservation of biodiversity is the protection and scientific management of biodiversity so that present and future generations can derive sustainable benefits from it.

• In-Situ Conservation means conservation in the natural habitat.
• It involves the conservation of the whole ecosystem to protect threatened species at all levels.
• It is done by establishing a ‘PROTECTED AREA NETWORK‘ backed by legislation. These Protected Area Networks are 
  1. National Parks 
  2. Wildlife Sanctuaries 
  3. Biosphere Reserves
  4. Conservation Reserves 
  5. Community Reserves 
  6. Sacred Grooves 
  7. Eco-Sensitive Zone
  8. Biodiversity Heritage Sites 

• Other steps for In-Situ Conservation of Biodiversity
  1. ICMBA (Important Coastal & Marine Biodiversity Areas) 
  2. UNESCO World Heritage Sites 
  3. Go Area and No Go Areas 
  4. Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ)

• National Park is a natural habitat notified by the state government due to its ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, or zoological association of importance. 
• These are declared under Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. 
• It works on the principle of ‘Everything is prohibited unless permitted.’
• No human interference is allowed. Activities such as development, forestry, hunting, cultivation and grazing are not permitted.
• There are 104 national parks in India (1.23% area of India).

Ranking (for prelims)

• Maximum Area: Uttarakhand  
• Maximum number: Madhya Pradesh and Andaman & Nicobar with 9 each.
• Punjab, Chandigarh, Daman & Diu, Delhi and Lakshadweep have zero National Parks.

List of National Parks

• Biosphere Reserves are areas of terrestrial & coastal ecosystems that promote biodiversity conservation with its sustainable use. They are internationally recognized within the framework of UNESCO’s Man & Biosphere (MAB) Programme & nominated by national governments under the Wildlife (Protection) Act.
• The stress of MAB is to protect the threatened habitats and not the particular species.
• Living is not permitted in National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary, but Biosphere Reserves have very low restrictions on the residence. Biosphere Reserves are living examples of how human beings and nature can co-exist while respecting each other’s needs.

Biosphere Reserves in India

• India has 18 Biosphere Reserves. Out of these 18, 12 are recognized under the UNESCO MAB network.

• The State Government declares conservation Reserves in consultation with local communities in any Government-owned area, especially in the areas lying adjacent to National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries and areas linking one Protected Area with another to protect landscapes, seascapes, flora and fauna. 
• These are declared under Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. (added via Amendment in 2002)
• The declaration of the area as a Conservation Reserve doesn’t affect the rights of people living inside a Conservation Reserve.
• There are 97 Conservation Reserves in India. You can check their names by CLICKING HERE. 

• Sacred Groves, also known as Sacred Woods, are groves of trees having some special religious or cultural importance.
• These are protected areas under Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (added via amendment in 2002).

A list of Sacred Groves are

• “Biodiversity Heritage Sites” (BHS) are terrestrial, coastal or inland areas rich in biodiversity, with some of the following characteristics.
  1. Richness of species 
  2. High endemism
  3. Presence of keystone species, rare species, threatened species etc.
  4. Presence of past biological components
• They are declared under National Biodiversity Act, 2002.

• Eco-Sensitive Zones are the areas within a 10 km radius of Protected Areas.
• They are declared under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
• The aim of declaring any area as an Eco-Sensitive Zone is to minimize the impacts of activities carried out in the areas surrounding protected areas on the fragile ecosystem of protected areas.

The UNESCO World Heritage Sites are the places listed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)  as places of special cultural or physical significance.

Total in India = 40 

• 7: Physical
• 1: Mixed 
• 32: Cultural (2021: Dholavira = Latest entry)

The largest number of World Heritage Sites are in Italy, followed by China. India is ranked 6th.

Related to Physical Significance = 7 + 1 (mixed)

In 2010, Environment Ministry divided the areas into two parts for mining purposes, i.e. Go Area & No Go Area. 

The concept of Go and No-Go Area was for mining projects, but NGOs started to file PIL arguing to extend it to activities such as tourism, settlement etc., and restrictions in the No Go areas should be made more stringent. All this led to the problem of environmental clearances. 

TSR Subramanium Committee suggested the whole concept of Go & No-Go areas in the following way

Timeline

CRZ Notification, 2018

• CRZ Notification divided the Coastal area into 4 Zones vis Zone 1 to Zone 4.

