Environment

• Time Factor / Cropping Pattern: The paddy wheat system leaves farmers with a sowing time of less than a month between the two crops. Delay in sowing means a decline in yield.  
• Government Policies: Punjab & Haryana directed their farmers to delay paddy transplantation to save groundwater (under Sub-Soil Water Conservation Acts passed in 2009), but now when they harvest rice, there is no time to grow wheat. 
• Cost Factor: Straw management equipment is costly, and the government doesn’t consider the cost of stubble management while deciding on MSP. 
• No Market for Crop Residue: Low commercial and economic value of crop residue, coupled with the high costs of processing, reduces its value for farmers.
• Farm Mechanization: Earlier, farmers used to cut the paddy close to the ground, and the issue of stubble wasn’t there. But the harvesters cut the paddy from height and leave behind one-foot-tall stalks.

• Bad for Soil Health: Burning leads to a decline in the bacterial and fungal population in the top 2.5cm of the soil, thus decreasing the soil fertility and increasing farmers’ dependence on fertilizers. 
• Health Impacts: Stubble burning releases air pollutants, especially particulate matter (PM), CO2 and ash. It impacts the health of the general population, especially pulmonary disorders. 
• Increase the Cost of Agriculture: According to research conducted by ICRISAT, the nutrient loss from soil caused by stubble burning in Punjab amounts to 220 crores worth of urea. 
• Impact on Biodiversity: Fires can destroy habitats for various wildlife species, such as insects, birds, and small mammals, which may rely on crop residues for shelter or food.

1. Crop Residue Management Scheme

• The scheme provides subsidy for buying In-Situ Crop Residue Management Technologies (like Happy Seeder)
• The government is giving 50% subsidy to the individual farmers and 80% subsidy to Cooperative Societies to buy In-Situ Crop Residue Management technologies. These technologies include

2. PUSA Decomposer

• PUSA Decomposer is a set of 4 tablets developed by the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa. The tablets contain the fungi strains, which increase the rate of decomposition of paddy straw.

3. Project to convert Paddy Straw into Bio-Energy

• Punjab Government has signed an MoU with Chennai based company ‘NEWAY‘ under which 400 Plants for converting paddy straw to electricity will be constructed.

4. Making stubble burning a punishable offence

• Stubble burning has been made a punishable offence under Section 188 of IPC and Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981.

5. Crop Diversification Programme (CDP)

• Since Paddy-Wheat Crop system is the main culprit behind stubble burning, government is promoting crop diversification under Crop Diversification Programme (CDP) which is a sub-scheme of Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana.

6. New Seed Varieties of Paddy

• New varieties of rice which matures in 120 to 125 days (like PUSA-2090) in contrast to traditional varieties like PUSA-44 which matures in 155 to 160 days can provide farmers 30 days to prepare their field for next crop and don’t indulge in stubble burning.

• A study published in Lancet Journal says that polluted air is a cause of one in eight deaths in India and decreases average life expectancy in the country by 1.7 years. 
• According to Lancet’s Study, air pollution is linked to type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance.

1. Anthropogenic Causes

• Stubble Burning in Punjab & Haryana by farmers.  
• An explosion of personal vehicles.    
• Burning of fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and gasoline for generation of electricity.
• Burning of garbage waste in open which releases toxins such as soot and carcinogens.
• Massive-scale construction work, leading to an increase in the concentration of PM 2.5 & PM 10.

2. Geographical Causes

• Westerlies: North India is under the influence of westerlies in winter, and these winds take pollutants of stubble burning to Delhi NCR. 
• Due to the degradation of Aravallis, frequent dust storms from the Thar Desert have now started to reach New Delhi.
• Temperature Inversion creates a sort of blanket and doesn’t allow air to circulate in winter.
• Delhi is a continental city & situated on a ridge.
• Change in Weather Patterns: For example, a dip in La Nina  caused the spike in Particulate Matter in coastal cities (including Mumbai).

