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Genetic Engineering

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Last Updated: Feb 2025 (Genetic Engineering)

Genetic Engineering

This article deals with ‘Genetic Engineering – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

  • The term ‘Genetic Engineering’ was coined in 1951 by Jack Williamson. 
  • It is the process of direct human manipulation of the organism’s genome.  
  • It involves introducing the foreign DNA into the organism of interest to add one or more traits that aren’t found naturally in the organism. 
  • The organism thus produced is known as GMO or Transgenic organism.
Genetic Engineering

Timeline

1960 Restriction Enzyme was discovered, which could slice the organism’s DNA strand at a particular point.
1973 Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer made the first Genetically Modified Bacteria by successfully removing a particular gene from a bacterium and placing it in another bacterium using the enzyme mentioned above. The organism thus formed is known as a Genetically Modified Organism (GMO).
1974 Genetically modified Mice was made.
1982 Insulin-producing Bacteria was commercialized.
1982 The Antibiotic-Resistant Tobacco plant, which was the first genetically modified crop, was produced.
1994 Genetically Modified Food has been sold since 1994.

Method of Genetic Engineering

  • Genome is relatively resistant to change. To deter any changes from being inadvertently made to DNA, cells have inherent mechanisms to proofread and repair their genetic code. Remarkably, researchers have taken advantage of the cell’s DNA repair mechanisms to achieve genome editing. 
  • To accomplish this, scientists can use
    • Artificially engineered enzymes called Nucleases act as molecular scissors and are used to crack open DNA strands.  
    • Once the break is introduced in DNA, the cell will detect the problem & quickly activate repair machinery. 
    • DNA sequence designed to be inserted is also sent along with a Nuclease, such that when a cut is made in the DNA, the cell’s own repair mechanism can use the DNA sequence supplied to replace an existing DNA sequence. 
  • This method allows scientists to change the genetic makeup of cells directly.  

Type of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

Genetic material can be inserted from the same species as well as other species. Accordingly, they are known as Transgenic and Cisgenic GMOs.

Transgenic Genetic material from the other species is added to the host.
Cisgenic Genetic material from the same species or one that can be naturally bred with is added to the host.

Applications of Genetic Engineering

Applications of Genetic Engineering

1 . Human Medicine

  1. Insulin: Insulin is obtained from genetically engineered E. Coli, which is pure and cheaper than earlier sources, i.e. pancreas of abattoir animals. It was the first-ever genetically engineered biopharma product released on the market. (Note: Insulin controls the glucose levels in the body, and its deficiency results in diabetes.)
  2. Recombinant Vaccines: These are new generations of vaccines. They are pure and have lesser side effects compared to conventional vaccines. 
  3. Edible Vaccines: An edible vaccine is derived through the genetically engineered expression of an antigenic protein by an edible plant. They have the advantage over animal-derived vaccines such as easy bulk production and stability at room temperature.
  4. Recombinant Blood Clotting Factor VIII: This helps in curing the patients who have haemophilia. In haemophilia person’s body produces a lesser amount of Factor VIII, which helps the body in blood coagulation.

2. Genetically Modified Crops

  • Genetic Engineering is used to produce GM crops with desirable characteristics such as
    1. Pest, Virus & Drought-Resistant varieties such as BT Cotton (having pesticidal properties that are non-toxic to mammals) & virus-resistant GM Papaya grown in Hawaii. 
    2. Weed Control: Scientists have integrated a recombinant gene in the crops that cause resistance to the herbicide glyphosate and simplifies weed control by glyphosate application.
    3. Slow ripening
    4. Better nutritional value like Golden Rice (with biofortified Vitamin A (Beta Carotene)).

3. Improved Animal Breeds

  • Like transgenic fish was made to grow rapidly by insertion of the growth hormone gene.

4. Enhancement Genetic Engineering/ Eugenic / Designer Babies

  • It involves the insertion of a gene to enhance the specific character like growth hormone or intelligence etc., for enhanced growth or intelligence than ordinary children.

5. Gene Therapy

  • Using gene manipulating techniques to treat genetic diseases by replacing defective genes with healthy genes or bolstering the body’s immunity.

6. Gene Doping

  • The misuse of gene editing in which athletes resort to gene editing to increase their physical stamina. According to WADA (World Anti-Doping Agency), Gene Doping is a hazard to a sport’s integrity and athlete’s health.

7. Environmental Remediation

  • Genetically modified organisms are being used to clean up polluted sites. Examples include Pseudomonas Putida (a GM organism that is used to clean oil spills. This is patented by Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty).

Concerns with Genetic Engineering

1. Gene Delivery Tools

  • Genes are inserted into the body using vectors which are usually viruses.
  • Viruses can produce other problems like
    • Toxicity
    • Immune response
    • Inflammatory response
    • Gene control and  targeting issues

2. High Costs / Equity Concerns

  • The whole process is quite expensive and hence not inclusive. It will create the division in society between haves and have-nots.

3. Ethical Dilemma

  • Principal concerns include morality, eugenics helping the fittest to survive, ongoing clinical debates about informed consent, religious debate, the possible rise of clones, designer babies, and possibly super-humans.

4. Informed Consent

  • In the case of germline therapy, it is impossible to obtain informed consent as the patients affected by the editing are the embryo and future generations.

5. Limited Knowledge of the Functions of the Genes

Scientists know functions of limited genes, and worst is in some cases, scientists don’t know whether a particular gene is performing more than one function

6. Regulatory Concerns

Developing  appropriate regulations and  guidelines  to govern  the  use of genome editing  technologies  presents  a  challenge to  ensure responsible and  safe applications

7. Others

  • It might lead to designer babies & the commodification of children.
  • It can be used in biological warfare.
  • Recreation of extinct species can lead to disasters.
  • If a wrong DNA segment is inserted and if it gets expressed, it can cause new diseases in human beings.

Side Topic: Gene Knock Out

A gene ‘knock out’ is a genetically engineered organism that carries one or more genes in its chromosomes that have been made inoperative.

CRISPR-Cas9

Currently, four families of engineered nucleases (Molecular Scissor) are used: 

CRISPR/Cas9 System of Germline Editing

  • CRISPR Cas 9 technology works like a cut-and-paste mechanism on DNA strands. The DNA strand identifies the specific location of the genetic codes that need to be changed or “edited” and then, using the Cas9 protein, which acts like a pair of scissors, that location is cut off from the strand. Once the DNA strand is broken, it has a natural tendency to repair itself. During the auto-repair process, Scientists intervene by supplying the desired sequence of genetic codes that binds with the broken DNA strand.
  • Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 2020 was awarded for discovering the CRISPR Cas9 scissor.
  • It is a revolutionary technique for Gene Editing with very high efficacy 
    • CRISPR: It is the mechanism that Bacteria uses to protect themselves from viruses. In this system, DNA is plucked out of Virus and inserted in little bits into the bacterium’s chromosome. In this way, Bacteria records the viruses it has been exposed to so that cells are protected from those viruses in the future. 
    • Cas 9 is a cutting enzyme. 

Stage 1

Guide RNA is shepherded with Cas 9 System 

  • RNA is used to guide Cas 9 to the targeted position.
  • Cas 9 is used to make a cut. 
CRISPR Cas9

Stage 2

  • Cas 9 locks onto DNA &
    unzips it (both strands are divided).
CRISPR Cas9

Stage 3

  • Cas 9 snips the DNA, creating a break in both strands.
CRISPR Cas9

Stage 4

  • The DNA will repair itself using an inbuilt repaid mechanism using a piece of single-stranded DNA injected into the cell that binds itself with the broken DNA strand.
CRISPR Cas9

Why it is revolutionary

  • It is cheaper (than already existing gene-editing technology).  
  • It has very high efficacy.

Uses/ Applications

Its applications are immense, and it has made the designer baby a reality. Since it will have a wide range of ethical and social implications, inventors Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier have called for Moratorium until proper consensus on its use is made. 

  • Cure to diseases: CRISPR Cas-9 technology is used to treat many incurable diseases. It includes the cure for Sickle Cell Anaemia, diabetes, inherited eye diseases, and various types of cancers. E.g., in 2023, the US has approved CRIPR based gene therapies (named Casgevy and Lyfgenia) to treat patient with Sickle Cell Disease. Additionally, clinical trials are going on to treat diseases like HIV/AIDS, diabetes, cancer etc.
  • Controlling number of mosquitos: Scientists have used the CRISPR technique to produce sterile male mosquitos of species that are responsible for spreading diseases such as malaria, dengue, zika etc. 
  • Some scientists call for bringing extinct species back to life using this technology, like the Oxford Universities project on reviving Mammoth.

Issues with the Technology

  • Designer Babies: Bioethicists fear abuse of gene editing by the private sector, preying on a parent’s desire to create a perfect child. In 2018, a Chinese researcher disclosed that he had altered the genes of a human embryo to prevent the infection of HIV. It was the first documented case of creating a ‘designer baby’, and it caused widespread concern in the scientific community.
  • Issue of Informed Consent: Bioethicists have also raised the concern that it is impossible to obtain up-to-date consent for germline therapy because the patients affected by the edits are the embryo and future generations.
  • Inclusivity Issue: Only wealthy people will be able to afford this technology, increasing existing disparities and creating another class of haves and have-nots.
  • OffTarget  Effects: CRISPR Cas9 can sometimes edit unintended locations in the genome, leading to potential genetic alterations with unknown consequences.

Lord Ripon

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Lord Ripon (1880-1884)

This article deals with ‘ Lord Ripon – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

 

He was a liberal to the core & earlier acted as Secretary of State  during 1866-68. In 1880, when liberal party came to power in England under the leadership of Gladstone (who was the chief devotee of liberalism in Europe), he handpicked Ripon for job as Governor General of India. Ripon’s whole political outlook was very anti-thesis of his predecessor.