• No development zone (NDZ) was reduced to 50 meters from the High Tide Line on the landward side, decreasing it from 200 metres in 2011 notifications.
• Tourism infrastructure: The notification allows temporary tourism facilities such as shacks, toilet blocks, change rooms etc., on beaches at a minimum distance of 10 m from HTL.
• CRZ clearances are needed only for projects located in CRZ-I (eco-sensitive zones areas and intertidal zones) and CRZ IV (12 NM from LTL towards the sea).
• Defence and strategic projects have been accorded necessary dispensation.

On one side, these regulations will help in promoting economic development and tourism. But, it has also made the coastal ecology and communities vulnerable.

• In Seedbanks, the seeds can be stored at low temperature and humidity as a backup in the case of any unforeseen circumstances. 
• Important Seedbanks are Global Seedbank Vault at Svalbard (Norway) and Indian Seed Vault at Chang La (Ladakh).
• Although useful, this strategy faces issues like seeds have a finite life and need to be replaced. Along with that, seed banks of private companies like Monsanto are only concerned with storing commercially viable seeds. 

Examples of Seed Banks

1. Global Seed Vault at Svalbard (Norway)

• It is a state-of-the-art seed protection facility, famously called the ‘Doomsday’ or the ‘Apocalypse’ Seed Bank or ‘Noah’s Ark for seeds’.
• It is situated in the remote Arctic Svalbard archipelago (part of Norway).
• It was established in 2008.
• It is located 1000m deep inside the mountain.

2. India’s Seed Vault

• It is situated at Chang La, Ladakh, in the Institute of High Altitude Research.
• It was made in 2010 by ICAR, CSIR and the Department of Biotechnology.
• In India, the seed bank is managed by the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Research.
• The Indian seed vault is the second largest vault in the world, after Global Seed Vault.

3. NAVDANYA

• It is a community-based seed bank that has a presence in around 17 states in India.
• In this, the farmers grow the seeds as well as supply the seeds.
• In the Navdanya, the farmers are encouraged to grow their own seeds, taught the traditional farming method, and at the end of the season, they should return25% of the seeds.
• Navdanya is also promoting eco-feminism. 

• Gene banks act as biorepository by preserving the genetic material.
• In Gene banks, cryopreservation techniques can preserve genetic strains of threatened species for long periods.

• Zoos can be used to raise some endangered species, try to breed them & reintroduce their offspring back into the jungle. 
• The Zoological Survey of India declares zoos under Wildlife Protection Act. 
• But Zoos face many issues like 
  • All the species can’t breed in captivity.
  • If an animal is reintroduced to its natural habitat, the animal finds it difficult to survive in the wild. Hence, the captive breeding of animals should be used only in exceptional circumstances. 
  • Zoos concentrate on big & popular species like tigers, pandas etc., which can attract a large population. They are least interested in protecting small species.

According to the Convention on Biodiversity (CBD), Biodiversity is the variability among the living organisms, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems. It also includes diversity between species and within species. 

There are three levels of biodiversity, i.e. Genetic diversity, Species diversity and Community/Ecosystem diversity.

1. Genetic Diversity

Genetic diversity is the diversity that is found at the level of genes. Genetic diversity is the differences in the genetic make-up within a single species.

Some points to note about Genetic Diversity

• The greater the genetic diversity, the more capable are the genes to face different threats, therefore increasing the chances of an organism surviving in adverse conditions. 
• India has more than 50,000 different varieties of rice. But these rice varieties have faced the onslaught of monoculture promoted by the Green Revolution resulting in more diabetes in the Indian population.
• Generally, the tropics have greater genetic diversity.

2. Species Diversity

Species diversity denotes the number of species per unit area. It signifies the richness of species in a given habitat.

Some points to note about Species Diversity

• The Eastern Himalayas are especially rich in species biodiversity because high temperature, humidity and rainfall promote different biogeographic zones, causing the development of flora and fauna in these biogeographic zones.  
• Species diversity is also greater in the tropics because of the following reasons.
  1. High heat and humidity which is optimum for metabolic activities 
  2. These regions have been climatically stable.  
  3. As weathering and erosion are greater in the tropics, the soil mantle is greater. Therefore, floral and faunal diversity is high.
• Generally, smaller islands have more endemism than species richness. In other words, there will be unique species on the islands, but different varieties aren’t found on the islands. Therefore, the general rule is that islands are poorer in species richness than the mainland areas. 
• Most of the islands are unique in the way that they have a high degree of endemism, but the species are threatened because an invasive alien species can easily colonize the island.