3. Socio-Economic Factors

• Population Pressure: Delhi acts as an urban magnet due to the presence of job opportunities. 

4. Faulty Policies / Governance Factors

• Fuel Subsidy on diesel has distorted people’s preference towards buying diesel cars, although Diesel cars emit 4 to 7X more pollutants. 

5. Reasons for the exponential rise in pollution during winters

• Dip in Temperatures: Due to temperature inversion in the winters, the pollutants can’t disperse upwards, thus increasing the concentration of pollutants. 
• Dip in Wind Speed: The winds blow at very moderate speeds during winters compared to summers. Due to stagnant winds, these pollutants get locked in the air and affect weather conditions, resulting in smog. 
• Biomass burning in neighbouring States: Delhi is landlocked between its adjoining areas. Stubble burning in these states, especially in Punjab and Haryana, is considered a significant cause of environmental pollution. 
• Combustion caused by Firecrackers may not be the top reason for the smog, but it contributes to its build-up. 

1. Improve Public Transport

• A massive system of Public Transport needs to be built, including metros, BRTS and Public Buses.
• Last Mile Connectivity should also be improved. 

2. Change in Tax Regime

• Congestion Tax should be introduced in the form of high parking rates. The city of London uses this method. 
• Instead of a one-time registration tax for 15 years, Vehicle tax should be paid annually with registration fees increasing each passing year.    
• Polluter Pays Principal: : Government should impose more tax on vehicles & factories with higher emission levels.

3. Governance Issues

• India should adopt yearly registration of vehicles instead of 15 years of registration. 
• Government should educate people to use public transport. For example, Delhi Government’s Ab Bus Karein—let us take a bus Campaign.

4. Road Design innovations

• Car Pool Lane (CPL) / High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) Facility: CPL formula reserves one lane, the fastest, for cars carrying more than one occupant.  

5. Stubble Burning Management

• Explained in a separate article (click here)

6. Reform Pollution Control Boards

Following changes are required in Pollution Control Boards. 

• There is a need for a larger cadre of scientists in the Central and State Pollution Control Boards and more monitoring equipment.  
• Empower Pollution Control Boards to levy graduated fines depending on the seriousness or repeatability of the offence.

7. Other measures

• Install flue gas de-sulphurizers in all coal power plants. 
• Reduce pollution from brick kilns: Kilns should be upgraded to cleaner technologies like Zig Zag kiln.

1. Mexico City: Project Via Verde 

• Following the alarming levels of Pollution in 2016, Mexico city undertook the initiative of turning its 1000 plus columns supporting flyovers and elevated roads into ‘vertical gardens’.

2. Paris

• In Paris, a Helium balloon hovers over the skyline and changes colour depending on pollution levels.  

• Air pollution is the introduction of harmful materials into the atmosphere, which can cause undesirable changes in the atmosphere.
• The adverse effects of the pollution include
  1. Respiratory issues for humans and animals
  2. Acid rain by elevated levels of Sulphur and Nitrogen oxides
  3. Ozone layer depletion
  4. Global warming by elevated levels of CO2 (industries, deforestation, and partial combustion)
• According to World Air Quality Report 2024, India had the fifth worst air quality (followed by Chad, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Congo). New Delhi was ranked the world’s most polluted capital city and Byrnihat (Meghalaya) is the world’s most polluted metropolitan area.

Substances present in the air that can adversely affect humans and the ecosystem are known as Air Pollutants.

Sources of Air Pollution

The primary sources of air pollution are:

1. Transport Sources

• Cars, buses, aeroplanes, trucks, trains etc.

2. Stationary Sources

• Power plants, factories, oil refineries etc.
  

3. Area Sources

• Agricultural: wood, stubble burning and fertilizers.
• Cities: vehicular pollution, industrial pollution etc. 

4. Natural Sources

• Wind-blown dust, wildfires, lightning, volcanoes etc. 

