Environment

Conservation of biodiversity is the protection and scientific management of biodiversity so that present and future generations can derive sustainable benefits from it.

• In-Situ Conservation means conservation in the natural habitat.
• It involves the conservation of the whole ecosystem to protect threatened species at all levels.
• It is done by establishing a ‘PROTECTED AREA NETWORK‘ backed by legislation. These Protected Area Networks are 
  1. National Parks 
  2. Wildlife Sanctuaries 
  3. Biosphere Reserves
  4. Conservation Reserves 
  5. Community Reserves 
  6. Sacred Grooves 
  7. Eco-Sensitive Zone
  8. Biodiversity Heritage Sites 

• Other steps for In-Situ Conservation of Biodiversity
  1. ICMBA (Important Coastal & Marine Biodiversity Areas) 
  2. UNESCO World Heritage Sites 
  3. Go Area and No Go Areas 
  4. Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ)

• National Park is a natural habitat notified by the state government due to its ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, or zoological association of importance. 
• These are declared under Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. 
• It works on the principle of ‘Everything is prohibited unless permitted.’
• No human interference is allowed. Activities such as development, forestry, hunting, cultivation and grazing are not permitted.
• There are 104 national parks in India (1.23% area of India).

Ranking (for prelims)

• Maximum Area: Uttarakhand  
• Maximum number: Madhya Pradesh and Andaman & Nicobar with 9 each.
• Punjab, Chandigarh, Daman & Diu, Delhi and Lakshadweep have zero National Parks.

List of National Parks

• Biosphere Reserves are areas of terrestrial & coastal ecosystems that promote biodiversity conservation with its sustainable use. They are internationally recognized within the framework of UNESCO’s Man & Biosphere (MAB) Programme & nominated by national governments under the Wildlife (Protection) Act.
• The stress of MAB is to protect the threatened habitats and not the particular species.
• Living is not permitted in National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary, but Biosphere Reserves have very low restrictions on the residence. Biosphere Reserves are living examples of how human beings and nature can co-exist while respecting each other’s needs.

Biosphere Reserves in India

• India has 18 Biosphere Reserves. Out of these 18, 12 are recognized under the UNESCO MAB network.

• The State Government declares conservation Reserves in consultation with local communities in any Government-owned area, especially in the areas lying adjacent to National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries and areas linking one Protected Area with another to protect landscapes, seascapes, flora and fauna. 
• These are declared under Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. (added via Amendment in 2002)
• The declaration of the area as a Conservation Reserve doesn’t affect the rights of people living inside a Conservation Reserve.
• There are 97 Conservation Reserves in India. You can check their names by CLICKING HERE. 

• Sacred Groves, also known as Sacred Woods, are groves of trees having some special religious or cultural importance.
• These are protected areas under Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (added via amendment in 2002).

A list of Sacred Groves are

• “Biodiversity Heritage Sites” (BHS) are terrestrial, coastal or inland areas rich in biodiversity, with some of the following characteristics.
  1. Richness of species 
  2. High endemism
  3. Presence of keystone species, rare species, threatened species etc.
  4. Presence of past biological components
• They are declared under National Biodiversity Act, 2002.

• Eco-Sensitive Zones are the areas within a 10 km radius of Protected Areas.
• They are declared under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
• The aim of declaring any area as an Eco-Sensitive Zone is to minimize the impacts of activities carried out in the areas surrounding protected areas on the fragile ecosystem of protected areas.

The UNESCO World Heritage Sites are the places listed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)  as places of special cultural or physical significance.

Total in India = 40 

• 7: Physical
• 1: Mixed 
• 32: Cultural (2021: Dholavira = Latest entry)

The largest number of World Heritage Sites are in Italy, followed by China. India is ranked 6th.

Related to Physical Significance = 7 + 1 (mixed)

In 2010, Environment Ministry divided the areas into two parts for mining purposes, i.e. Go Area & No Go Area. 

The concept of Go and No-Go Area was for mining projects, but NGOs started to file PIL arguing to extend it to activities such as tourism, settlement etc., and restrictions in the No Go areas should be made more stringent. All this led to the problem of environmental clearances. 

TSR Subramanium Committee suggested the whole concept of Go & No-Go areas in the following way

Timeline

CRZ Notification, 2018

• CRZ Notification divided the Coastal area into 4 Zones vis Zone 1 to Zone 4.

• No development zone (NDZ) was reduced to 50 meters from the High Tide Line on the landward side, decreasing it from 200 metres in 2011 notifications.
• Tourism infrastructure: The notification allows temporary tourism facilities such as shacks, toilet blocks, change rooms etc., on beaches at a minimum distance of 10 m from HTL.
• CRZ clearances are needed only for projects located in CRZ-I (eco-sensitive zones areas and intertidal zones) and CRZ IV (12 NM from LTL towards the sea).
• Defence and strategic projects have been accorded necessary dispensation.

On one side, these regulations will help in promoting economic development and tourism. But, it has also made the coastal ecology and communities vulnerable.

• In Seedbanks, the seeds can be stored at low temperature and humidity as a backup in the case of any unforeseen circumstances. 
• Important Seedbanks are Global Seedbank Vault at Svalbard (Norway) and Indian Seed Vault at Chang La (Ladakh).
• Although useful, this strategy faces issues like seeds have a finite life and need to be replaced. Along with that, seed banks of private companies like Monsanto are only concerned with storing commercially viable seeds. 

Examples of Seed Banks

1. Global Seed Vault at Svalbard (Norway)

• It is a state-of-the-art seed protection facility, famously called the ‘Doomsday’ or the ‘Apocalypse’ Seed Bank or ‘Noah’s Ark for seeds’.
• It is situated in the remote Arctic Svalbard archipelago (part of Norway).
• It was established in 2008.
• It is located 1000m deep inside the mountain.