 

When he reached India, India was in political, social & economic fermentation. Lytton’s policies had driven discontent among masses & India was bordering on revolution. Ripon tried to heal those wounds by taking good steps beneficial for Indians.

 

Repeal of Vernacular Press Act
  • Act was repealed & Vernacular newspapers were allowed equal freedom with rest of Indian press. This wise action of Ripon tried to undo wrongs done by Lytton .

 

 

First Factory Act,1881
  • To improve the condition of factory labourers
  • Sought to regulate & improve the condition of labour in Indian factories . The Act was applicable in case of factories employing 100 or more labourers.
  • Prohibited employment of children below age of 7 + limited working hours for children below age of 12
  • Although limited in scope , opened new phase of industrial history in India .

 

Indian nationalists opposed this because it was aimed to nullify the advantage of Indian industrialists and British plantations were out of its ambit .

 

Financial decentralisation

Continued the policy of financial devolution inaugurated under Lord Mayo. Source of revenue were divided into three classes viz Imperial, Provincial & Divided

Imperial Heads Revenue from Customs, Posts & Telegraphs , Railways, Opium, Salt, Mint, Military Receipt , Land Revenue etc
Provincial
  • Revenue from Jails, Medical Services, Printing, Roads , general Administration etc
  • These were insufficient for provincial requirements , hence grant of fixed percentage of land revenue which otherwise was an imperial subject was given to Provinces
Divided
  • Income from Excise, Stamps , Forests , Registration etc was divided in equal proportion among the Central & Provincial Governments

 

 

 

Resolution on Local Self Government
Most noble work was Government’s resolution on Local Self Government which had following provisions

  • Local Boards were to be developed throughout the country .
    • In Rural Areas,  Governor General desired the smallest  Administrative Unit  to be- sub division , taluka or Tehsil .
    • In Towns , the Municipal Committees & City bodies were to form local board .
  • Local Bodies were to be charged with definite duties & entrusted with suitable sources of Revenue. Ripon desired the Provincial Government should apply in case of local bodies the same principle of Financial Decentralisation which Lord Mayo has directed towards them
  • Chairman of these local board shouldn’t be Officials but elected by Local Bodies themselves

In pursuance of above resolution, Local Self Government Acts were passed in various provinces during 1883-85 which included Madras, Punjab & Bengal .

 

 

But why were they giving such responsibilities to Indians?

Answer is financial pressures & search for more Indian collaborators. ‘Systems of nomination, representation and election were all means of enlisting Indians to work for imperial ends’. The financial and political aspects were neatly combined in the development of local self-government. The process really began under the Conservative Mayo and not the Liberal Ripon. The major motive was to tackle financial difficulties by shifting charges for local requirements on to new local taxes.

 

 

Resolution on Land Policy
  • He disfavoured proposal to establish Permanent Settlement Model of Bengal throughout India
  • He sought to modify the Permanent settlement of Bengal by giving farmers assurance of permanence & security and committing governments  not to enhance taxes except in case of price rise. He couldn’t succeed because Zamindars of Bengal opposed the measure & peasants of Bengal didn’t support it for they feared that Anglo-Indian bureaucracy would be worst than zamindars.

 

Educational Reforms

Refer Hunter Commission (Constituted under his Governor Generalship )

  • All the recommendations of Hunter Commission were applied by him

 

Ilbert Bill Controversy
  • CP Ilbert – Law member of Council introduced Ilbert bill in 1883
  • It proposed to give Indian Magistrates & Session Judges the power to try European offenders in mofussil(small towns) as it was already happening in Presidency Towns
  • White Mutiny followed . Bill was bitterly opposed by not just non official Europeans but British press too.  Ripon ultimately have to succumb to the pressure & withdraw the bill.

 

  • Amended Bill was passed in 1884 , which provided the European British subjects, when brought to trial before District Magistrate or Sessions Judge , whether European or Indian were to have a right to claim trial by a jury of 12 at least 7 of whom must be European or Americans. If in the mofussil district , no jury could be formed , magistrate was to transfer the case  to such other court such as High Court directly.

 

  • Ilbert bill was the last straw that politically conscious educated Indians could take , as it made them painfully aware of their subordinate position in imperial power structure

 

Note – The Ilbert Bill storm was the most extreme but by no means isolated expression of white racism. In 1878, for instance, the appointment of Muthusamy Iyer as High Court judge in Madras was opposed by the Madras Mail (organ of white businessmen) on the ground that ‘native officials should not draw the same rate of pay as Europeans in similar circumstances’.  The uproar led directly to the foundation of the famous nationalist journal Hindu.

 

Rendition of Mysore

  • Lord Bentinck annexed state of Mysore in 1831 on charge of misgovernance. Later it came to knowledge that reports of misgovernance were grossly exaggerated.
  • Ripon decided to correct the injustice done & restored the administration of the state to adopted son of the deposed Raja who died in 1866. 

He resigned in summer of 1884 because Gladstone willingly sanctioned the occupation of Egypt . A contingent of Indian troops was sent to Egypt & the burden of the imperial war fell on Indian Exchequer . Ripon launched a strong protest against this gross injustice & felt that his mission to India had failed. He resigned before term of his Viceroyalty was over.

 

 

Lord Lytton

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Lord Lytton(1876-80)

This article deals with ‘ Lord Lytton – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

 

 

He was the nominee of  Conservative Government of Benjamin Disraeli & was appointed with special eye to Central Asian developments. Lytton was a diplomat by profession & had served the British Foreign Office  in many capacities. He was a reputed poet ,novelist & an essayist known in the literary world as Owen Meredith. Till 1876, Lytton had no experience of administration nor any acquaintance with Indian affairs.

 

Lytton & Free Trade

  • Free trade had become passion with ruling circles in England till this time because it suited the interests of industrially advanced nation.
  • Lancashire Cotton manufacturers were jealous of new cotton mills coming up in Bombay and wanted to destroy them . They attacked the levies on export of goods to India. They termed this as protective measure against the Laissez Fairre .
  • British Government passed the Act & notified Indian Government to repeal duties when financial conditions permit. Notwithstanding the poor financial condition of India caused by Famine , Lytton abolished import duties on 29 items including sugar , sheetings etc (even against the wishes of his council)

 

Financial Reforms

  • Policy of financial devolution begun under Lord Mayo continued.
  • Provincial governments were given the control of the expenditure upon all ordinary provincial services including land revenue, excise , stamps, law & justice , general administration etc. For discharge of newly transferred services the provincial governments were not given any increase in their fixed grants but handed over some specified sources of revenue from respective provinces.

 

Famine (1876-78)
  • Severe Famine hit Bombay, Madras,Mysore, Hyderabad & some parts of Central India and Punjab. Population of 5.8 Crore was affected & according to Romesh Dutt ,50 Lakh perished in single year
  • Government made half hearted efforts to help the famine stricken. The Government famine machinery was inadequate
  • In 1878, Famine Commission was established under Richard Strachey which disfavoured grant of gratuitous help & wanted able bodied persons to be provided employment on wages sufficient to maintain health . He recommended construction of Railway & Irrigation works for this. ( this laid foundation of famine policy as well)

 

Royal Titles Act, 1876 & Grand Darbar of 1877

  • British Parliament passed Royal Titles Act investing Queen Victoria with title of Kaiser-i-Hind or Queen Empress of India . Grand Darbar was held in Delhi on 1Jan 1877 to announce people & Princes of India the assumption of the Title.
  • Unfortunately, Darbar held at a time when several parts of the country were in grip of Famine. Lytton spent millions on pomp but neglected people to die in hunger. This drove a current of national humiliation among people of India.
  • Calcutta Journal adversely commented , ”  Nero was fiddling when Rome was burning”
  • But Darbar proved to be blessing in disguise
  • Although it reduced the Princes from position of allies to that of feudatories
        • But subconsciously & against the intentions of the author of Bill raised status of Indian subjects of the Queen to that of Citizen of the British Empire encouraging persons like SN Banerjee to organise an association of Indians to raise their grievances.

 

(Side Note – Second Durbar was held by Edward VII in 1903 & Third Durbar at time of George V in 1911. Every time , Ruler changed, this Durbar was held)

 

Vernacular Press Act, 1878
  • Unpopular Policies of Lytton filled people with discontent & native vernacular press was ridiculing him.
  • He came up with Vernacular Press Act to cut short the wings of Vernacular Press 
  • By this act
        • Magistrates of the Districts were empowered , without prior permission of the government, to call upon a printer and publisher of any kind to enter into a bond , undertaking not to publish anything which might arouse the feelings of the disaffection against the government
        • Magistrate was also authorised to deposit a security , which could be confiscated if printer violated the bond
        • If printer violated again , his press could be seized
  • Worst feature of this Act was it discriminated between Native  Vernacular Press & loyal Anglo-Indian press & was nicknamed as Gagging Act
  • It was specially targeted at Amrita Bazaar Patrika which turned English overnight to remain out of the ambit of the act.