3. Ecosystem / Community Diversity

Ecosystem Diversity refers to the ecosystem level diversity due to the diverse niches, trophic levels and ecological processes such as nutrient cycles, energy flow etc.

1. Alpha Biodiversity

• Alpha biodiversity is measured by counting the number of species within a particular area, community or ecosystem. 

2. Beta Biodiversity

• Beta biodiversity is the comparison of biodiversity between ecosystems. It is the change in the number of species between ecosystems.

3. Gamma Biodiversity

• It is the measure of the overall biodiversity of the total landscape or geographical area.

• The theme for IBD 2024: Be Part of the Plan
• The theme for IBD 2023: From Agreement to Action: Build Back Biodiversity

Ecosystem Services

Ecosystem Services are the processes by which the environment produces benefits useful to people akin to economic services. E.g.

1. Provision of clean water & air
2. Pollination of crops
3. Mitigation of environmental hazards  
4. Preventing soil erosion
5. Cultural services such as cultural advancement of people (like inspiration for music, painting etc.), recreation and building of knowledge

Insects and Ecosystem

• Insects play an important role in sustaining life and food security by acting as pollinators and natural recyclers. 
• The population of insects has been reduced at the rate of 9% in the previous three decades due to various reasons like the introduction of broad range insecticides like DDT, climate change, honey hunting etc. For example, the US lost half of its butterfly population due to the introduction of DDT in the 1940s. 
• It is important to arrest this development. Otherwise, it will imperil the world food supply as pulses, oilseeds, and fruits depend on pollination. 

Inter-Governmental  Platform  On  Biodiversity and Ecosystem  Services (IPBES)

• It was created in 2012
• Its secretariat is situated in Germany and is administered by the UN.
• IPBES works on biodiversity in the same way as more famous  Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) works for climate change.

Biodiversity is being lost at an unprecedented scale, as pointed out by WWF’s Living Planet Report (2024), which stated that wildlife population has declined by 73% in past 50 years.

1. Habitat destruction or fragmentation

• Habitat destruction and fragmentation are happening due to the following reasons
  1. Conversion of land for agriculture
  2. Land use for construction purposes 
  3. Damage to coastal and marine systems for the construction of ports and infrastructure 
• The aptest example of habitat loss is the Amazon rainforest, also known as the “Lungs of the planet”, which is destroyed and being replaced by agriculture and human settlements.
• Habitat fragmentation leads to biodiversity loss because mammals and birds require a large minimum territory to sustain their population.

2. Pollution

• Nutrient loading into the ecosystems leads to Algal blooms and Eutrophication.
• Air pollution has a detrimental effect on the whole ecosystem. 

3. Invasion of Exotic Species

• Invasive species are introduced – intentionally or unintentionally – to an ecosystem in which they don’t naturally appear & which threaten habitats, ecosystems or native species. 
• They become invasive due to high reproduction rates & absence of natural predators to control their population.
• Examples include
  • Tilapia fish: It was introduced in the inland waters of Kerala in 1952 from the eastern coast of South Africa because of its higher productivity. But the fish became invasive, resulting in the extinction of native species. 
  • Nile Perch: The fish was introduced in Lake Victoria, which grew at an exponential rate and led to the extinction of more than 200 species.

4. Over-Exploitation

• Due to population overgrowth, humans are overexploiting biological resources. E.g. due to increased demand for fish, 50% of world commercial fisheries are fully exploited, and 25% are overexploited. 
• Species such as Dodo and Steller’s Sea Cow have already become extinct in the last 200-300 years due to over-exploitation by humans.

5. Hunting

• Animals are hunted for commercial exploitation as well as for sport.
• For example, in 2021, Pakistan gave a permit to Dubai Royals to hunt Houbara Bustard Bird (status: vulnerable) for money.

6. Climate Change

Climate change and global warming have led to the following detrimental impacts on biodiversity 

1. Species redistribution
2. Effect on the timing of reproduction & migration.
3. Increased frequency of pest outbreaks and forest fires. 

7. Co-extinction

• Co-extinction is the process in which the extinction of one species leads to the extinction of another species, which has a mutually beneficial relationship with the extinct species. For example, the extinction of fish leads to the extinction of parasites that feed on the host fish. 
• The most famous example of co-extinction is that of the Calvaria tree and Dodo (extinct bird of Mauritius Island). Both were mutualistic associated as Dodo helped germinate tough endocarp of the seeds of the Calvaria tree through its digestive juices and stones in the bird’s gizzard. Thus the extinction of Dodo led to the extinction of the Calvaria tree as well.