2. India’s Seed Vault

• It is situated at Chang La, Ladakh, in the Institute of High Altitude Research.
• It was made in 2010 by ICAR, CSIR and the Department of Biotechnology.
• In India, the seed bank is managed by the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Research.
• The Indian seed vault is the second largest vault in the world, after Global Seed Vault.

3. NAVDANYA

• It is a community-based seed bank that has a presence in around 17 states in India.
• In this, the farmers grow the seeds as well as supply the seeds.
• In the Navdanya, the farmers are encouraged to grow their own seeds, taught the traditional farming method, and at the end of the season, they should return25% of the seeds.
• Navdanya is also promoting eco-feminism. 

• Gene banks act as biorepository by preserving the genetic material.
• In Gene banks, cryopreservation techniques can preserve genetic strains of threatened species for long periods.

• Zoos can be used to raise some endangered species, try to breed them & reintroduce their offspring back into the jungle. 
• The Zoological Survey of India declares zoos under Wildlife Protection Act. 
• But Zoos face many issues like 
  • All the species can’t breed in captivity.
  • If an animal is reintroduced to its natural habitat, the animal finds it difficult to survive in the wild. Hence, the captive breeding of animals should be used only in exceptional circumstances. 
  • Zoos concentrate on big & popular species like tigers, pandas etc., which can attract a large population. They are least interested in protecting small species.

According to the Convention on Biodiversity (CBD), Biodiversity is the variability among the living organisms, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems. It also includes diversity between species and within species. 

There are three levels of biodiversity, i.e. Genetic diversity, Species diversity and Community/Ecosystem diversity.

1. Genetic Diversity

Genetic diversity is the diversity that is found at the level of genes. Genetic diversity is the differences in the genetic make-up within a single species.

Some points to note about Genetic Diversity

• The greater the genetic diversity, the more capable are the genes to face different threats, therefore increasing the chances of an organism surviving in adverse conditions. 
• India has more than 50,000 different varieties of rice. But these rice varieties have faced the onslaught of monoculture promoted by the Green Revolution resulting in more diabetes in the Indian population.
• Generally, the tropics have greater genetic diversity.

2. Species Diversity

Species diversity denotes the number of species per unit area. It signifies the richness of species in a given habitat.

Some points to note about Species Diversity

• The Eastern Himalayas are especially rich in species biodiversity because high temperature, humidity and rainfall promote different biogeographic zones, causing the development of flora and fauna in these biogeographic zones.  
• Species diversity is also greater in the tropics because of the following reasons. 
  1. High heat and humidity which is optimum for metabolic activities 
  2. These regions have been climatically stable.  
  3. As weathering and erosion are greater in the tropics, the soil mantle is greater. Therefore, floral and faunal diversity is high.
• Generally, smaller islands have more endemism than species richness. In other words, there will be unique species on the islands, but different varieties aren’t found on the islands. Therefore, the general rule is that islands are poorer in species richness than the mainland areas. 
• Most of the islands are unique in the way that they have a high degree of endemism, but the species are threatened because an invasive alien species can easily colonize the island.

3. Ecosystem / Community Diversity

Ecosystem Diversity refers to the ecosystem level diversity due to the diverse niches, trophic levels and ecological processes such as nutrient cycles, energy flow etc.

1. Alpha Biodiversity

• Alpha biodiversity is measured by counting the number of species within a particular area, community or ecosystem. 

2. Beta Biodiversity

• Beta biodiversity is the comparison of biodiversity between ecosystems. It is the change in the number of species between ecosystems.

3. Gamma Biodiversity

• It is the measure of the overall biodiversity of the total landscape or geographical area.

• The theme for IBD 2021: We’re part of the Solutions
• The theme for IBD 2020: Our solutions are in nature

Ecosystem Services

Ecosystem Services are the processes by which the environment produces benefits useful to people akin to economic services. E.g.

1. Provision of clean water & air
2. Pollination of crops
3. Mitigation of environmental hazards  
4. Preventing soil erosion
5. Cultural services such as cultural advancement of people (like inspiration for music, painting etc.), recreation and building of knowledge

Insects and Ecosystem

• Insects play an important role in sustaining life and food security by acting as pollinators and natural recyclers. 
• The population of insects has been reduced at the rate of 9% in the previous three decades due to various reasons like the introduction of broad range insecticides like DDT, climate change, honey hunting etc. For example, the US lost half of its butterfly population due to the introduction of DDT in the 1940s. 
• It is important to arrest this development. Otherwise, it will imperil the world food supply as pulses, oilseeds, and fruits depend on pollination. 

Inter-Governmental  Platform  On  Biodiversity and Ecosystem  Services (IPBES)

• It was created in 2012
• Its secretariat is situated in Germany and is administered by the UN.

Biodiversity is being lost at an unprecedented scale, as pointed out by WWF’s Living Planet Report (2018), which stated that between 1970 and 2014, 60% of the world’s vertebrate population (animals with a backbone) was wiped out by human activity. 

1. Habitat destruction or fragmentation

• Habitat destruction and fragmentation are happening due to the following reasons 
  1. Conversion of land for agriculture
  2. Land use for construction purposes 
  3. Damage to coastal and marine systems for the construction of ports and infrastructure 
• The aptest example of habitat loss is the Amazon rainforest, also known as the “Lungs of the planet”, which is destroyed and being replaced by agriculture and human settlements.
• Habitat fragmentation leads to biodiversity loss because mammals and birds require a large minimum territory to sustain their population.

2. Pollution

• Nutrient loading into the ecosystems leads to Algal blooms and Eutrophication.
• Air pollution has a detrimental effect whole ecosystem. 