 

Arms Act, 1878
  • This made it a Criminal Offence to keep or traffic in arms without licence. Penalty was fine or imprisonment of 3 years or both .
  • But worst feature was it kept Anglo-Indians , Europeans & some categories of govt officials out of its ambit . Hence it was a racial Act

 

Statutory Civil Service
  • Charter Act of 1853 had declared all offices in India were open to merit irrespective of nationality & colour and Charter Act of 1853 provided for holding of a competitive examination in London for recruitment to higher services . Act was passed in 1870 saying that 1/5th recruits to Covenant Service should be Indians even without competitive examination but it took for government  10 years to frame rules
  • Indians couldn’t enter ICS because difficulties facing aspirants were great. From 1862 to 75 only 40 Indians appeared for ICS & only 10 were successful.
  • Lytton proposed the straightforward course of closing Covenanted Civil Service to Indians & instead create ‘a close native service’ to meet the provisions of the Act of 1870 . Home Authorities didn’t favour this because of its discriminatory nature .
  • Lytton then proposed plan for Statutory Civil Services (SCS) in 1878-79 (according to Act of 1870)  . According to rules of 1879 , the Govt of India could employ some Indians of good family & social standing in  SCS on recommendation of Provincial Government subject to confirmation & number of such appointments not to exceed 1/6th of total appointments . (However , SCS didn’t become popular with Indians & discarded later)
  • Since Secretary of State  didn’t accept proposal to discard Covenant Civil Services to Indians altogether, hence he made calculated move to discourage Indians from competing by reducing max age from 21 years to 19 years .

 

Throughout India this was seen as a coloured legislation & it was difficult for Indians to digest this humiliation

 

2nd Afghan War

  • Provoked senseless war against Afghans with view to establish a scientific frontier towards North West
  • Adventure proved to be failure

 

 

Estimate of Lord Lytton

  • Lytton was no doubt a man of ideas but he must be judged as a failure as a ruler of India. Experts point out the name of Lytton & Curzon as two viceroys who did more harm than good to India & to England’s position in India than any other men that can be named.
  • Lytton’s unpopular & repressive policy drove discontent among the masses . The unrest became widespread & was becoming dangerous. His policies prepared the soil for creation of nationalism in India .

 

 

 

 

 

 

Lord Canning

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Lord Canning 

This article deals with ‘ Lord Canning – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

 

Events during Lord Canning’s tenure
  • Break out of Revolt of 1857
  • Government of India Act ,1858
  • Indian Council Act, 1861
  • Indian Civil Services Act , 1861
  • Indigo Agitation of Bengal, 1859-60 (in revolts)
  • Enactment of Indian Penal Code (IPC) 1860

Also known as clemency Canning => Although mass killings happened at his time , he tried to present a picture to world that all is well

 

 

Queen Victoria’s Proclamation (1/11/1858)

Announced at Grand Durbar in Allahabad . This proclamation declared the future policy of British in India

  • Queen had assumed the Government of India under this
  • Declared we desire no extension of our present territories &  we shall respect rights , dignity & honour of native Princes
  • Our subjects of whatever race or creed , be freely & impartially admitted to offices in our services
  • Our clemency shall be extended to all offenders except those who have been  directly involved in killing of British subjects
  • All treaties & engagements with native Princes by or under authority of East India Company are to be accepted & will be scrupulously maintained
  • Principle of justice and religious tolerance would be guiding policy of Queens rule
  • Armies of East India Company will cease to exist and incorporated to British army
  • Indian sepoys were enlisted as regular recruits in British army & hence Indians participated in world wars in next century

 

 

 

Government of India  Act, 1858

Origin

  • Since in Charter Act of 1853, Company’s rule wasn’t extended for another 20 years, it gave British government to intervene in the matters . Whigs & Tories joined hands to end Company’s rule over India .
  • John Stuart Mill prepared a dignified and weighty petition which was presented by the Company against the Government decision to both the Houses of Parliament. But no petition could any longer stem the tide of mounting criticism against the Company’s administration.

 

Provisions

  • It’s provisions called for liquidation of Company
  • India was directly to be governed in the name of the Crown
  • Company’s rule , Board of Control , Court of Directors were abolished
  • Crown was to govern India directly through Secretary of State for India and his council consisting of 15 members. Secretary of State had powers of both Board of Control and Court of Directors
  • Crown had the power to appoint Governor General and Governors of the Presidencies

 

Secretary of State

  • The Secretary of State was to sit in Parliament. He was a cabinet minister of England
  • The Act created an India Council of 15  members. It was to advise the Secretary of State  who could overrule its decisions.
  • Secretary of State was given the power of sending and receiving secret messages and despatches from the Governor General without the necessity of communicating them to the India Council.
  • First Secretary of India was Lord Stanley, who was before this President of Board of Control .

 

 

 

Centralisation of administration

  • Right of appointment to important offices was with the Crown and Secretary of State

 

Governor General &  Viceroy of India
  • Governor General was now  to be called Viceroy and Governor General of India
  • Governor General would have an Executive council whose members were to act as heads of different departments and as his official advisors
  • Council discussed all matter and voted for majority but Viceroy had the veto power

 

 

 

 

 

Indian Council Act, 1861

Need

  • Act of 1858 exclusively introduced changes in the Home Government but so far as  India was concerned, it didn’t touch the administrative setup in India. There was a strong feeling that sweeping changes in the Constitution of India were called for after the crisis of 1857.
  • There was demand of establishing closer contacts with Indian public opinion .
  • Charter Act , 1833 centralised the legislation process with Legislative Council (at Centre) had alone the power to legislate for whole of country. It was in the nature of things ill fitted to do its job on account of its ignorance of conditions prevailing in different parts of vast country.
  • After the Charter Act, 1853 , Legislative Council became sort of Parliament on small scale & tried to act as independent legislature sometimes stopping the supplies & didn’t work according to wishes of Home Government. This provision demanded a correction.

 

Provisions

  • Act added to Viceroy’s Executive Council a 5th member who was to be ‘a gentleman of legal profession , a jurist rather than a technical lawyer’
  • Act empowered the Governor General to make rules for more convenient transaction of business in the council . This power was used by Lord Canning to introduce the portfolio system in  the Government .
  • For the purpose of legislation, the Viceroy’s Executive Council was expanded by addition of not less than 6 & not more than 12 ADDITIONAL members , who would be nominated by Governor General  & would hold office for 2 years.
  • Restored power to legislate ie making and amending laws to presidencies of Madras & Bombay. But to become act assent of Governor General was necessary . In certain matters like Currency, Posts & Telegraphs, naval & military matters , prior approval of GG was made obligatory
  • Governor General can issue ordinance in emergency which were to remain in force not more than 6 months.

 

Observations
  • Although the legislative powers were given to Presidencies as well but there was no demarcation of jurisdiction of Central & Local Legislatures as in federal constitutions.
  • The Legislative Council couldn’t be called True Legislature either in composition or in functions .
  • The Act of 1861 in no way established representative government in India on the model prevalent in England or England’s White Colonies .

 

 

 

 

Stem Cells

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Last Updated: Feb 2025 (Stem Cells)

Stem Cells

This article deals with ‘Stem Cells  – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology, which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

What are Stem Cells?

The Stem Cells are the class of undifferentiated cells that have the ability to differentiate into specialized cell types.

Stem cells should be:

  1. Undifferentiated cells having the ability to divide & differentiate themselves into specialized cells
  2. It has the capability of self-renewal, i.e. reproducing itself
Stem Cells

Type of Stem Cells

1. Embryonic Stem Cells

  • They are derived from the embryo.
    • Humans reproduce sexually, i.e. need sperm and eggs.
    • The sperm fuses with the egg to form a fused product called Zygote. This cell divides itself to form different organs like eyes, heart, lungs etc., i.e. one cell is capable of producing an organism.
    • Hence, embryonic cells have the ability to differentiate themselves into different specialized cells.
  • They are Totipotent, i.e. can become any specialized cell & organ.

2. Non-Embryonic /Somatic/ Adult Stem Cells

  • Adult Stem Cells exist throughout the body after embryonic development. They are found inside the different tissues such as the brain, bone marrow, blood, blood vessels, Skeletal muscles, skin & liver.
  • They remain in a quiescent or non-living state for years until activated by disease or tissue injury.
  • They can divide or self-renew indefinitely, enabling them to generate a range of cell types from the originating organ or even regenerate the entire organ.
  • Generally, adult stem cells are limited in their ability to differentiate based on their tissue of origin. 
  • Adult stem cells are rare in mature tissues. Hence isolating these cells from adult tissue is challenging, and methods to expand their numbers in cell culture have not yet been worked out.

3. Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs)

  • Adult cells that have been genetically reprogrammed to an embryonic stem cell-like state.

The Potency of Stem Cells

  • Stem cells are categorized on the basis of their potential to differentiate into other types of cells.
  • Embryonic stem cells are the most potent since they can become all types of cells in the body.

1. Totipotent

  • Totipotent cells can differentiate into all cell types.
  • Examples: Zygote formed at egg fertilization, and the first few cells from the division of the Zygote

2. Pluripotent

  • Pluripotent Stem Cells are the stem cells that can differentiate into almost all cell types. 
  • Examples include cells from the beginning stages of the embryo.

3. Multipotent

  • Multipotent Stem Cells can differentiate into a closely related family of cells.
  • Examples include hematopoietic (adult) stem cells that can become red and white blood cells or platelets.

4. Unipotent

  • Unipotent stem cells have the ability to produce cells of their own type only. But they have the property of self-renewal required to be labelled a stem cell.
  • Examples include (adult) muscle/Somatic stem cells.

Controversy regarding Embryonic Stem Cells

  • Stem cells are generally derived from embryos, as adult stem cells are difficult to extract. But human rights advocates view this as equivalent to murdering a child.
  • It was also against the conservative Christian beliefs and was vehemently opposed, especially in the USA. Republican governments were totally against this as they favoured promoting Christian ethics.