8. Use of Hybrid Seeds

• Hybridization between native and non-native species and subsequent loss of native species. 

9. Natural Disasters

• Natural disasters like tsunamis, forest fires, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions etc., also cause irreparable damage to the region’s biodiversity.

10. Jhum Cultivation

• Jhum cultivation involves slashing down and burning the natural vegetation to prepare the land for cultivation. The farming is done on the plot for 2 to 3 seasons, after which the tribal farmers move to another plot due to the reduction of the fertility of the given land.

The loss of biodiversity is dangerous for the whole ecosystem. The ‘River Popper Hypothesis‘ by ecologist Paul Ehrlich beautifully explained the perilous impacts of biodiversity loss. He compared the species in an ecosystem with the rivets in the aeroplane’s body.

1. If some of the rivets on the body are removed, nothing serious happens to the aeroplane.
2. But if rivets beyond a certain number are removed, the whole aeroplane will fall apart.
3. Which rivet is removed matters as well. If the key rivet is removed, the whole aeroplane can collapse with the removal of a single rivet.

• Light Pollution is excessive & misdirected artificial (usually outdoor) light in the environment. 
• It is also known as photo pollution or luminous pollution. 
• 2017 WWF Earth Hour has highlighted the issue of Light Pollution.

• Unnecessary use of artificial lights
• Poorly designed residential, commercial, and industrial outdoor lights. 
• Unshielded light fixtures that emit more than 50% of their light skyward or sideways. 

1. Environment

• Photo pollution increases air pollution by suppressing a naturally occurring Nitrate radical that cleans the air at night. (Nitrate prevents ground-level Ozone formation). 

2. Human Health

• Light Pollution affects circadian rhythms (biological watch). 

3. Energy

• Misdirected light results in energy waste and creates GHG emissions.

4. Wildlife

• Lights can attract or repel animals and insects in human areas. 
• It disturbs the migration of birds that navigate using the stars.

5. Astronomy

• Light spills and sky glow interfere with astronomical equipment, making viewing faint celestial bodies difficult.

• Organic compounds that resist photolytic, biological & chemical degradation are known as Persistent Organic Pollutants or POPs. 
• Due to persistence, pollutants are capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulation & biomagnification.
• POPs include pesticides, industrial solvents, polyvinyl chloride & pharmaceuticals.

Common Characteristics

1. Low water Solubility

• They aren’t soluble in water.

2. High Lipid Solubility

• They have high lipid solubility, which leads to bio-accumulation.

3. Semi-Volatile

• They either occur in nature in the vapour phase or are adsorbed on atmospheric particles, facilitating long-range transport. 

4. Toxicity

• POPs with higher molecular weights are toxic.

5. Chemical structure

• Most of the POPs are halogenated & many have chlorine as a component.

• The process by which a pollutant enters the food chain and accumulates in the body of a living organism is known as Bioaccumulation.
• The tendency of the pollutant to increase in concentration as it moves from lower to higher trophic levels in the food chain is known as Biomagnification.

• Example
  1. The sewage containing POPs such as DDT is dumped into rivers and oceans, entering the food chain through phytoplankton and zooplankton. The concentration continues to increase in the successive trophic levels. 
  2. Commercial agriculture requires more application of insecticides and pesticides. Hence, pesticides and insecticides enter the food chain and continue to accumulate at successive trophic levels.

• The bioaccumulants tend to move upwards in a food chain.
• They are non-biodegradable, and therefore they have a longer life.
• They are not soluble in water, and therefore they can’t be thrown away by the body through urine and excreta. 
• Most of the bioaccumulants are fat-soluble, i.e. lipogenic, and hence they are transferred easily from mother’s milk to infants or transferred to the meat and fish-eating population. (example includes mercury poisoning or Minamata disease).

There are following conventions

1. Stockholm Convention 
2. Rotterdam Convention 
3. Basel Convention
4. Bamako Convention

1. Stockholm Convention on POPs

• It is the convention on bioaccumulants, also known as Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs).
• It deals with banning the pollutants known as ‘DIRTY DOZENS’. 
• The convention was signed in 2001 under the aegis of the United Nations. Consequently, India became a party to the convention in 2005. Presently, it has 179 members. 
• The global Environmental Facility (GEF) is the designated interim financial mechanism for the Stockholm Convention.