3. Invasion of Exotic Species

• Invasive species are introduced – intentionally or unintentionally – to an ecosystem in which they don’t naturally appear & which threaten habitats, ecosystems or native species. 
• They become invasive due to high reproduction rates & absence of natural predators to control their population.
• Examples include 
  • Tilapia fish: It was introduced in the inland waters of Kerala in 1952 from the eastern coast of South Africa because of its higher productivity. But the fish became invasive, resulting in the extinction of native species. 
  • Nile Perch: The fish was introduced in Lake Victoria, which grew at an exponential rate and led to the extinction of more than 200 species.

4. Over-exploitation

• Due to population overgrowth, humans are overexploiting biological resources. E.g. due to increased demand for fish, 50% of world commercial fisheries are fully exploited, and 25% are overexploited. 
• Species such as Dodo and Steller’s sea cow have already become extinct in the last 200-300 years due to over-exploitation by humans.

5. Hunting

• Animals are hunted for commercial exploitation as well as for sport.
• For example, in 2021, Pakistan gave a permit to Dubai Royals to hunt Houbara Bustard Bird (status: vulnerable) for money.

6. Climate Change

Climate change and global warming have led to the following detrimental impacts on biodiversity 

1. Species redistribution
2. Effect on the timing of reproduction & migration.
3. Increased frequency of pest outbreaks and forest fires. 

7. Co-extinction

• Co-extinction is the process in which the extinction of one species leads to the extinction of another species, which has a mutually beneficial relationship with the extinct species. For example, the extinction of fish leads to the extinction of parasites that feed on the host fish. 
• The most famous example of co-extinction is that of the Calvaria tree and Dodo (extinct bird of Mauritius Island). Both were mutualistic associated as Dodo helped germinate tough endocarp of the seeds of the Calvaria tree through its digestive juices and stones in the bird’s gizzard. Thus the extinction of Dodo led to the extinction of the Calvaria tree as well.

8. Use of Hybrid Seeds

• Hybridization between native and non-native species and subsequent loss of native species. 

9. Natural disasters

• Natural disasters like tsunamis, forest fires, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions etc., also cause irreparable damage to the region’s biodiversity.

10. Jhum cultivation

• Jhum cultivation involves slashing down and burning the natural vegetation to prepare the land for cultivation. The farming is done on the plot for 2 to 3 seasons, after which the tribal farmers move to another plot due to the reduction of the fertility of the given land.

The loss of biodiversity is dangerous for the whole ecosystem. The ‘River Popper Hypothesis‘ by ecologist Paul Ehrlich beautifully explained the perilous impacts of biodiversity loss. He compared the species in an ecosystem with the rivets in the aeroplane’s body.

1. If some of the rivets on the body are removed, nothing serious happens to the aeroplane.
2. But if rivets beyond a certain number are removed, the whole aeroplane will fall apart.
3. Which rivet is removed matters as well. If the key rivet is removed, the whole aeroplane can collapse with the removal of a single rivet.

• Light Pollution is excessive & misdirected artificial (usually outdoor) light in the environment. 
• It is also known as photo pollution or luminous pollution. 
• 2017 WWF Earth Hour has highlighted the issue of Light Pollution.

• Unnecessary use of artificial lights
• Poorly designed residential, commercial, and industrial outdoor lights. 
• Unshielded light fixtures that emit more than 50% of their light skyward or sideways. 

1. Environment

• Photo pollution increases air pollution by suppressing a naturally occurring Nitrate radical that cleans the air at night. (Nitrate prevents ground-level Ozone formation). 

2. Human Health

• Light Pollution affects circadian rhythms (biological watch). 

3. Energy

• Misdirected light results in energy waste and creates GHG emissions.

4. Wildlife

• Lights can attract or repel animals and insects in human areas. 
• It disturbs the migration of birds that navigate using the stars.

5. Astronomy

• Light spills and sky glow interfere with astronomical equipment, making viewing faint celestial bodies difficult.

• Organic compounds that resist photolytic, biological & chemical degradation are known as Persistent Organic Pollutants or POPs. 
• Due to persistence, pollutants are capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulation & biomagnification.
• POPs include pesticides, industrial solvents, polyvinyl chloride & pharmaceuticals.

Common Characteristics

1. Low water Solubility

• They aren’t soluble in water.

2. High Lipid Solubility

• They have high lipid solubility, which leads to bio-accumulation.

3. Semi-Volatile

• They either occur in nature in the vapour phase or are adsorbed on atmospheric particles, facilitating long-range transport. 

4. Toxicity

• POPs with higher molecular weights are toxic.

5. Chemical structure

• Most of the POPs are halogenated & many have chlorine as a component.

• The process by which a pollutant enters the food chain and accumulates in the body of a living organism is known as Bioaccumulation.
• The tendency of the pollutant to increase in concentration as it moves from lower to higher trophic levels in the food chain is known as Biomagnification.

• Example
  1. The sewage containing POPs such as DDT is dumped into rivers and oceans, entering the food chain through phytoplankton and zooplankton. The concentration continues to increase in the successive trophic levels. 
  2. Commercial agriculture requires more application of insecticides and pesticides. Hence, pesticides and insecticides enter the food chain and continue to accumulate at successive trophic levels.

• The bioaccumulants tend to move upwards in a food chain.
• They are non-biodegradable, and therefore they have a longer life.
• They are not soluble in water, and therefore they can’t be thrown away by the body through urine and excreta. 
• Most of the bioaccumulants are fat-soluble, i.e. lipogenic, and hence they are transferred easily from mother’s milk to infants or transferred to the meat and fish-eating population. (example includes mercury poisoning or Minamata disease).

There are following conventions

1. Stockholm Convention 
2. Rotterdam Convention 
3. Basel Convention
4. Bamako Convention

1. Stockholm Convention on POPs

• It is the convention on bioaccumulants, also known as Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs).
• It deals with banning the pollutants known as ‘DIRTY DOZENS’. 
• The convention was signed in 2001 under the aegis of the United Nations. Consequently, India became a party to the convention in 2005. Presently, it has 179 members. 
• The global Environmental Facility (GEF) is the designated interim financial mechanism for the Stockholm Convention.