Converting ordinary cells to Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells – Gurdon & Yamanaka

  • A single cell in the form of a Zygote formed after fertilization of egg and sperm differentiates to specialist cells like heart cells, liver cells, skin cells etc. Earlier, it was thought that this natural process was irreversible.
  • But Gurdon and Yamanaka identified the genes to make any cell pluripotent and also showed that cells can be programmed to any specific cell like Bone Marrow or heart cell.
  • It solved the issue of killing embryos to get Stem Cells.
Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells – Gurdon & Yamanaka

Gist: Problems in using Stem Cells

  • Ethical concerns: Ethical dilemmas in using stem cells involve the destruction of human embryos to obtain stem cells. In the USA, Christian values against the destruction of embryos stymied the research in stem cells.
  • Efficacy of Stem Cell Therapy: iPSCs don’t have 100% efficacy, and in many cases, reprogrammed cells can result in cancerous cells by rapid division
  • Inclusivity issue: Stem Cell therapy is costly, and the poor can’t afford it. Hence, it is not inclusive.
  • Graft versus Host  Disease  (GVHD): Stem  cell  transplants  carry  the  risk  of  GVHD (although very low),  where  the  transplanted cells  recognize the  recipient’s  body  as  foreign  and  attack  healthy  tissues.
  • Infections: Patients  undergoing  stem  cell  transplants  are  susceptible  to  infections  due  to  the  weakening  of the immune system.

What are the applications of Stem cells?

  • Stem Cells can cure several illnesses
    1. Parkinson’s disease [A degenerative disorder caused by cell death in the brain – became prevalent in developed nations due to an increase in life expectancy]
    2. Alzheimer
    3. Cancer
    4. Spinal Cord Injury
    5. Treatment of Autism
    6. Blood-related diseases (like Sickle Cell Anaemia)
    7. Diabetes
    8. Heart and Arterial Related diseases
  • Regenerative Medicine: Stem cells can be used in organ transplants. A full-fledged organ can be produced using Stem Cells. Since it is made from cells of a person’s body, the rejection rate of such organs is almost nil.
  • Research: It helps to understand the basic biology of how living things work. 
  • Treatment of HIV: Scientists have shown that Stem cells can be used to treat HIV, which is considered a miracle in medicine. In 2022, a women in the US was treated of HIV using Stem Cell Transplant.

Stem Cell Therapy Status  in India

  • Western Countries have strict regulations and restrictions on the use of Stem Cells, but no such regulation was earlier present in India. Due to a lack of regulations and cheap treatment, many terminally ill patients were coming to India for treatment.
  • In 2018, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare proposed to amend the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940, to bring Stem Cell and Stem Cell-based products under legal regulation. Under the amendments, Stem Cells and substantially altered products will be treated as drugs. Therefore, they will have to seek the regulator’s approval (Drug Controller General of India) before being marketed.
  • Various ICMR Guidelines
    1. ICMR’s National Guideline for Stem Cell Research in 2017.
    2. Stem Cell Use Ethical Guidelines by ICMR  
  • MoUs
    1. Indo– Japan Stem Cell Research Collaboration
    2. India – UK Stem Cell Research
    3. Research Centre: DBT Centre in Bangalore is dedicated to Stem Cell Research (In-STEM).

Genetically Modified Crops

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Last Updated: Feb 2025 (Genetically Modified Crops)

Genetically Modified Crops

This article deals with ‘Genetically Modified Crops  – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

  • GMOs are organisms whose DNA or genetic makeup has been altered using various techniques of genetic engineering. 
  • In 1982, the first genetically modified crop, i.e. GM Tobacco, was produced. GM foods have been sold in the market since the early 1990s. 
  • Genetic Modification develops specific traits in crops like:
    1. Herbicide resistance 
    2. Viral resistance 
    3. Pest resistance 
    4. Fungal and bacterial resistance 
    5. Slow ripening 
    6. Quality improvement – protein and oil
    7. Value addition – vitamins, micro and macro elements 
  • GM plants are developed by private companies and public research institutions like International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (public research institution) and Monsanto (an American private company).

Examples of Genetically Modified Crops (GMCs)

Genetically Modified Crops
Genetically Modified Crops (GMC)

Herbicide Resistant Crops

  • GM varieties of crops like soybean, maize, canola etc., have been developed, which are resistant to herbicide Glyphosate. Hence, it simplifies the weed control by Glyphosate application. (Note: Glyphosate herbicide is produced by Monsanto (of USA) under the trade name ‘Round up’.)
  • Gene has been inserted into DMH-11 (Mustard) which makes it resistant to herbicide named Basta. 

Insect Resistant Crops

  • GM crops such as Bt Cotton and Bt Brinjal are insect resistant because Bt genes can produce insecticidal toxins to the larvae of moths and butterflies, beetles, cotton bollworms, Lepidopberan insects (damages brinjal) and gadflies.

Flavr-Savr Tomato

  • It was the first GM crop that was granted permission for human consumption. 
  • It was produced by an American MNC named Calgene.
  • Through genetic modification, the ripening process of the tomato was slowed down, thus preventing it from softening and increasing the shelf life.

Biofortification

  • Golden Rice is the Genetically Modified Variety of Rice that can accumulate -carotene in the endosperm. Beta-Carotene is the precursor of Vitamin-A. It can be used in areas with Vitamin-A deficiency (which leads to night blindness).

GM Rubber

  • GM Rubber was developed at Kerala based Rubber Research Institute of India (RRII) and was planted in the outskirts of Guwahati. It has additional copies of gene MnSOD which is expected to handle severe cold conditions during winter in North-East India.

Others

  • Scientists in India have developed strains of Sub-1 rice, which are much more resistant to flooding.
  • CSIR has developed (truly) Blue Rose using the gene from pansy (variety of flowers).
  • The University of Texas has produced cotton with edible seeds by reducing its toxicity levels, thus converting cotton into an important food source. 
  • Tearless Onions have been produced by removing genes that synthesize sulphur compounds which act as tearing agents.

Note: Indian government has allowed the commercialisation of only one GM crop, the BT Cotton with the Cry 1 Ac gene (Bollgard I).

Side Topic: Companies involved in GM Crops

Monsanto 

  • It is an American MNC working in the field of applying biotechnology to agriculture.
  • It is the leading producer of herbicide Glyphosate (Round-Up).
  • Monsanto was the first company that create a biotechnology business model revolving around the company’s patent rights. 

MAHYCO

  • MAHYCO = Maharashtra Hybrid Corporation
  • It was started in 1964 and is headquartered in Jalna (Maharashtra).
  • MAHYCO has developed a large number of high-quality hybrid seeds.
  • MAHYCO also collaborates with academia and industry, and its association with Monsanto to produce BT cotton seeds using BT Technology of Monsanto since 1998 is such an example. 

Should we allow GM Crops?

Arguments in favour of the introduction of GM Crops

  • Food Security: The world population is increasing. Yet, the amount of farmland is shrinking. GM crops can help to feed the growing population. 
  • Sustainable Agriculture: Scientists can give crops built-in resistance to pests (e.g., BT gene), thus reducing the need for harmful pesticides. 
  • Higher-income for farmers: GM crops cut costs and increase yields, thus raising the income of farmers.
  • Fighting Malnutrition: Biofortification helps in increasing the vitamins and micro-nutrients in staple crops. Examples include Golden Rice which is biofortified with Vitamin A.
  • Face climate change: GM crops with suitable genetic editing can help make crops that can withstand stress like high temperature or drought.  
  • Other countries are already growing GM Crops: We can’t stop the import of GM foods produced in the world. Hence, there is no point in restricting their cultivation in India and losing ground to foreign competitors. It has to be noted that India annually imports 3 million tonnes of soyabean oil which is predominantly GM.
  • Father of the green revolution – Norman Borlaug recommends GM crops for food security too.

Arguments against the introduction of GM Crops

MS Swaminathan has called GM crops a failure due to the unbearable costs of seeds and inputs on poor farmers and stagnated yields of BT cotton at 500 kg/ha (lower than that of China & Egypt).

Along with that, it has to be noted that GM crop isn’t a purely scientific issue. It is situated at a socio-economic & political nexus involving market monopolies in seeds leading to suicides. 

  • Farmer Suicides: The introduction of GM cotton is the cause for increasing farmer suicides in Karnataka and Vidarbha region. Farmers are using expensive GM seeds in a drought-prone region.  
  • Threat to indigenous varieties and biodiversity: Due to GM crops, farmers don’t cultivate indigenous varieties. This practice results in biodiversity loss. Vidarbha district in Maharashtra is nearly a 100% BT cotton-producing region. Local varieties of cotton seeds have almost disappeared.  
  • Monoculture Farming: GMOs often involve “large-scale monocultures” of limited crop varieties that also require great amounts of artificial fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation.
  • Threat to Natural Pollinators: Some important pollinators also die due to the consumption of BT crops, thus impacting the overall productivity and biodiversity.
  • Terminator Genes in Hybrid Seeds: Hybrid GM seeds are ‘programmed‘ in such a way that they lose their ‘hybrid vigour’, so new seeds must be purchased every planting season. 
  • Loss of vigour: GMCs gradually lose their vigour, exemplified by the following incidents
    1. White Fly pest attack on Bt-cotton in Punjab. 
    2. Monsanto also accepted that Bt Cotton is now susceptible to Pink Bollworm.  
  • Stringent labelling provisions are required when GM crops are cultivated and sold in the market because those consuming GM food have the right to know that. But in India, vegetables are sold loose, and this is not possible.
  • Monoculture: There is desperation among farmers as the introduction of Bt cotton has ended the market of traditional varieties of cotton. Hence, all the farmers have started to grow the same crop to ensure that their produce finds a buyer. This has led to monoculture.
  • Parliamentary committee says that GM crops benefit only wealthy farmers & companies like Monsanto are filled with monopolistic characteristics. 
  • Higher Environmental Footprint: GM crops require more water, fertilizers unlike what they are advertised. 
  • GM Crops can unintentionally introduce allergens and other anti-nutrition factors in the foods.  