Dirty Dozen or 12 listed POPs  

Note

Most of India’s commonly used insecticides and pesticides have to be mandatorily labelled under the Insecticide Act of 1968 and the rules of 1971. Four colours are used to indicate the toxicity level of insecticide or pesticide

2. Basel Convention

• Basel Convention is on the transboundary movement of hazardous waste and its disposal. It was signed to stop the dumping of hazardous chemicals from developed to developing nations. 
• Most of the pollutants are covered under Basel Convention except radioactive waste.
• Basel Convention is against the ‘TOXIC COLONIALISM’ (epitomised by KOKO CASE, where Italy used to transport 8,000 barrels of most toxic waste per month to Nigeria in return for the rent of $100 till 1988).
• It was signed in 1989 and came into effect in 1992. 

3. Rotterdam Convention on International Trade in  Hazardous Substances

• Rotterdam Convention is on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for certain Hazardous Chemicals & Pesticides in International Trade.
• It was signed in 1998 and became effective in 2004.
• Under the convention, while trading in hazardous chemicals and pesticides, the country has to take prior consent before exporting it to another country. 
• In the recent meeting of the Rotterdam Convention, Canada has objected to listing asbestos fibres as pollutants. 

4. Bamako Convention

• It is a convention on controlling transboundary movement and managing hazardous waste, including radioactive waste within Africa (only).

• Till now, various programs have been started by the government to clean Ganga, but all proved to be a failure. These programs include 

• 2014: Modi started “Namami Gange” to clean Ganga. It focuses not merely on the main river but also on the tributaries (like Ramganga, Kali and Yamuna as a first priority).  

• 2016: Girdhar Malviya committee formed to prepare a draft law to maintain the Nirmalta (cleanliness) and Aviralta (uninterrupted flow) of Ganga 

• 2017-18: Chital Committee formed by the government on Desiltation of the river Ganga submitted its report. It recommended a region-specific approach instead of a one-size-fits-all approach.

Union Level

1. National Ganga Council: Headed by Prime Minister and includes Chief Ministers of Ganga Basin States.
2. Empowered Task Force: Headed by Union Minister of Water Resources.
3. National Mission For Clean Ganga: Headed by Director-General

State Level

• State Ganga Committee

District Level

• District Ganga Committee

1. Faulty Area-specific Approach: The previous approaches were specific to a very small area. Only certain cities and clusters were selected and not the entire basin.
2. No Coordination: Different bodies were involved in these schemes without any coordination.
3. Identification of sources that pollute Ganga: All programs focussed on sewage to a large extent and completely missed agriculture pollutants (non-point pollutants) in policymaking.
4. Neglected Tributaries: Various tributaries of Ganga like Yamuna, Gomti, Damodar, Mahananda etc., were not given adequate importance in cleaning efforts. 

Namami Gange is different from previous schemes because it focuses on following things 

• Namami Gange focuses on all sources that pollute Ganga, i.e. Sewage, Industrial Discharge, Open Defecation, non-point sources from Agriculture etc.
• Ganga is not only getting polluted but is also dying due to numerous Hydel Plants and other man-made projects. To tackle this, Namami Gange has two specific components i.e. Aviral Dhara (Uninterrupted flow) and Nirmal Dhara (Clean flow).
• It focuses not merely on the main river but also on the tributaries (like Rāmgangā, Kali and Yamuna as a first priority).
• Instead of selecting a few cities or clusters, Namami Gange has taken the entire Ganga Basin into its ambit.
• Coordinated approach: The program focuses on coordination between different Central Ministries & State Governments.

• Sewage Treatment Plants will be installed
• Riverfronts will be developed
• Special emphasis will be placed on protecting the biodiversity of Ganga, especially of species such as Gangetic Dolphin.
• Ganga Gram, i.e. villages located on Ganga, will be made open defecation free  
• Ashes can’t be immersed in shallow banks
• No sewage pipe will have an outlet into the river
• Ganga Task Force to ensure that industry and civilians do not pollute the river
• Cleanup of Ganga and its tributaries under one umbrella
• Ganga Manthan to dialogue with stakeholders: Spiritual Leaders, NGOs, Policymakers, Academicians, Environmentalists etc.
• Industries will have to install Common effluent treatment plants (CETPs) 
• New Hydel plants to have a minimum environmental impact 
• Build electric crematoriums