Dirty Dozen or 12 listed POPs  

Note

Most of India’s commonly used insecticides and pesticides have to be mandatorily labelled under the Insecticide Act of 1968 and the rules of 1971. Four colours are used to indicate the toxicity level of insecticide or pesticide

2. Basel Convention

• Basel Convention is on the transboundary movement of hazardous waste and its disposal. It was signed to stop the dumping of hazardous chemicals from developed to developing nations. 
• Most of the pollutants are covered under Basel Convention except radioactive waste.
• Basel Convention is against the ‘TOXIC COLONIALISM’ (epitomised by KOKO CASE, where Italy used to transport 8,000 barrels of most toxic waste per month to Nigeria in return for the rent of $100 till 1988).
• It was signed in 1989 and came into effect in 1992. 

3. Rotterdam Convention on International Trade in  Hazardous Substances

• Rotterdam Convention is on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for certain Hazardous Chemicals & Pesticides in International Trade.
• It was signed in 1998 and became effective in 2004.
• Under the convention, while trading in hazardous chemicals and pesticides, the country has to take prior consent before exporting it to another country. 
• In the recent meeting of the Rotterdam Convention, Canada has objected to listing asbestos fibres as pollutants. 

4. Bamako Convention

• It is a convention on controlling transboundary movement and managing hazardous waste, including radioactive waste within Africa (only).

• Till now, various programs have been started by the government to clean Ganga, but all proved to be a failure. These programs include 

• 2014: Modi started “Namami Gange” to clean Ganga. It focuses not merely on the main river but also on the tributaries (like Ramganga, Kali and Yamuna as a first priority).  

• 2016: Girdhar Malviya committee formed to prepare a draft law to maintain the Nirmalta (cleanliness) and Aviralta (uninterrupted flow) of Ganga 

• 2017-18: Chital Committee formed by the government on Desiltation of the river Ganga submitted its report. It recommended a region-specific approach instead of a one-size-fits-all approach.

Union Level

1. National Ganga Council: Headed by Prime Minister and includes Chief Ministers of Ganga Basin States.
2. Empowered Task Force: Headed by Union Minister of Water Resources.
3. National Mission For Clean Ganga: Headed by Director-General

State Level

• State Ganga Committee

District Level

• District Ganga Committee

1. Faulty Area-specific Approach: The previous approaches were specific to a very small area. Only certain cities and clusters were selected and not the entire basin.
2. No Coordination: Different bodies were involved in these schemes without any coordination.
3. Identification of sources that pollute Ganga: All programs focussed on sewage to a large extent and completely missed agriculture pollutants (non-point pollutants) in policymaking.
4. Neglected Tributaries: Various tributaries of Ganga like Yamuna, Gomti, Damodar, Mahananda etc., were not given adequate importance in cleaning efforts. 

Namami Gange is different from previous schemes because it focuses on following things 

• Namami Gange focuses on all sources that pollute Ganga, i.e. Sewage, Industrial Discharge, Open Defecation, non-point sources from Agriculture etc.
• Ganga is not only getting polluted but is also dying due to numerous Hydel Plants and other man-made projects. To tackle this, Namami Gange has two specific components i.e. Aviral Dhara (Uninterrupted flow) and Nirmal Dhara (Clean flow).
• It focuses not merely on the main river but also on the tributaries (like Rāmgangā, Kali and Yamuna as a first priority).
• Instead of selecting a few cities or clusters, Namami Gange has taken the entire Ganga Basin into its ambit.
• Coordinated approach: The program focuses on coordination between different Central Ministries & State Governments.

• Sewage Treatment Plants will be installed
• Riverfronts will be developed
• Special emphasis will be placed on protecting the biodiversity of Ganga, especially of species such as Gangetic Dolphin.
• Ganga Gram, i.e. villages located on Ganga, will be made open defecation free  
• Ashes can’t be immersed in shallow banks
• No sewage pipe will have an outlet into the river
• Ganga Task Force to ensure that industry and civilians do not pollute the river
• Cleanup of Ganga and its tributaries under one umbrella
• Ganga Manthan to dialogue with stakeholders: Spiritual Leaders, NGOs, Policymakers, Academicians, Environmentalists etc.
• Industries will have to install Common effluent treatment plants (CETPs) 
• New Hydel plants to have a minimum environmental impact 
• Build electric crematoriums

• About 1,650-gram panchayats lie directly on the banks of the Ganga. The sewage they generate is almost entirely untreated.
• The model of Baba Balbir Singh Seechewal of Punjab, who is credited with the successful cleaning of the Kali Bein river (Tributary of Beas) with public participation, can be used in Namami Gange. 
• Seechewal Model includes 
  • Segregation of solid and liquid waste
  • Wastewater is treated through oxidation ponds & used for irrigation 
  • Solid waste is used to make compost 
  • The whole process is done with community participation => this has strengthened the feeling of ownership  
  • The government is now using this model in Ganga Gram Yojana. 
• Baba Seechewal was awarded Padma Shri in 2017 for his contribution.

• There is a delay in the construction of the sewage treatment plants. Additionally, concerns have been raised regarding the poor performance of treatment plants constructed under Namami Gange.
• There is a decrease in the flow of the Ganga due to the construction of Hydroelectric plants. Since the 1970s, the flow has decreased by 56%. Presently, Ganga cannot maintain the Minimum Ecological Flow except during the monsoon.
• According to CAG Report, 60% of the funds allocated under the Nanami Ganga program have remained unutilized.
• Meetings of the National Ganga Council are not held regularly. 