While billion-dollar companies like Monsanto, Bayer, Dow, and Syngenta have scientists lobbies who conduct research and publish research in high numbers in favour of GM crops and try to push it in India, there is nothing wrong with GM crops. Still, we should remember that Dow chemical was behind Bhopal Gas Tragedy and Bayer was Endosulphan supplier. Such billion-dollar companies often hide the harmful effects of GM in the long term

Way forward

  • Legal measure: The presence of a liability clause, like present in the US, if GM tech affects traditional crops will ensure that seed companies take proper precautions in fear of penalty. 
  • Government should effectively implement the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety and the Biological Diversity Act of 2002.
  • There is a need for formulating the National Policy on GM Crops.
  • Parliament should pass the Biotechnology Regulatory Authority of India (BRAI) Act and replace GEAC with BRAI.

Side Topic: Mandatory labelling of GM Food

  • In 2018, FSSAI released Food Safety and Standards (Labelling and Display) Regulations, making it mandatory to clearly state on the label if the packaged food contains GM ingredients. 
  • Any food will be considered GM food if it contains 5% or more GM ingredients. 

Side Topic: Terminator Gene

  • Terminator Gene is the genetic code inserted in the DNA of the seed that makes the seeds harvested in the yield sterile. Hence, the farmer can’t use the harvested crop as seed and have to buy new seeds every season. 
  • CoP-8 of the UN Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) has prohibited the use of terminator genes. Consequently, India has passed a law banning this technology. 

Hybrid Seeds / Hybridisation

  • Hybridisation is the technique or method involving cross-pollination among two different varieties to bring their desired characters together into one progeny called Hybrid.  
  • Hybridisation is the common method of creating a genetic variation to get improved varieties. Humanity has used this technique since pre-history. 
Hybrid Seeds

Examples of Hybrid Crops

  • Seeds produced during the Green Revolution like Sonalika and Kalyan Sona (Dwarf varieties of wheat) and IR-8 (dwarf variety of rice) were hybrids. 
  • Case of Hybrid Sugarcane for North India:   
Hybrid Crops

Other Hybrid Seeds include

Insect-resistant Pusa Sawani: Hybrid Ladyfinger, which is resistant to shoot and fruit borer. 
Disease-resistant Himgiri: Rust resistant variety of Wheat.
Biofortified – Protina, Shakti and Rathna: Protein-rich maize hybrids.
– Atlas 66: Protein-rich wheat variety.

BT Cotton Issue

What is BT (Bacillus Thuringeinsis) ?

  • Bt refers to Bacillus Thuringenesis. It is a gram-positive soil-dwelling bacterium.  This bacteria produces more than 200 toxins that have insecticidal properties wrt the larvae of moths and butterflies, beetles, cotton bollworms and gadflies but are harmless to other life forms.
Bacillus Thuringenesis
  • When specific genes from Bacillus Thuringenesis are introduced into the native cotton and brinjal varieties, it starts to produce toxins that destroy the digestive system of bollworm and stem borers. 
Bt Cotton

Analysis: Bt Cotton in India

Positive Effects

The government approved to grow Bt Cotton in 2002 & as a result, India witnessed a great revolution in the cotton sector, not seen for another crop.

  • The yield of cotton increased due to the effective control of bollworms. After the introduction of Bt Cotton, India saw a rise in cotton production by 178%. India has emerged as the most significant global cotton player and is presently the largest cotton producer (surpassing China).
  • A significant reduction was witnessed in the use of insecticide in the cultivation of Bt cotton. 
  • The cost of cultivation was also reduced as artificial insecticides were not required. 

Issues

  • The issue is increasing farmer suicides in Karnataka and Vidarbha region.  Farmers are using expensive GM seeds in drought-prone areas.
  • There are other problems too –
    1. High input cost of seeds, 
    2. Genetic erosion of local varieties, 
    3. Farmer’s dependence on private seed companies whose sole aim is profit maximization. 
  • Recently, cotton plantations in various parts of the country have been hit due to the infestation of Pink Bollworm (PBW). Following reasons are responsible for this :
    1. Absence of crop rotation.
    2. Not growing 20-30% regular cotton along with BT Cotton.

Dhara Mustard Hybrid-11 (DMH-11)

  • DMH-11 Mustard is produced by the Delhi University’s Centre for Genetic Manipulation of Crop Plants. 
  • DMH-11 is a GM Mustard Hybrid.
  • It is India’s first indigenously developed GM food crop.
  • In October 2022, GEAC approved the environmental release of GM mustard. Later, release of the GM Mustard was put on hold after Supreme Court intervention. 

Justifications for allowing DMH-11

  • In an ordinary situation, hybrids can be obtained by cross-pollination of two varieties of the same species. But the case of Mustard is different as natural hybridization isn’t possible in Mustard because its flowers contain both female (pistil) and male (stamen) reproductive organs. Hence Genetic Modification is the only way to make High Yielding Variety (HYV).
  • Moreover, India is importing 15 million tonnes of edible oils. Hence, there is a need to raise domestic crop yields.  
  • Cotton-seed oil from Bt cotton is already used in India and is perfectly safe. Cotton-seed oil is the second largest produced edible oil in the country (1.4 million tonnes) after Mustard (2 million tonnes).
  • India is already importing GM oil: India imports 3 million tonnes of soyabean oil annually, predominantly Genetically Modified.  
  • The developer is a government-funded institution (Centre for Genetic Manipulation of Crop Plants at Delhi University), as opposed to BT cotton, which is the intellectual property of multinational, namely Monsanto.

Issue

  • Another gene has been inserted into DMH-11 which makes it resistant to herbicide named Basta. It will compel farmers to use specific herbicides and be dependent on one company (i.e. Bayer) having a monopoly over pesticides.
  • Unknown Longterm  Effects: The  longterm ecological and health effects of GM Mustard are still not fully understood, raising concerns about potential risks and unintended consequences.

Government and Biotechnology

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Last Updated: March 2025 (Government and Biotechnology)

Government and Biotechnology

This article deals with ‘Government and Biotechnology  – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Department of Biotechnology

Department of Biotechnology

Department of Biotechnology is the nodal ministry responsible for issues related to biotechnology in India.

Timeline

1982 National Biotechnology Board was set up by the government.
1986 It was replaced by the Department of Biotechnology under the Ministry of Science and Technology.

Aim

  • Promote the development of modern biology and biotechnology in the country. 
  • Promoting international cooperation in the field of biotechnology.
  • Promoting manufacturing activities.

Department of Biotechnology has also set up BIRAC (Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council) Agency to strengthen and empower emerging biotechnology enterprises to undertake strategic research and innovation.

Present Status of Biotechnology Sector in India

Government and Biotechnology
  • Biotech Sector is one of the sunrise sectors in India. 
  • Within the Indian biotechnology sector, the major share is that of the biopharma sector accounting for a massive 55% of revenues while bioagri is the distant second with a 22% share.
  • Indian Biotech Sector holds about a 3% share of the global biotech industry.
  • Indian Biotech Industry is valued at $ 11 Billion and ranked 12th globally.
  • India has emerged as a leading destination for clinical trials, contract research and manufacturing activities.

Some Indian Companies

Biotechnology Industries in India

The biotech sector comprises five segments – Biopharma, Bio-services, Bio-Agri, Bio-industrial, and Bioinformatics.

1. Bio-Pharma

  • This industry comprises of production of vaccines, bio-similars, regenerative medicine etc.
  • Biopharma has a major share in the Indian biotechnology sector, comprising 55% of revenue.
  • It has to be noted that India is the supplier of 60% of global vaccines and 22% of global generic drugs.

Example of Indian companies in this sector includes

Serum Institute of India Largest vaccine producer in the world (including producer of Covishield).
Panacea One of the largest biopharma companies and producer of Pentavalent Vaccine.
Haffkine Haffkine Pharmaceutical (Mumbai) is famous for manufacturing oral polio vaccines and anti-snake venom. 

2. Bio-Agri

Bio-Agri companies are associated with GM seeds, bio-fertilizers, bio-pesticides etc.

Prominent companies related to this sector include

Mahyco – MAHYCO = Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds Company
– The company was founded in 1963.
– The company has collaborated with various academic institutions and industries for development in the agri-business. Its well-known collaboration is with multinational Monsanto for using Bt Technology in cotton since 1998.
Other – Andhra Pradesh State Seeds Development Corporation Limited.
– JK Agri Genetics Limited
– Kalash Seeds Limited
– Kaveri Seeds Company Limited
– National Seeds Corporation Limited

3. Bio-Services

It involves industry related to contract manufacturing and clinical research.

Leading Indian companies involved in this include

  1. Advinus: Tata company engaged in drug discovery and end to end bio services.
  2. GVK Bio: Involved in drug discovery and clinical trials.

4. Bioinformatics

Bioinformatics is the integration of biotechnology and Information Technology (IT). Indian companies in this field include

  1. Tata Elxsi
  2. iLABS (Hyderabad)
  3. Satyam Computer Services
  4. Navya Biologicals

5. Bio-Industrial

The bio-Industrial sector is mainly involved with the production of enzymes and energy generation using biomass and biofuel.

Prominent companies involved in this include

  1. Novozyme, Rossari Biotech and Zyrtec: Companies involved in the development and production of industrial enzymes.
  2. Hindustan Bioenergy, IKF Green Fuels and  Indian Oil Creda Biofuels: Companies engaged in the production of biofuels.

Initiatives to develop Biotech Sector in India

1. National Biotech Development Strategy

  • Aim: Develop India into Biotech Manufacturing Hub.
  • Primary Focus Areas (4): Food, Health, Clean Energy & Education 
  • Target: Develop a $100 billion biotechnology industry in India by 2025. 
  • Using startups and incubation centres, this will be achieved by converting scientific studies and technology into viable commercial products. 