• About 1,650-gram panchayats lie directly on the banks of the Ganga. The sewage they generate is almost entirely untreated.
• The model of Baba Balbir Singh Seechewal of Punjab, who is credited with the successful cleaning of the Kali Bein river (Tributary of Beas) with public participation, can be used in Namami Gange. 
• Seechewal Model includes 
  • Segregation of solid and liquid waste
  • Wastewater is treated through oxidation ponds & used for irrigation 
  • Solid waste is used to make compost 
  • The whole process is done with community participation => this has strengthened the feeling of ownership  
  • The government is now using this model in Ganga Gram Yojana. 
• Baba Seechewal was awarded Padma Shri in 2017 for his contribution.

• There is a delay in the construction of the sewage treatment plants. Additionally, concerns have been raised regarding the poor performance of treatment plants constructed under Namami Gange.
• There is a decrease in the flow of the Ganga due to the construction of Hydroelectric plants. Since the 1970s, the flow has decreased by 56%. Presently, Ganga cannot maintain the Minimum Ecological Flow except during the monsoon.
• According to CAG Report, 60% of the funds allocated under the Nanami Ganga program have remained unutilized.
• Meetings of the National Ganga Council are not held regularly. 

• The syndrome, in response to the addition of artificial or natural substances such as nitrates and phosphates through fertilizers, sewage, etc., fertilizes the aquatic ecosystem, causing algal bloom, which ultimately results in the death of aquatic plants and animals.
• It is primarily caused by the leaching of phosphates or nitrates containing fertilizers from agricultural lands to lakes or rivers.

• The sudden growth of algae, especially in shallow water bodies, which causes the blocking of sunlight, is known as an algal bloom.
• Algal blooms increase the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) as they produce toxins causing anoxic conditions and death of the lakes. 
• But sometimes, algal and phytoplankton blooms are helpful because they form the base of the food chain providing food to marine organisms.

Causes of Algal Bloom 

• Nitrates and phosphorus fertilization due to excessive use of fertilizers in the agriculture
• Excessive dumping of biological waste in the water bodies
• Direct sewage disposal in the water bodies
• Disposal of industrial waste in the water bodies 
• Aquaculture (i.e. technique of growing fish in an artificial atmosphere as it involves a direct application of nutrients) 
• Natural events such as floods which take excessive nutrients due to enhanced weathering and erosion

• Reducing the use of fertilizers by using Nutrient Management Policy
• Switching to composting in which organic matter is converted to manure. The nutrients present in the compost are deficient in nitrates and phosphates because the essential elements are broken down, thus stopping the cycle of eutrophication. 
• Precision agriculture, i.e. the use of information communication technology in crop and farm management to provide agro-inputs according to the specific requirement of the different parts of the farm. 
• Strengthening the laws and regulations for the point and non-point sources of water pollution.
• Construction of riparian buffers and restoration of wetlands as the riparian buffer acts as a transition water-body or wetland between surface runoff and main water body. 

• Minimize non-point pollution, especially from agriculture. 
• Treat industrial effluents before dumping.
• Treatment of sewage before dumping.

Dead zones or Hypoxic zones are regions in the ocean or lakes where the oxygen level falls to such a low level that marine life can’t even survive in them.

Causes

There are two leading causes

• Rising sea temperatures:  Temperature rise reduces the solubility of oxygen in the water.
• Eutrophication: The algal bloom results in the reduction of oxygen levels.

Note – Dead zones are reversible if their causes are reduced or eliminated.

Impact

• Impact on Global Warming: It triggers the release of chemicals like nitrous oxide, which have high GHG potential. 
• Impact on Corals: The low levels of oxygen in the aquatic ecosystem results in the death of coral reefs.
• Impact on food security: It results in the loss of marine food resources.

Water pollution occurs when there is a change in the chemical, physical or biological quality of water that has a harmful effect(s) on living organisms that consume it or live in it.

When is water said to be polluted?

• When it is impaired by contaminants 
• Doesn’t support human use like drinking
• Undergoes a marked shift in the ability to support its constituent biotic communities like fish (For example, almost all the fishes in Ulsoor Lake (Bangalore) died due to water pollution)

There are two main types of sources: point sources and non-point sources 

1. Point sources

• Contaminants that enter a waterway from a single and identifiable source.
• Examples: from a sewage plant, a factory etc. 