• The syndrome, in response to the addition of artificial or natural substances such as nitrates and phosphates through fertilizers, sewage, etc., fertilizes the aquatic ecosystem, causing algal bloom, which ultimately results in the death of aquatic plants and animals.
• It is primarily caused by the leaching of phosphates or nitrates containing fertilizers from agricultural lands to lakes or rivers.

• The sudden growth of algae, especially in shallow water bodies, which causes the blocking of sunlight, is known as an algal bloom.
• Algal blooms increase the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) as they produce toxins causing anoxic conditions and death of the lakes. 
• But sometimes, algal and phytoplankton blooms are helpful because they form the base of the food chain providing food to marine organisms.

Causes of Algal Bloom 

• Nitrates and phosphorus fertilization due to excessive use of fertilizers in the agriculture
• Excessive dumping of biological waste in the water bodies
• Direct sewage disposal in the water bodies
• Disposal of industrial waste in the water bodies 
• Aquaculture (i.e. technique of growing fish in an artificial atmosphere as it involves a direct application of nutrients) 
• Natural events such as floods which take excessive nutrients due to enhanced weathering and erosion

• Reducing the use of fertilizers by using Nutrient Management Policy
• Switching to composting in which organic matter is converted to manure. The nutrients present in the compost are deficient in nitrates and phosphates because the essential elements are broken down, thus stopping the cycle of eutrophication. 
• Precision agriculture, i.e. the use of information communication technology in crop and farm management to provide agro-inputs according to the specific requirement of the different parts of the farm. 
• Strengthening the laws and regulations for the point and non-point sources of water pollution.
• Construction of riparian buffers and restoration of wetlands as the riparian buffer acts as a transition water-body or wetland between surface runoff and main water body. 

• Minimize non-point pollution, especially from agriculture. 
• Treat industrial effluents before dumping.
• Treatment of sewage before dumping.

Dead zones or Hypoxic zones are regions in the ocean or lakes where the oxygen level falls to such a low level that marine life can’t even survive in them.

Causes

There are two leading causes

• Rising sea temperatures:  Temperature rise reduces the solubility of oxygen in the water.
• Eutrophication: The algal bloom results in the reduction of oxygen levels.

Note – Dead zones are reversible if their causes are reduced or eliminated.

Impact

• Impact on Global Warming: It triggers the release of chemicals like nitrous oxide, which have high GHG potential. 
• Impact on Corals: The low levels of oxygen in the aquatic ecosystem results in the death of coral reefs.
• Impact on food security: It results in the loss of marine food resources.

• Time Factor / Cropping Pattern: The paddy wheat system leaves farmers with a sowing time of less than a month between the two crops. Delay in sowing means a decline in yield.  
• Government Policies: Punjab & Haryana directed their farmers to delay paddy transplantation to save groundwater, but now when they harvest rice, there is no time to grow wheat. 
• Cost Factor: Straw management equipment is costly, and the government doesn’t consider the cost of stubble management while deciding on MSP. 
• Farm Mechanization: Earlier, farmers used to cut the paddy close to the ground, and the issue of stubble wasn’t there. But the harvesters cut the paddy from height and leave behind one-foot-tall stalks.

• Bad for soil health: Burning leads to a decline in the bacterial and fungal population in the top 2.5cm of the soil, thus decreasing the soil fertility and increasing farmers’ dependence on fertilizers. 
• Health Impacts: Stubble burning releases air pollutants, especially particulate matter (PM), CO2 and ash. 
• It impacts the health of the general population, especially pulmonary disorders. 
• Increase the cost of agriculture: According to research conducted by ICRISAT, the nutrient loss from soil caused by stubble burning in Punjab amounts to 220 crores worth of urea. 

1. Subsidy for buying In-Situ Crop Residue Management Technologies (like Happy Seeder)

The government is giving 50% subsidy to the individual farmers and 80% subsidy to Cooperative Societies to buy In-Situ Crop Residue Management technologies. These technologies include

2. PUSA Decomposer

• PUSA Decomposer is a set of 4 tablets developed by the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa. The tablets contain the fungi strains, which increase the rate of decomposition of paddy straw.

3. Project to convert Paddy Straw into Bio-Energy

• Punjab Government has signed an MoU with Chennai based company ‘NEWAY‘ under which 400 Plants for converting paddy straw to electricity will be constructed.

4. Making stubble burning a punishable offence

• Stubble burning has been made a punishable offence under Section 188 of IPC and Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981.

• A study published in Lancet Journal says that polluted air is a cause of one in eight deaths in India and decreases average life expectancy in the country by 1.7 years. 
• According to Lancet’s Study, air pollution is linked to type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance. India has the greatest risk.

1. Anthropogenic Causes

• Stubble Burning in Punjab & Haryana by farmers.  
• An explosion of personal vehicles.    
• Massive-scale construction work, leading to an increase in the concentration of PM 2.5 & PM 10.

2. Geographical Causes

• Westerlies: North India is under the influence of westerlies in winter, and these winds take pollutants of stubble burning to Delhi NCR. 
• Due to the degradation of Aravallis, frequent dust storms from the Thar Desert have now started to reach New Delhi.
• Temperature Inversion creates a sort of blanket and doesn’t allow air to circulate in winter.
• Delhi is a continental city & situated on a ridge.

3. Socio-Economic Factors

• Population Pressure: Delhi acts as an urban magnet due to the presence of job opportunities. 

4. Faulty Policies / Governance Factors

• Fuel Subsidy on diesel has distorted people’s preference towards buying diesel cars, although Diesel cars emit 4 to 7X more pollutants. 

5. Reasons for the exponential rise in pollution during winters

• Dip in temperatures: Due to temperature inversion in the winters, the pollutants can’t disperse upwards, thus increasing the concentration of pollutants. 
• Dip in wind speed: The winds blow at very moderate speeds during winters compared to summers. Due to stagnant winds, these pollutants get locked in the air and affect weather conditions, resulting in smog. 
• Biomass burning in neighbouring states: Delhi is landlocked between its adjoining areas. Stubble burning in these states, especially in Punjab and Haryana, is considered a significant cause of environmental pollution. 
• Combustion caused by firecrackers may not be the top reason for the smog, but it contributes to its build-up. 