Primary Pollutants

• Primary pollutants are emitted into the atmosphere directly through processes such as burning fossil fuel, volcanic eruptions etc. 
• These include Sulphur Oxides, Nitrous Oxides, Carbon Monoxide etc. 

1. Sulphur Dioxide

• Sulphur Dioxide is produced in volcanic and industrial processes. 
• Coal and petroleum have high sulphur content, and their combustion generates sulphur oxide. Although Indian coal has low sulphur content, still this is a significant danger because of its enormous consumption. 
• Why is Sulphur Dioxide dangerous?
  1. Oxidation of SO2  in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2 forms  Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4) and cause acid
     rain.
  2. It is the main reason behind smog formation, and its continued exposure can result in respiratory diseases, including bronchoconstriction and asthma.

2. Nitrous Oxide

• Nitrous Oxide is a toxic gas that is brown coloured and has a nasty odour. 
• Sources of Nitrous Oxide include
  1. High-temperature combustion
  2. Thunderstorms by electric discharge
• In cities, the brown haze dome is due to Nitrogen oxide.
• It is dangerous as it is the primary cause of Photochemical Smog, and it can cause severe respiratory problems, including intense attacks on people with asthma and old age. 

3. Carbon Monoxide (CO)

• Carbon Monoxide is a highly poisonous gas. It becomes more dangerous because it is colourless, odourless & non-irritating.    
• Carbon Monoxide is formed in the incomplete combustion of natural gas and coal. Vehicle exhaust is the primary source of Carbon Monoxide.
• Carbon Monoxide in the atmosphere interferes with Oxygen transport in the body. Haemoglobin has a higher affinity with Carbon Monoxide. Hence, even a low concentration of Carbon Monoxide inhibits the bonding of oxygen with Haemoglobin, thus causing death due to suffocation.

4. Carbon Dioxide

• Carbon Dioxide is associated with the Green House effect, ocean acidification & is emitted from combustion, factories & respiration of living organisms.

5. VOCs & NMVOCs

5.1 Volatile Organic Compounds

• The most important VOC is Methane.
• VOCs are Green House Gases & cause global warming.

5.2 Non-Methane VOC

• Non-Methane VOCs are aromatic compounds such as Benzene, Toluene, Xylene & other dangerous compounds like 1,3 Butadiene.
• They have carcinogenic properties.

6. Particulate Matters 

• Particulate matters are microscopic solid particles lying in suspension form in a gas or liquid.
• They are of two types, i.e. PM2.5 and PM10
• Their major sources include the combustion of fossil fuels, fly ash produced in thermal power plants, forest fires, asbestos mining units, cement factories.
• Repeated exposure to particulates can cause them to accumulate in the lungs & interfere with the ability of the lungs to exchange gases.

7. Fly Ash

• Fly ash is formed as a by-product of the process of burning pulverized coal in power generation plants. It is the solidified form of coal impurities released from the combustion chamber during combustion. 
• It has a high percentage of silica and toxic heavy metals such as arsenic.
• It can cause the following issues
  1. Groundwater contamination
  2. Respiratory problems
  3. Accumulation on leaves, thus reducing the efficiency of trees.

8. Chloro Fluoro Carbons (CFCs)

• CFCs are released mainly from air-conditioning systems and refrigeration.
• CFCs are extremely dangerous for the ozone layer. 

9. Ammonia (NH3)

• Ammonia is emitted exclusively by agricultural sources, including livestock production and nitrogen fertilizers. 
• Ammonia contributes to several environmental problems, including direct toxic effects on vegetation and eutrophication and acidification of sensitive ecosystems.

Secondary Pollutants

• Secondary pollutants are not directly emitted into the atmosphere. They are formed when they react with themselves or other components of the atmosphere. 
• These include Ground Level Ozone, Smog, POPs etc.