2. National Biopharma Mission

  • Under the Mission, Industry and Academia will collaborate for the development of biopharmaceuticals.
  • It is assisted by World Bank to create an ecosystem to promote entrepreneurship in the biopharma sector.
  • The main focus of the mission includes:-
    1. Development of new vaccines and therapeutics.
    2. Bring centres of excellence in the educational sector together to strengthen current bio clusters.
    3. Attract FDI in the Biopharma sector.
    4. Deliver atleast 6 to 10 new products in biopharma in next five years.

3. The North East States specific schemes

North East is the primary focus in Bio-Pharma sector, and there are special programs for North East like

  • Phyto-Pharma Plant Mission   
  • Brahmaputra Biodiversity and Biology Boat (B4): Under this program, large boats will be set up in the river with a well-equipped laboratory and cold storage facility to store samples.

4. Atal Jai Anusandhan Biotech Mission

  • Atal Jai Anusandhan Biotech Mission has started with the aim of transforming the health, agriculture and energy sectors in the next 5 years. 
  • It has four components
    1. GARBH-ini: To promote Maternal and Child Health  
    2. IndCEPI: To develop affordable vaccines and biofortified wheat to promote nutritional security.
    3. Mission on Anti-Microbial Resistance  
    4. Clean Energy Mission: To promote the invention of innovative technologies to promote Swachh Bharat. 

5. BioE3 (Biotechnology for Economy, Environment and Employment) Policy

  • It aims to foster high performance biomanufacturing and transforming the existing industrial processes to make them environment friendly and more sustainable.
  • The policy focuses on 6 strategic sectors i.e. 1. BIO-BASED Chemicals and Enzymes 2. Functional Foods and Smart Proteins 3. Precision Biotherapeutics 4. Climate Resilient Agriculture 5. Carbon Capture and 6. Futuristic Marine and Space Research.
  • The policy also focuses on setting up several biomanufacturing hubs across India.
  • Updates (2025): Department of Biotechnology has decided to fund a research project to develop ‘SMART PROTEINS’ in the laboratory under the BioE3 Project to supplement the diet in Indian households

6. Foreign Direct Investment

  • 100% FDI is allowed for Greenfield Biotechnology Projects. 
  • 74% FDI is allowed for Brownfield Biotechnology Projects.

7. Other Steps

  • Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance (BIRAC): It is a Public Sector Undertaking of Department of Biotechnology.
  • To financially support the Biotech Industry, the government has set up a Venture Capital Fund.
  • Patents are essential for biotech companies. Indian Parliament has passed the Patents Act, which allows a 20-year patent term in line with the WTO and TRIPS provisions.
  • The government is going to amend the Drugs and Cosmetics Act to make it more compatible with the international standards to attract Biotech companies in this sector.

Challenges faced by Biotechnology Sector

  • The Biotechnology Regulatory Authority Bill to create a regulatory body for the Biotech sector is pending in the parliament since 2008. 
  • Issues with Intellectual Property Regime of India
    1. Stricter standards of Patents and Intellectual Property in India acts as a hindrance to foreign investment.
    2. Provision of compulsory licensing in India act as a hindrance as well. 
  • Jobs offered in the Indian job market are lesser than the workforce supply available.  
  • Biotech Startups are not able to get early-stage funding.
  • India is fast losing to competition created by China and Korea due to regulatory and infrastructure challenges.
  • R&D activities are abysmally low in Indian biotechnology. Most of the industry is involved in the manufacture of outsourced products. R&D expenditure is also very low in India
    • India = 0.67% of GDP
    • Japan and USA = 3% of GDP
    • China = 2% of GDP
  • Most of the development has happened in the BioPharma sector (drugs & vaccines) only (~55%), while other sub-sectors within Biotechnology have been neglected. 
  • IPR protection issues: Biotech (especially Biopharma) companies demand TRIPS+ protection & are worried about provisions like Compulsory provisioning.

GEAC (Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee)

  • GEAC works under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change and was established under the provisions of GM Rules 1989 of the Environment Protection Act.  
  • GEAC is responsible for granting approvals to release genetically engineered organisms and products into the environment, including experimental field trials. It can also punish someone found guilty for environmental damage under Environment Protection Act, 1986.

Problem with present Process

  • Environment Ministry has a veto over the decisions of GEAC. In UPA Regime, Environment Minister Jairam Ramesh vetoed BT Brinjal even after approval by GEAC.
  • Since Agriculture is a State Subject, States can refuse approval even after approval by the Environment Ministry.  
  • GM crop is an agricultural issue, but the Ministry of Environment is the nodal ministry. 

Biotechnology Regulatory Authority of India (BRAI) Bill, 2013

  • Biotechnology Regulatory Authority of India (BRAI)  will replace GEAC.  
  • It will consist of chairperson & 5 members who can be eminent scientists or government officials with experience in the field. 
  • It also established an Appellate Authority.  
  • The single body will be responsible for any use and clinical trials of Genetically Modified crops, vaccines, drugs etc.

Issues with Bill

  • The Bill says that the Tribunal will have jurisdiction over ‘substantial question regarding modern biotechnology’ but fails to explain the term. On the positive side, keeping the term undefined gives flexibility to the judiciary but increases the ambiguity.
  • Technical Members of the Tribunal can be eminent scientists or government officials. But the technical expertise of both isn’t the same.
  • The Bill doesn’t have the provision of financial liability in case of damage.

Note: BT-Cotton is the only approved GM crop (2002) for commercial cultivation. In 2009, Bt-brinjal was cleared by GEAC for commercial cultivation, but it was put on a 10-year moratorium following public backlash.

Side Topic: Approved GM Crops

  • BT-Cotton is the only approved GM crop (2002) for commercial cultivation.
  • In 2009, Bt-brinjal was cleared by GEAC for commercial cultivation, but it was put on a 10-year moratorium following a public backlash.
  • DMH-11’s (GM Mustard)  release into the environment was also placed on hold after the Supreme Court’s pronouncement, although the government had approved its release into the environment.  

Biotechnology and its applications

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Last Updated: Feb 2025 (Biotechnology and its applications)

Biotechnology and its applications

This article deals with ‘Biotechnology and its applications – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles on Science and technology, you can click here

What is Biotechnology?

Biotechnology is the use of biological organisms, processes or systems to manufacture products intended to improve the quality of human life. 

Traditional biotechnology or kitchen technology is as old as human civilization. It involves using bacteria and other microbes daily to prepare dairy products like curd, ghee, cheese and food preparation like bread.

The present age is the age of Modern biotechnology. The main feature of this technology that differentiates it from conventional biotechnology is that it involves changing the genetic material for getting new products with specific traits.

Presently, biotechnology is a billion-dollar business worldwide, wherein pharmaceutical companies, breweries, agro-industries and other biotechnology-based industries apply biotechnological tools for their product improvement.

Branches of biotechnology, based on their applications, includes:-

Blue Applied to marine & aquatic applications of biotechnology.
Green Applied to agricultural processes like selection and domestication of plants via micropropagation. 
Red Applied to medical processes like designing an organism to produce antibiotics.
White Industrial biotechnology is using an organism in creating useful chemicals.

Timeline

6000 BC – 3000 BC Bread making and production of alcoholic beverages.
1770 Antoine Lavoisier explained the chemical process involved in alcoholic fermentation.
1798 Edward Jenner produced viral vaccine against Smallpox.
1876 Louis Pasteur explained microorganisms’ role in fermentation.
1919 Karl Ereky coined the term ‘biotechnology’.
1928 Alexander Fleming discovered Penicillin.
1944 Avery–MacLeod–McCarty discovered that DNA is the genetic material.
1953 James Watson and Francis Crick discovered that DNA has a double-helical structure.
1973 Cohen and Boyer used Genetic Engineering / Recombinant DNA Technology.
1978 Human Insulin was produced. It was the first biopharma product.

Side Topic: DNA and RNA

DNA

  • DNA= Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid
  • It is found in the nucleus of all cells (prokaryotic and eukaryotic) along with some viruses.
  • DNA contains the genetic code. Hence, DNA is the hereditary material responsible for transferring traits from one generation to another.
  • It has a double-helical structure.

Structure of DNA

  • DNA is a polymer formed by the combination of millions of nucleotides (monomer). A nucleotide is composed of 3 components:-
    1. Sugar Molecule: Deoxyribose Sugar 
    2. Nitrogenous Base: They are of two types, i.e. (1) Purines (Adenine & Guanine) and (2) Pyrimidines (Cytosine & Thymine).
    3. Phosphate group.
  • Sugar and Phosphate act as the backbone of DNA, while the nitrogenous base is placed at the centre and is linked by hydrogen bonds. The pairing always happens between Purine and Pyrimidine in a specific way
    1. Adenine (A) links with Thymine (T)  
    2. Cytosine (C) links with Guanine (G)  
  • Each turn is 34 A° (3.4 nm) and consists of ten base pairs per turn.
Structure of DNA

RNA

  • As an exception, it acts as the transmission of inheritance in some viruses. 
  • It has a single-stranded structure.
  • It is also found in the Nucleus and is a polymer of nucleotide.
  • Nucleotides of RNA consist of Ribose sugar molecule to which is attached
    • Phosphate group 
    • One of four nitrogenous bases:
      • Two Purines (Adenine and Guanine)
      • Two Pyrimidines (Cytosine and Uracil).
  • Based on work, it is of three types. 
mRNA Messenger RNA RNA  which takes information from DNA to Ribosome
rRNA Ribosomal RNA Responsible for producing Ribosomes in the cell.
tRNA Transport RNA RNA which transports Amino Acid to Ribosomes in the cell

DNA vs RNA

  DNA RNA
Type of Sugar Deoxyribose Sugar Ribose Sugar
Nitrogenous Bases 4 i.e. Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and Thiamine 4 i.e. Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and  Uracil
Structure Double Helical Structure Single Stranded
Main Function Inheritance of characters Protein formation
Types It isn’t divided based on function It is of three types based on work

Applications of Biotechnology

1 . Medicine

1.1 Pharmacogenomics

  • The study of the impact of a person’s gene on response to the administered drugs is known as Pharmacogenomics. It involves pharmacology, i.e. the science of drugs and genomics, i.e. the study of functions of genes, to develop safe and tailored medications according to a person’s genetic makeup.