1. Improve Public Transport

• A massive system of Public Transport needs to be built, including metros, BRTS and Public Buses.
• Last Mile Connectivity should also be looked. 

2. Change in Tax Regime

• Congestion tax should be introduced in the form of high parking rates. The city of London uses this method. 
• Instead of a one-time registration tax for 15 years, Vehicle tax should be paid annually with registration fees increasing each passing year.    
• Polluter pays: Government should impose more tax on vehicles & factories with higher emission levels.

3. Governance Issues

• India should adopt yearly registration of vehicles instead of 15 years of registration. 
• Government should educate people to use public transport. For example, Delhi Government’s Ab Bus Karein—let us take a bus Campaign.

4. Road Design innovations

• Car Pool Lane (CPL) / High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) Facility: CPL formula reserves one lane, the fastest, for cars carrying more than one occupant.  

5. Stubble Burning Management

• Explained in a separate article (click here)

6. Reform Pollution Control Boards

Following changes are required in Pollution Control Boards. 

• There is a need for a larger cadre of scientists in the Central and State Pollution Control Boards and more monitoring equipment.  
• Empower Pollution Control Boards to levy graduated fines depending on the seriousness or repeatability of the offence.

7. Other measures

• Install flue gas de-sulphurizers in all coal power plants. 
• Reduce pollution from brick kilns: Kilns should be upgraded to cleaner technologies like Zig Zag kiln.

1. Mexico City: Project Via Verde 

• Following the alarming levels of Pollution in 2016, Mexico city undertook the initiative of turning its 1000 plus columns supporting flyovers and elevated roads into ‘vertical gardens’.

2. Paris

• In Paris, a Helium balloon hovers over the skyline and changes colour depending on pollution levels.  

• Air pollution is the introduction of harmful materials into the atmosphere, which can cause undesirable changes in the atmosphere.
• The adverse effects of the pollution include
  1. Respiratory issues for humans and animals
  2. Acid rain by elevated levels of Sulphur and Nitrogen oxides
  3. Ozone layer depletion
  4. Global warming by elevated levels of CO2 (industries, deforestation, and partial combustion)
• According to WHO report, Air pollution caused the deaths of around 70 lakh people worldwide that year.

Substances present in the air that can adversely affect humans and the ecosystem are known as Air Pollutants.

Sources of Air Pollution

The primary sources of air pollution are:

1. Transport Sources

• Cars, buses, aeroplanes, trucks, trains etc.

2. Stationary Sources

• Power plants, factories, oil refineries etc.
  

3. Area Sources

• Agricultural – wood, stubble burning and fertilizers.
• Cities – vehicular pollution, industrial pollution etc. 

4. Natural Sources

• Wind-blown dust, wildfires, lightning, volcanoes etc. 

Primary Pollutants

• Primary pollutants are emitted into the atmosphere directly through processes such as burning fossil fuel, volcanic eruptions etc. 
• These include Sulphur Oxides, Nitrous Oxides, Carbon Monoxide etc. 

1. Sulphur Dioxide

• Sulphur Dioxide is produced in volcanic and industrial processes. 
• Coal and petroleum have high sulphur content, and their combustion generates sulphur oxide. Although Indian coal has low sulphur content, still this is a significant danger because of its enormous consumption. 
• Why is Sulphur Dioxide dangerous?
  1. Oxidation of SO2  in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2 forms H2SO4 and thus causing acid rain.
  1. It is the main reason behind smog formation, and its continued exposure can result in respiratory diseases, including bronchoconstriction and asthma.

2. Nitrous Oxide

• Nitrous Oxide is a toxic gas that is brown coloured and has a nasty odour. 
• Sources of Nitrous Oxide include 
  1. High-temperature combustion
  2. During thunderstorms by electric discharge
• In cities, the brown haze dome is due to Nitrogen oxide.
• It is dangerous as it is the primary cause of Photochemical Smog, and it can cause severe respiratory problems, including intense attacks on people with asthma and old age. 

3. Carbon Monoxide (CO)

• Carbon Monoxide is a highly poisonous gas. It becomes more dangerous because it is colourless, odourless & non-irritating.    
• Carbon Monoxide is formed in the incomplete combustion of natural gas and coal. Vehicle exhaust is the primary source of Carbon Monoxide.
• Carbon Monoxide in the atmosphere interferes with Oxygen transport in the body. Haemoglobin has a higher affinity with Carbon Monoxide. Hence, even a low concentration of Carbon Monoxide inhibits the bonding of oxygen with Haemoglobin, thus causing death due to suffocation.

4. Carbon Dioxide

• Carbon Dioxide is associated with the Green House effect, ocean acidification & is emitted from combustion, factories & respiration of living organisms.

5. VOCs & NMVOCs

5.1 Volatile Organic Compounds

• The most important VOC is Methane.
• VOCs are Green House Gases & cause global warming.

5.2 Non-Methane VOC

• Non-Methane VOCs are aromatic compounds such as Benzene, Toluene, Xylene & other dangerous compounds like 1,3 Butadiene.
• They have carcinogenic properties.

6. Particulate Matters 

• Particulate matters are microscopic solid particles lying in suspension form in a gas or liquid.
• They are of two types, i.e. PM2.5 and PM10
• Their major sources include the combustion of fossil fuels, fly ash produced in thermal power plants, forest fires, asbestos mining units, cement factories.
• Repeated exposure to particulates can cause them to accumulate in the lungs & interfere with the ability of the lungs to exchange gases.