1. Smog 

• Smog can result in asthma breathing difficulties.
• Apart from humans, it also negatively impacts the health of plants and animals. 
• There are two types of smog, and they impact the environment in different ways. These include 

1.1 Sulphurous Smog

• Sulphurous Smog is also known as London Smog.
• Sulphurous smog is formed by the use of Sulphur containing fossil fuels, particularly coal.

• It is formed in the cool and humid climate.
• It is chemically reducing and hence known as Reducing Smog.
• It is characterized by blue colored skies or blue haze.

1.2 Photochemical Smog

• Photochemical Smog occurs in the warm, dry & sunny climate.

• It is chemically Oxidizing and hence called Oxidizing Smog.
• Ozone, PAN (Peroxyacetyl Nitrate), Acrolein & Formaldehyde are produced in it that can cause serious health problems.

2. Ground Level Ozone

• It is also known as Tropospheric Ozone, as it forms just above the Earth’s surface in the Troposphere.
• Ground-level ozone is “a colourless and highly irritating gas“.
• Ozone occurs in two layers: the stratospheric layer and the tropospheric layer. While ozone in the stratosphere is essential for the survival of human beings, tropospheric ozone is considered to be bad.
• It is the most important secondary air pollutant. It is formed when two primary pollutants, i.e. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), react in the presence of sunlight and stagnant air.
• New research has found that Air Purifiers emit (Tropospheric) Ozone gas.

Problems caused by Tropospheric Ozone

• It can cause various health problems, including chest pain, bronchitis, asthma etc.     
• Repeated exposure may permanently scar lung tissues.  
• It also damages vegetation and the ecosystem. 
• It leads to reduced agricultural and commercial forests yield.

3. Peroxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN)

• PAN is present in the photochemical smog. 
• It can decompose into phenoxyethanol radicals and nitrogen dioxide gas, causing eye irritation.

Air pollution negatively impacts all organisms, depending on the atmosphere for respiration. It can result in irritation in the throat, nose, lungs, and eyes at the individual level. It results in breathing problems and asthma. In addition, polluted air reduces the body’s immunity and decreases the body’s capacity to fight other infections in the respiratory system.

1. Health Impacts

Air pollutants cause a variety of health impacts. For example

1. Sulphur Dioxide, Nitrous Oxide and Ozone: Acute respiratory problems 
2. Carbon Monoxide: Headache, dizziness and even death due to prolonged exposure. 
3. Ammonia: Lung fibrosis, dermatitis, cataract and glaucoma.
4. Particulate Matter: Aggravated Asthma and Chronic Bronchitis.

2. Impact on Animals

• Air pollution also impacts the fauna. 
• Animals are impacted in the following ways
  1. Excessive UV radiation may cause skin cancer in wildlife.
  2. Affect animals through plants on which they feed. 

3. Impact on Plants and Vegetation

• Physical injury to leaves. E.g., Ozone produces a speckle of brown spots and Ammonia results in drying out of tissues. 
• It impacts cell metabolism and results in reduced growth.
• Particulate matters affect the plant and trees as they block the leaf stomata through which gas exchange takes place for photosynthesis and respiration.

4. Economic Impact

Air pollution has a direct, and a particularly debilitating impact on GDP growth and per-capita income levels due to

• Reduced worker output
• Lower consumer footfall in consumption-led services
• Hampered asset productivity
• Surge in health expenses and welfare allocations
• Reduced Agricultural Productivity

5. Acid Rain

• Acid Rain is the precipitation with a higher concentration of hydrogen ions. 
• The pH of pure water is 7.0, but even in unpolluted air, there is the presence of some carbon monoxide which dissolves in raindrops to produce rain with a pH of about 5.6. Hence, in normal conditions too, rainfall is quite acidic with a pH of around 5.6. But in some parts of the world, pH as low as 1.5 is observed, resulting in Acid rain. 

5. Global Warming

• Pollutants like Carbon Dioxide, Methane, Nitrous Oxide etc., show the Green House Gas (GHG) Effect and thus cause Global Warming. 