1.2 Regenerative Medicine/ Stem Cells Therapy

  • Stem cell therapy means using the stem cells or their derivatives to promote the reparative response of diseased or injured tissue.

1.3 Making Pharma Products

Biotechnology can be used to produce pharmaceutical products. E.g., Using genetically altered E. coli to produce synthetic Insulin. Previously, it was extracted from the pancreas of abattoir animals like cattle and pigs. But using this technique, a large quantity of pure Insulin can be produced at a fraction of the earlier cost.

1.4 Genetic Testing

  • Genetic testing means the examination of DNA using the DNA Fingerprinting technique.
  • It scans the patient’s DNA for mutated sequences. 
DNA Fingerprinting

1.5 Gene Therapy

Gene Therapy is used to treat genetic & acquired diseases (like Cancer & AIDS) by using normal genes to supplement or replace defective genes or bolster normal functions like immunity.

Gene therapy

1.6 Monoclonal Antibodies

  • The immune system of organisms creates Antibodies to fight against infections. Monoclonal antibodies are cloned artificially inside the lab from the antibodies produced inside our body in response to a particular infection. Thus, they mimic the natural antibodies.
  • Monoclonal Antibodies can treat diseases, which can be treated using an antibody. 
  • One can receive the antibodies either from the recovered patient or artificially infect the lab animal such as a mouse. These antibodies are then mixed with the cancer cell, known as Hybridoma, for rapid division and making similar antibodies in a short time. These antibodies when introduced in the body of an infected person, makes him capable of fighting the disease.  
  • Such therapies are expensive because of difficulty in extracting and cloning the antibodies. Along with that, it is a time consuming task.
  • E.g. :
    1. Trastuzumab for Breast cancer.
    2. REGEN-COV2 (cocktail of two monoclonal antibodies (Casirivimab and Imdevimab)) against Covid.
Monoclonal Antibodies

1.7 Recombinant Vaccines

  • Recombinant Vaccines are affordable vaccines for a variety of diseases like Rotavac for Diarrhea and Typbar-TCV for Typhoid.
  • These vaccines are of uniform quality with lesser side effects compared to conventional vaccines.

1.8 Recombinant Testing Kits

  • ELISA [Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay]: It is a technique to detect the presence or absence of a particular antigen or antibody in the body. Hence, it is used to determine whether a person is infected with a specific disease (like HIV) or not. 
  • RT-PCR (Reverse Transcription – Polymerase Chain Reaction): This technique synthesizes millions of identical copies of DNA of interest and identifies the presence of a pathogen’s DNA. It is used to diagnose TB, genetic diseases and Covid-19.

1.9 Biopharming

  • Biopharming is the production and use of genetically engineered transgenic plants to produce pharmaceutical substances for human beings. 
  • These are different from naturally available medicinal plants.
  • Examples of Biopharming include
    1. Golden rice (to produce Vitamin A)
    2. Transgenic sheep producing human α-1-antitrypsin in their milk (whose deficiency cause Emphysema in humans).
    3. Tobacco can be genetically modified to produce therapeutic proteins, monoclonal antibodies and vaccines.

1.10 CAR-T Cell Therapy

  • T-cells are special white blood cells that find and fight illness and infection by killing other cells.
  • In CAR-T therapy, we genetically modify T-cells into cancer-fighting cells. They are designed to target specific proteins carried by cancerous cells. CAR-T cells attach themselves with the cancerous cells and destroy them.
  • It makes treatment easier with a one-time therapy [unlike several sessions of chemotherapy]
  • An Indian company called NexCar19 has developed indigenous CAR-T Cell Therapy.

1.11 Other Medical Uses

  • Cyclosporin A produced by a fungus named Trichoderma polysporum is used as an immunosuppressant in organ transplantation.
  • Statins used to lower blood cholesterol is produced by yeast Monascus purpureus. 

2 . Agriculture

  • Biotechnology can increase crop yield by the production of Hybrid and Genetically Modified Varieties of the crop. 
  • Biotechnology can also be used to reduce the dependence on fertilizers, pesticides and other agrochemicals. E.g., the introduction of the Bt gene in the DNA of seeds can be used to produce a protein with insecticidal properties in the crops (BT Cotton, BT Brinjal etc., are based on this).
  • Biotechnology can also be used to reduce the vulnerability of crops to environmental stresses. Eg
    1. At-DBF2 (Gene): This gene is extracted from a plant named Arabidopsis Thaliana. When inserted into tobacco & tomato cells, this gene makes them more resistant to stresses like salt, drought, cold, etc. 
    2. Samba Mahsuri: It is a hybrid variety of Rice. It has resistance to Blight and is rich in protein.
    3. Vivek 9: It is a hybrid variety of Maize. It is rich in protein and can be grown in hilly areas. 
  • Biotechnology can be used to improve the taste, texture or appearance of the food. It can also slow down the spoilage process so that fruit can ripen longer on the plant & then be transported to the consumer with a reasonable shelf life.
  • Biotechnology can be used to produce ‘Bio-fortified crops’ with a higher quantity
    of vitamins and micronutrients to fight malnutrition. E.g., Golden Rice
    contains the beta carotene gene, which helps in the synthesis of vitamin A.

Side Topic: Fortification of food vs Biofortification of food

Fortification

  • Food Fortification means deliberately adding micronutrients like iron, vitamins, zinc, iodine etc., in food.
  • Salt iodization started in Switzerland in the 1920s and was then adopted by the world is the first example of food fortification.
  • In 2017, FSSAI released standards and a logo (+F logo)  for all fortified packaged food.
  • In the Independence Day speech of 2021, PM Modi announced that fortified rice (fortified with iron, vitamins, zinc etc.) will be provided under government schemes like PDS and mid-day meals. This will help in addressing the challenge of malnutrition in India.

Biofortification

  • Biofortification is the process of use of agronomist practices or modern biotechnology to improve nutritional quality of food crops.
  • The aim is to increase nutrients in natural crop rather than manual addition during food processing.

3. Bioremediation and Biodegradation

  • Bioremediation or Biodegradation is the use of natural or genetically modified microbes to degrade pollutants (pesticide or hydrocarbons) in the presence of oxygen. 
  • Examples include Pseudomonas putida (a GM organism that is used to clean oil spills and patented by Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty).
Bioremediation
  • Another microbe, Ideonella Sakaiensis is currently tried for recycling of PET plastics
Bioremediation and Biodegradation
  • Genetically Engineered Microbes like  Pseudomonas sp., Flavobacterium, Azetobacter etc. can degrade different pesticides. 

4. Animal Husbandry

  • Transgenic Animals: Earlier, selective breeding was used to improve the characteristics of livestock. But with the advancements in biotechnology, it is possible to introduce extra (foreign/exogenous) DNA into the gene to get the desired traits in animals (like increased milk or presence of certain nutrients in the milk of animals etc.)
Transgenic Animals
  • Cloning  allows for genetic replication of selected animals.  Cloning can also be used for conservation of endangered species.

5. Industrial Applications 

  • Biotechnology can be used to develop efficient techniques to reduce the environmental impact of industrial processes. 
  • E.g., by using Biocatalysts, the same chemical can be produced more economically & more environment friendly   

6. Biofuels

Biofuels are fuels derived from living organisms (plants, animals or microbes). The two most common bio-fuels are 

  • Bio-ethanol obtained from fermentation of sugars.
  • Bio-diesel obtained from trans-esterification of oil of plants like jatropha

Side Topic: Biogas 

  • Biogas is a mixture of various gases (primarily methane (63%) and carbon dioxide and hydrogen). It is obtained by the breakdown of organic matter (like cow dung or plant waste) in the absence of oxygen.  
  • Methane producing bacteria called Methanobacterium is used in this process. 
  • Biogas is devoid of smell and burns with a blue flame without smoke.
  • The excreta of cattle (dung) is called “Gobar”. Gobar gas is the special type of biogas formed by anaerobic decomposition of (only) cattle dung.
Biotechnology and its applications

7. Sewage Treatment

  • Due to the presence of organic matter and microbes in the Sewage, it shouldn’t be directly dumped into water bodies without treating in the Sewage Treatment Plants. 
  • In the Sewage Treatment Plants, Microbes (mass of bacteria floc) are allowed to grow in aerated water. They consume a major part of organic matter in the effluent and reduce the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) in the wastewater
Sewage Treatment

8. Others

  • Bioplastics: Biotechnology can be used to make biodegradable plastics or bioplastics that can be broken by microorganisms (unlike normal plastic).
  • Xenotransplantation: It is the process of transplanting animal organs into humans to keep them alive. It was first tried in the 1980s when a baboon’s heart was transplanted into a baby in the US, but the baby died within a month as her body rejected the heart. Recently (in 2022), a pig’s heart was transplanted into a man. The pig was genetically engineered, so that the immune system of human fails to recognize that the heart is from some other species.
  • Food and beverage industry: Microbes, especially yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is used in the production of beverages like wine since time immemorial. 
  • Restoring the artefacts: Bacterias such as Desulfovibrio Vulgaris and P. Stutzeri, having bio cleaning properties, have been used in restoring artefacts by cleaning paintings, caves, chapels etc.
  • Blood Substitute: Biotechnologists are trying to synthesize artificial blood. This can bridge the gap between the need for blood for transfusion and available blood during accidents and disease outbreaks.
  • DNA Forensics: 
    • It involves the identification of possible suspects whose DNA may match proof remained at crime scenes
    • Acquitting those persons who are falsely accused of crimes. 