7. Fly Ash

• Fly ash is formed as a by-product of the process of burning pulverized coal in power generation plants. It is the solidified form of coal impurities released from the combustion chamber during combustion. 
• It has a high percentage of silica and toxic heavy metals such as arsenic.
• It can cause the following issues 
  1. Groundwater contamination
  2. Respiratory problems
  3. Accumulation on leaves, thus reducing the efficiency of trees.

8. Chloro Fluoro Carbons (CFCs)

• CFCs are released mainly from air-conditioning systems and refrigeration.
• CFCs are extremely dangerous for the ozone layer. 

9. Ammonia (NH3)

• Ammonia is emitted exclusively by agricultural sources, including livestock production and nitrogen fertilizers. 
• Ammonia contributes to several environmental problems, including direct toxic effects on vegetation and eutrophication and acidification of sensitive ecosystems.

Secondary Pollutants

• Secondary pollutants are not directly emitted into the atmosphere. They are formed when they react with themselves or other components of the atmosphere. 
• These include Ground Level Ozone, Smog, POPs etc.

1. Smog 

• Smog can result in asthma breathing difficulties.
• Apart from humans, it also negatively impacts the health of plants and animals. 
• There are two types of smog, and they impact the environment in different ways. These include 

1.1 Sulphurous Smog

• Sulphurous Smog is also known as London Smog.
• Sulphurous smog is formed by the use of Sulphur containing fossil fuels, particularly coal.

• It is formed in the cool and humid climate.
• It is chemically reducing and hence known as Reducing Smog.
• It is characterized by blue colored skies or blue haze.

1.2 Photochemical Smog

• Photochemical Smog occurs in the warm, dry & sunny climate.

• It is chemically Oxidizing and hence called Oxidizing Smog.
• Ozone, PAN (Peroxyacetyl Nitrate), Acrolein & Formaldehyde are produced in it that can cause serious health problems.

2. Ground Level Ozone

• It is also known as Tropospheric Ozone (The ozone layer is in the Stratosphere).
• Ozone occurs in two layers, the stratospheric layer and in the tropospheric layer. While ozone in Stratosphere is essential for the survival of human beings, tropospheric ozone is considered a bad Ozone.
• It is the most important secondary air pollutant.
• New research has found that Air Purifiers emit (Tropospheric) Ozone gas.

Problems caused by Tropospheric Ozone

• It can cause various health problems, including chest pain, bronchitis, asthma etc.     
• Repeated exposure may permanently scar lung tissues.  
• It also damages vegetation and the ecosystem. 
• It leads to reduced agricultural and commercial forests yield.

3. Peroxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN)

• PAN is present in the photochemical smog. 
• It can decompose into phenoxyethanol radicals and nitrogen dioxide gas, causing eye irritation.

Air pollution negatively impacts all organisms, depending on the atmosphere for respiration. It can result in irritation in the throat, nose, lungs, and eyes at the individual level. It results in breathing problems and asthma. In addition, polluted air reduces the body’s immunity and decreases the body’s capacity to fight other infections in the respiratory system.

1. Health impacts

Air pollutants cause a variety of health impacts. For example

1. Sulphur Dioxide, Nitrous Oxide and Ozone: Acute respiratory problems 
2. Carbon Monoxide: Headache, dizziness and even death due to prolonged exposure. 
3. Ammonia: Lung fibrosis, dermatitis, cataract and glaucoma.
4. Particulate Matter: Aggravated Asthma and Chronic Bronchitis.

2. Impact on animals

• Air pollution also impacts the fauna. 
• Animals are impacted in the following ways 
  1. Excessive UV radiation may cause skin cancer in wildlife.
  2. Affect animals through plants on which they feed. 

3. Impact on plants and vegetation

• Physical injury to leaves. E.g., Ozone produces a speckle of brown spots and Ammonia results in drying out of tissues. 
• It impacts cell metabolism and results in reduced growth.
• Particulate matters affect the plant and trees as they block the leaf stomata through which gas exchange takes place for photosynthesis and respiration.

4. Acid Rain

• Acid rain is the precipitation with a higher concentration of hydrogen ions. 
• The pH of pure water is 7.0, but even in unpolluted air, there is the presence of some carbon monoxide which dissolves in raindrops to produce rain with a pH of about 5.6. Hence, in normal conditions too, rainfall is quite acidic with a pH of around 5.6. But in some parts of the world, pH as low as 1.5 is observed, resulting in Acid rain. 

5. Global Warming

• Pollutants like Carbon Dioxide, Methane, Nitrous Oxide etc., show the Green House Gas (GHG) Effect and thus cause Global Warming. 

6. Ozone Depletion

• Introduction of pollutants like Chloro Fluoro Carbons (CFCs) in the atmosphere results in the depletion of the Ozone layer. 
• Ozone depletion is a serious issue as the Ozone layer protects the earth and its inhabitants from harmful UV rays in solar radiation. UV rays can cause skin cancer and impact the ecosystem negatively.

• The National Air Quality Index is a number to indicate the level of pollution in the given area. 
• It is part of Swatch Bharat Abhiyan Operational since 2014. 
• Earlier, Government agencies used to publish air-quality data with technical terms like PM2.5, PM10. But it cant be understood by the common person. Hence, the government came up with a New Air Quality Index that uses colour-codes that even a common person can easily understand.  
• It has 8 gases and 6 colour codes. 

6 colour codes are

8 pollutants monitored are

Sameer App

• Sameer App made by Central Pollution Control Board provides hourly updates on pollution levels on the National Air Quality Index.