6. Ozone Depletion

• Introduction of pollutants like Chloro Fluoro Carbons (CFCs) in the atmosphere results in the depletion of the Ozone layer. 
• Ozone depletion is a serious issue as the Ozone layer protects the earth and its inhabitants from harmful UV rays in solar radiation. UV rays can cause skin cancer and impact the ecosystem negatively.

• The National Air Quality Index is a number to indicate the level of pollution in the given area. 
• It is part of Swatch Bharat Abhiyan Operational since 2014. 
• Earlier, Government agencies used to publish air-quality data with technical terms like PM2.5, PM10. But it cant be understood by the common person. Hence, the government came up with a New Air Quality Index that uses colour-codes that even a common person can easily understand.  
• It has 8 gases and 6 colour codes. 

6 colour codes are

8 pollutants monitored are

Sameer App

• Sameer App made by Central Pollution Control Board provides hourly updates on pollution levels on the National Air Quality Index.

Criticism of NAQI

• One index for all: There is just one index for the entire India. But there is a need for separate indexes for residential and industrial areas & cities, and villages because pollutants found in these places differ. E.g., Methane is a significant pollutant in villages, but it is not among the gasses under observation
• Benzene not included: Benzene is a carcinogenic chemical produced during the combustion of fossil fuels. Even European countries and the USA monitors its level. But it is not observed under NAQI. 
• No Standard Response when dangerous levels reached mentioned: Mere informing the citizens through a colour-coded chart is insufficient. There is a need to include standard responses. For example, if the air quality index reaches a red level in China, they shut down primary schools (Note: Delhi has Graded Response, but the rest of the cities don’t have any standard response mechanism). 

What are Bharat Emission Standards?

• Bharat Emission norms are the pollution standards of vehicles in India. All the vehicles sold in India have to comply with these pollution standards for sale. 
• They are the Indian version of Euro norms applicable in Europe. 

Difference between Bharat Norms & Euro Norms

• Both are the same in terms of stringency/emission limits
• India uses Euro Standards with only one modification, i.e. lower maximum speed of 90 km/hr, whereas in Euro norms, it is 120Km/hr. 

Timeline

Bharat Stage Norms in India

BS VI: Concept

In Bharat Stage 6, two new components have been added

1. DPF (Diesel Particulate Filter) (actually, DPF is Stage-5 addition)
2. SCR (Selective Catalytic Reduction) (SCR is Stage-6 addition)

But since India jumped to Stage-6 from Stage-4, Indian companies have to add these two components simultaneously. 

• Electric vehicles are automobiles that draw their energy from rechargeable batteries.
• They can be classified into two types
  • Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs): Completely relying on battery power 
  • Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs): Uses battery power as well as petrol or diesel. 
• Currently, the market share of electric cars is less than 1% in India, compared to 2% in China and nearly 40% in Norway.

Current status in India

The majority of vehicles in India still use combustion engines. The market share of electric vehicles in India is around 1% compared to world leaders like Norway, where 40% of vehicles are electric.

India should encourage Electric Vehicles because

• Climate Friendly: The transport sector is the second-largest contributor to GHG emissions. Hence, electric vehicles will help in constraining the GHG emissions of India.
• Saving Foreign Currency and containing CAD: It will help India contain its Current Account Deficit and foreign currency reserves by reducing the oil imports.
• Job Creation: It can also help in job creation as India can become the hub of electric vehicle manufacturing. 

But, EVs are not entirely clean

• Carbon Footprint from embedded emissions in the manufacturing of EVs.
• Emissions associated with electricity used to charge vehicles.