2. Non-Point Sources

• Non-Point Sources are the sources of water pollution that cannot be traced to a single source.
• For Example, Acid rain, chemical runoff, and leaching out of nitrogen compounds from fertilized agricultural lands.

Apart from that, Groundwater aquifers are susceptible to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water bodies. E.g., chemical spill into the soil may not pollute any surface water body but pollute the underground water aquifer.

1. Agricultural

• Agricultural wastes include fertilizer and pesticide runoff from agricultural fields, food processing waste, tree and sawdust from logging operations and sewage from livestock operations.

2. Industrial Sector

• Industrial discharge (effluents) may contain various compounds such as heavy metals (cadmium, chromium, lead) and organic and inorganic chemicals. These discharges can affect the temperatures of the water bodies and dissolved oxygen levels.

3. Domestic/Municipal Sector

• Untreated Sewage: The majority of domestic waste generation makes sewage which is dumped into water bodies without treatment. 
• Untreated Solid Waste: Due to inadequate waste management facilities and ineffective enforcement of waste management regulations, millions of tons of solid waste are dumped directly into water bodies every year.

4. Thermal Pollution

• When water at elevated levels of temperature used to run turbines in Power plants is discharged into rivers, streams or oceans, it increases the temperature of the water body. Also, it decreases dissolved oxygen in the water, which adversely affects aquatic life.

5. Sand Mining and Illegal Encroachment

• Rivers are self-cleansing entities to a certain extent but these activities disrupt the natural flow of rivers and reduces the self cleaning ability of the river.

1. Physical Testing

Standard physical tests of water include 

1. Temperature
2. Solid concentrations (e.g. Total Suspended Solids (TSS))
3. Turbidity

2. Chemical Testing

Water samples may be examined using the principles of analytical chemistry. Frequently used methods include 

• pH
• Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): It measures oxygen used by micro-organisms in the oxidation of organic matter. 
• Chemical Oxygen Demand(COD): It measures oxygen equivalent to the oxidation of total organic matter present in water.
• Metals (like cadmium and lead), oil & grease and pesticides.

3. Biological Testing

• Involves the use of the plant, animal, and microbial indicators to monitor the health of an aquatic ecosystem. 
• Example: Copepods 

Water pollution strongly impacts humans, animals, vegetation, and the entire ecosystem. These effects can be classified into

On Ecosystem

1. When sewage water and agriculture runoff containing organic material is discharged into freshwater, it increases the growth of algae, causing eutrophication and death of the whole aquatic ecosystem.
2. If warm water is disposed of in coastal areas containing corals, it leads to the destruction of the whole ecosystem.
3. A steep increase in Biological Oxygen Demand turns the lake or sea into a dead zone, killing all the organisms in the ecosystem.

On Animal Health

1. Fishes and aquatic animals are poisoned by the dumping of industrial wastes in water bodies. 
2. Oil spills kill a number of animals in the affected area.
3. It leads to bioaccumulation and biomagnification across various trophic levels.

On Human Health

1. Humans suffer from diseases like hepatitis by eating seafood contaminated due to water pollution.
2. Heavy metal poisoning of the fishes due to water pollution can cause diseases in humans. E.g., Minamata disease due to mercury poisoning impacted humans as well.
3. Consumption of polluted water results in cholera and typhoid.
4. Nitrate contamination of water can prove to be disastrous for infants as it can restrict the oxygen to reach the brain causing the ‘blue baby syndrome.

Legal Framework

Following legislations deal with water pollution in India

• Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974: Primary legislation that deals with water pollution in India.
• Environment Protection Act, 1986: It is an umbrella legislation on the environment.
• Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977: Empowers the government to levy cess on water consumed by certain industries to fund pollution control activities

Control of Domestic Sewage

• It can be treated in urban areas by centralized sewage treatment plants.

Control of Industrial wastewater

• Industrial waste can be treated with the help of Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETP) in industrial areas.

Control of agriculture wastewater

• Farmers may utilize erosion controls to reduce runoff flows and retain soil on their fields. ‘
• Farmers should use nutrient management plans to prevent the application of excess nutrients. 

3R Approach to manage wastewater

Government, organizations and individuals can adopt the ‘3R Approach’ to reduce wastewater which includes  

1. Reduce (water wastage)
2. Reuse (after treatment)  
3. Recycle

World Examples

• In Singapore and  San Diego, residents already drink recycled water. 
• Japan’s sewage operators use bio-solids as a carbon-neutral form of energy.