Criticism of NAQI

• One index for all: There is just one index for the entire India. But there is a need for separate indexes for residential and industrial areas & cities, and villages because pollutants found in these places differ. E.g., Methane is a significant pollutant in villages, but it is not among the gasses under observation
• Benzene not included: Benzene is a carcinogenic chemical produced during the combustion of fossil fuels. Even European countries and the USA monitors its level. But it is not observed under NAQI. 
• No Standard Response when dangerous levels reached mentioned: Mere informing the citizens through a colour-coded chart is insufficient. There is a need to include standard responses. For example, if the air quality index reaches a red level in China, they shut down primary schools (Note: Delhi has Graded Response, but the rest of the cities don’t have any standard response mechanism). 

What are Bharat Emission Standards?

• Bharat Emission norms are the pollution standards of vehicles in India. All the vehicles sold in India have to comply with these pollution standards for sale in India. 
• They are the Indian version of Euro norms applicable in Europe. 

Difference between Bharat Norms & Euro Norms

• Both are the same in terms of stringency/emission limits
• India uses Euro Standards with only one modification, i.e. lower maximum speed of 90 km/hr, whereas in Euro norms, it is 120Km/hr. 

Timeline

Bharat Stage Norms in India

BS VI: Concept and Challenges

Concepts

In Bharat Stage 6, two new components have been added

1. DPF (Diesel Particulate Filter) (actually, DPF is Stage-5 addition)
2. SCR (Selective Catalytic Reduction) (SCR is Stage-6 addition)

But since India jumped to Stage-6 from Stage-4, Indian companies have to add these two components simultaneously. 

Challenges

1. It will make vehicles more expensive (because of the costly technology and taxes that depend on the bonnet length).
2. Moving directly to BS-VI will require significant technological upgrades. This would leave them with insufficient time to design changes in their vehicles, considering that two critical components — diesel particulate filter (DPF) and selective catalytic reduction (SCR) module — would have to be introduced. 
3. Oil refineries will need to upgrade petrol and diesel quality to meet cleaner fuel specifications.
4. Loss of Jobs & service problems as serviceability will become a more significant challenge requiring highly skilled professionals and technology.
5. In India, diesel vehicles are disproportionately higher than petrol vehicles with a diesel to petrol usage ratio (4.5): 1. Hence, a mere increase in BS levels will not bring down pollution levels. 

• Electric vehicles are automobiles that draw their energy from rechargeable batteries
• They can be classified into top two types
  • Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs): Completely relying on battery power 
  • Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs): Uses battery power as well as petrol or diesel. 
• Currently, the market share of electric cars is less than 1% in India, compared to 2% in China and nearly 40% in Norway.

Current status in India

The majority of vehicles in India still use combustion engines. The market share of electric vehicles in India is around 1% compared to world leaders like Norway, where 40% of vehicles are electric.

India should encourage Electric Vehicles because

• Climate Friendly: The transport sector is the second-largest contributor to GHG emissions. Hence, electric vehicles will help in constraining the GHG emissions of India.
• Saving Foreign Currency and containing CAD: It will help India contain its Current Account Deficit and foreign currency reserves by reducing the oil imports.
• Job Creation: It can also help in job creation as India can become the hub of electric vehicle manufacturing. 

Steps taken by India to promote Electric Vehicles

1. FAME or Faster Adoption & Manufacturing of Electric vehicles

It is the main scheme of the Government of India to promote the manufacturing of Electric Vehicles in India. The main provisions of the scheme include 

• Demand incentive in the form of reduced prices to public transport and commercial four-wheeler vehicles and private two-wheeler vehicles.
• Setting up charging stations to ensure at least one charging station within 3 km in urban areas and within 25 km on highways

2. Taxation Measures

• Lower GST: The GST on electric vehicles is just 5%. 
• Income Tax Deductions: The EMI paid for electric vehicles is counted in the additional income tax deductions. 

3. State-specific measures

Various states are taking their own measures to promote electric vehicles in India. E.g.,

• Delhi: Delhi government has announced its Electric Vehicle Policy to achieve the target of 25% of newly registered vehicles to be electric till 2024 by providing low-interest loans, incentives to scrap old petrol and diesel vehicles to switch over to EVs, no registration fee, building charging points etc.

4. Other Vehicles

• Green Number Plates: Transportation Ministry has announced that Electric Vehicles will have special green number plates.

Way Forward

1. Charging Stations: In India, the biggest roadblock in the introduction of electric vehicles is the inadequate number of charging stations. The greatest emphasis should be on setting up charging stations. Government should divert more subsidies to charging stations.
2. Secure Lithium Supply: Lithium is the most critical component in battery manufacturing. India has to secure this supply by investing in mines in Congo, Chile and Bolivia as done by China. 
3. Investment in Charging Technologies: The government research organizations and premier institutions such as IITs should invest in developing faster charging in vehicles. 

The Parliament enacted this act to arrest deteriorating air quality.

Notable points from this Act

1. Central and State Pollution Control Boards

The act has the provision for setting up Pollution Control Boards at Central and State levels. 

2. Role of these boards

These boards have following functions

CPCP

• Advices Central Government on the matters concerning improvement of air quality
• Plan and execute a nationwide program for prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
• Provide technical assistance & guidance to State Pollution Control Boards 
• Lay down standards for quality of air. 

SPCB

• Comprehensive plan for prevention, control & abatement of air pollution & to secure execution thereof

3. Define Air Pollutant

• The act defines Air Pollutants as ‘any solid, liquid or gaseous substance( including noise) present in the atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or living creatures or plant or property or environment. 

4. Air Pollution Control Areas

• The state government, after consultation with SPCB, can declare any area as Air Pollution Control Areas (APCA). 
• If the state government, after consultation with SPCB, believes that the use of any fuel in APCA may cause air pollution, it may prohibit the use of such fuel. 
• No person shall, without the consent of SPCB, establish or operate any industrial plant in an APCA. 

• Google Maps has decided to start a feature in which the system will show the most ‘eco-friendly’ route as the default route to the user based on traffic, congestion, road inclination etc. It is part of Google’s effort to fight climate change.