Steps taken by India to promote Electric Vehicles

1. PM E-Drive

• Launched in Oct 2024 to replace the FAME Scheme.
• Under the scheme, the government provides
  • Upfront incentives to purchase e-vehicles
  • Support installation of critical charging infrastructure

2. FAME or Faster Adoption & Manufacturing of Electric Vehicles

Expired in March 2024, it was the flagship scheme of the Government of India to promote the manufacturing of Electric Vehicles in India. The main provisions of the scheme included 

• Demand incentive in the form of reduced prices to public transport and commercial four-wheeler vehicles and private two-wheeler vehicles.
• Setting up charging stations to ensure at least one charging station within 3 km in urban areas and within 25 km on highways

3. Electric Vehicle Policy, 2024

Custom Duty on the imported Electric Vehicles will be reduced to 15% in next 5 years (from current rate of 60-100%) if the company meet following conditions

1. Makes a minimum investment of $500 million.
2. Setup a factory in India within 3 years
3. Meets Domestic Value Addition (DVA) target of 25% by the 3rd year and 50% by the 5th year.

Additionally, total of 40,000 cars can be imported by given company in 5 years and price of the imported car has to be higher than $35,000.

4. Production Linked Incentive Scheme for Automobile and Automotive Components (PLI-Auto)

• The scheme aims provides monetary incentives to boost manufacturing of automative technologies and attract investments in this sector.

5. Taxation Measures

• Lower GST: The GST on electric vehicles is just 5%. 
• Income Tax Deductions: The EMI paid for electric vehicles is counted in the additional income tax deductions. 

6. State-specific measures

Various states are taking their own measures to promote electric vehicles in India. E.g.,

• Delhi: Delhi government has announced its Electric Vehicle Policy to achieve the target of 25% of newly registered vehicles to be electric till 2024 by providing low-interest loans, incentives to scrap old petrol and diesel vehicles to switch over to EVs, no registration fee, building charging points etc.

7. Other Steps

• Scheme to Promote Manufacturing of Electric Passenger Cars in India: Started in 2024 under the Ministry of Heavy Industries.
• EV 30 @ 30: Scheme aims to achieve the target of atleast 30% of the sale of new automobiles by 2030 should be EV.
• Infrastructure Status to EV Charging: Budget 2022 gave infrastructure status to EV Charging Stations.
• Green Number Plates: Transportation Ministry has announced that Electric Vehicles will have special green number plates.

Way Forward

1. Charging Stations: In India, the biggest roadblock in the introduction of electric vehicles is the inadequate number of charging stations. The greatest emphasis should be on setting up charging stations. Government should divert more subsidies to charging stations.
2. Secure Lithium Supply: Lithium is the most critical component in battery manufacturing. India has to secure this supply by investing in mines in Congo, Chile and Bolivia as done by China. 
3. Investment in Charging Technologies: The government research organizations and premier institutions such as IITs should invest in developing faster charging in vehicles. 

The Parliament enacted this act to arrest deteriorating air quality.

Notable points from this Act

1. Central and State Pollution Control Boards

The act has the provision for setting up Pollution Control Boards at Central and State levels. 

2. Role of these boards

These boards have following functions

CPCP

• Advices Central Government on the matters concerning improvement of air quality
• Plan and execute a nationwide program for prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
• Provide technical assistance & guidance to State Pollution Control Boards 
• Lay down standards for quality of air. 

SPCB

• Comprehensive plan for prevention, control & abatement of air pollution & to secure execution thereof

3. Define Air Pollutant

• The act defines Air Pollutants as ‘any solid, liquid or gaseous substance( including noise) present in the atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or living creatures or plant or property or environment. 

4. Air Pollution Control Areas

• The state government, after consultation with SPCB, can declare any area as Air Pollution Control Areas (APCA). 
• If the state government, after consultation with SPCB, believes that the use of any fuel in APCA may cause air pollution, it may prohibit the use of such fuel. 
• No person shall, without the consent of SPCB, establish or operate any industrial plant in an APCA. 

• Google Maps has decided to start a feature in which the system will show the most ‘eco-friendly’ route as the default route to the user based on traffic, congestion, road inclination etc. It is part of Google’s effort to fight climate change.