BIMSTEC and India

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Last Updated: September 2025 (BIMSTEC and India)

BIMSTEC and India

This article deals with ‘BIMSTEC and India Relations – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘International Relations’ which is an important pillar of the GS-2 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

About BIMSTEC

Members

  1. Bangladesh
  2. India 
  3. Bhutan
  4. Nepal
  5. Myanmar
  6. Sri Lanka 
  7. Thailand

(important missing countries: Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore (MIS))

Secretariat

  • Dhaka (Bangladesh)
  • Current Secretary General: Indra Mani Pandey

Type

BIMSTEC is a sector-driven cooperative organization. 

  • Initially started with six sectors— trade, technology, energy, transport, tourism and fisheries. 
  • In 2008, it expanded to embrace eight more sectors— agriculture, public health, poverty alleviation, counter-terrorism, environment, culture, people-to-person contact, and climate change.

Important Statistic

  • BIMSTEC consists of 20% of the world’s population.
  • BIMSTEC countries have a combined gross domestic product (GDP) close to $2.7 trillion. 
BIMSTEC and India

Timeline

1997 BIST-EC, i.e. Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka and Thailand Economic Cooperation, was formed headquartered in Dhaka.  
2004 – Nepal and Bhutan joined.
– BIST-EC was renamed to BIMSTEC .  
– BIMSTEC = Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multisectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation.  
2004 Talks on the Free Trade Agreement (FTA) started between BIMSTEC nations. 
2008 The 2nd BIMSTEC Summit was held in Delhi.
2014 3rd BIMSTEC Summit in Nay Pyi Taw (Capital of Myanmar).  
2016 The BRICS-BIMSTEC Outreach Summit held on the sidelines of the 2016 BRICS Summit in Goa => India, started to promote BIMSTEC instead of SAARC.
2018 4th BIMSTEC Meet held in Nepal.  
2019 BIMSTEC leaders were invited to Prime Minister’s swearing-in ceremony (in 2014, SAARC leaders were invited ). Therefore, it can be seen as a change in policy.  
2020 5th summit was proposed to be held in September 2020 in Sri Lanka, but it was postponed due to the Covid-19 pandemic.
20225th BIMSTEC Meet  was held in Colombo in virtual format.
20256th BIMSTEC Meet held in Thailand

Why BIMSTEC is important for India?

Alternate to SAARC

  • Due to Pakistan’s hostility, SAARC is not able to achieve anything substantial. In such a situation, BIMSTEC presents a viable alternative to SAARC. 

Strategic Importance

  • BIMSTEC can act as a platform to counter assert China in South and Southeast Asia, where it has undertaken investments through the Belt and Road initiative.  
  • It is in line with India’s policies, namely
    1. Neighbourhood First Policy 
    2. Act East Policy

Economic Benefits

  • Being a party to the BIMSTEC, India can utilize the FTA agreement once signed.
  • BIMSTEC can provide a big market to Indian companies (as 22% of the world population lives in the BIMSTEC area with a combined GDP of $3.6 trillion.)
  • BIMSTEC has great tourism potential. The Bay of Bengal could rival the Caribbean as a high-end tourist destination. Buddhist heritage sites for religious tourism can help in this regard too.
  • BIMSTEC FTA & BIMSTEC Motor Vehicles Agreement are on the cards, which, when signed, will bolster trade.
  • The Bay of Bengal is also rich in untapped natural resources, with reserves of gas and other seabed minerals, oil, and fishing stocks.
  • Better connectivity with BIMSTEC countries opens up opportunities for Indian coastal states and North-East states to unlock the potential for development in the region. 

Benefit North-East

  • The trade between BIMSTEC has the potential to benefit North-East as well. Energizing it would also accelerate India’s Act East policy. Various projects already running will help in this
    • India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway.
    • India-Myanmar Kaladan Multimodal Transit Transport Project.

Challenges

  • India, the largest member of the grouping, has been criticized for not providing strong leadership to BIMSTEC. 
  • Both Thailand and Myanmar are criticized for ignoring BIMSTEC in favour of ASEAN. 
  • It took more than 15 years to set up the Secretariat for BIMSTEC, which was set up in 2014 in Dhaka.
  • Countries like Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore are not included, which are an essential part of the Bay of Bengal littoral.
  • Issues of refugee and ethnic tension among BIMSTEC member countries would challenge the grouping. For example. The Rohingya Refugee crisis has impacted the relations between Myanmar and Bangladesh.
  • So far, BIMSTEC has held only 5 summit meetings.  
  • Prolonged delay in achieving a Free Trade Agreement (FTA): It has been years since the framework agreement for FTA was signed and only 2 out of the essential 7 agreements have reached the final stage
  • Political Instability: BIMSTEC nations like Myanmar and Bangladesh are going through political instability.

BIMSTEC, though valuable, is no substitute, as it leaves out our troublesome western periphery.

Revival of BIMSTEC (& death of SAARC) 

SAARC vs BIMSTEC

BIMSTEC is often compared with SAARC and UPSC has also asked question on this in 2022.

Why the change in policy?

  • The stagnation of SAARC is crucial for India to reach out to BIMSTEC as the stagnation limited the scope of India’s growing economic aspirations. 

How BIMSTEC is better than SAARC?

  • Inclusivity: BIMSTEC is more inclusive in nature; Article 6 of the recently signed BIMSTEC Charter refers to the ‘Admission of new members’ to the group, which can be used for including members like Maldives. SAARC has no such provisions.
  • Trade and Development:  Trade among the BIMSTEC member countries reached six percent in just a decade, while in SAARC, despite an FTA, it has remained around five percent since its inception.
  • Positivist Approach: There are no obstructionist players like Pakistan in the grouping as in SAARC. Due to the obstructionist role played by states like Pakistan, SAARC has only convened 18 summits since its inception in 1985.

Why does SAARC remain relevant?

  • SAARC, as an organization, reflects the South Asian identity of the countries. BIMSTEC, despite its achievements, is not tied with such an identity. 
  • South Asian countries are closely tied in their socio-political state as they face similar threats and challenges like terrorism, similar economic challenges, disasters etc. 
  • Although BIMSTEC offers a lot of potential, it has remained as ineffective as SAARC. The relatively rich /powerful countries are India and Thailand. If they take the lead, others will follow. But in recent times, Thailand has been caught up in internal coups & India too has remained passive. 

Commonwealth and India

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Last Updated: Jan 2025 (Commonwealth and India)

Commonwealth and India

This article deals with ‘Commonwealth and India Relations – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘International Relations’ which is an important pillar of the GS-2 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

About

Members

– Association of nations that were colonies of England previously.
– Total Members: 56 nations  
– Newest Entry: Rwanda 
Secretariat London
Head

– King Charles III
– It was announced at CHOGM (2018) that Prince Charles would ‘succeed’ Queen Elizabeth as the head of the Commonwealth.  
Secretary-General Present: Patricia Scotland (2018-)
Commonwealth and India

Requirement

  • Almost all the members are former colonies of England. 
  • Member nation has to be a democracy and follow the rule of law.
  • Those member nations where democracy is side-lined on military coups etc., are suspended from Commonwealth.

Why did India join?

  • Membership of the Commonwealth helped India to improve her economic ties with other nations and seek aid from England.
  • Membership also provided India with an additional channel to conduct her foreign relations.
  • As a Commonwealth member, India can promote the interests of people of Indian origin living in various Commonwealth Nations.

Indian role in Commonwealth

  • India is the largest member state of the Commonwealth, with nearly 60% of the total population of the association.
  • It is the fourth largest contributor to the Commonwealth.
  • India has fought against racism in South Africa, Zimbabwe etc.
  • India has influenced other members of the Commonwealth to protect the interests of people of Indian origin.
  • During the Chinese aggression of 1962, Commonwealth countries extended moral support and assistance to India.

CHOGM

  • CHOGM or Commonwealth Head of Governments Meet is the meeting of Heads of Governments of Commonwealth nations.
  • The first CHOGM was held in Singapore in 1971.
  • Latest: CHOGM was held in Rwanda (2022) 
  • Theme: “Towards a Common Future“.

Relevance of Commonwealth  in today’s world

  • Commonwealth has gradually moved away from political issues to social and economic issues to make itself relevant again. It played an important role in ending apartheid and colonialism in the Cold War period. 
  • Because of its composition (56 nations), if the Commonwealth can agree on something important, it is already a prototype of a global idea.  
  • Commonwealth makes it incumbent on member states to hold free, fair and credible elections. 
  • Commonwealth gets a lot of credit for helping end military rule in Pakistan in 2007, and it played a pivotal role in championing the boycott of Apartheid in South Africa.
  • It would be wrong to caricature the Commonwealth as a relic, given that countries with no historical connection with the “British Empire” (Mozambique and Rwanda) have decided to join. These countries can see the value of a global voluntary association of equal member states cooperating to pursue commonly held goals.
  • The Commonwealth provides an international platform for small states in particular. Of 56 member states, 32 are classified as small states. In many other global arenas, these voices are often not heard. 
  • Commonwealth Games held once every four years is a popular event and is looked forward by all the world.
  • After BREXIT, the role of the Commonwealth has increased. The leaders of Great Britain want to leverage Commonwealth as an alternate platform after their exit from the EU. 
  • Unity through Shared Experiences: Common bonds, language (English), history and strong people to people connect foster unity and collaboration among Commonwealth nations.

Problems faced by Commonwealth

  • Commonwealth is a relic of old times and a tool of the UK to maintain her fast losing position as super-power.
  • The grouping has no political or economic power. Considering its declining importance, former PM Manmohan Singh skipped two CHOGM meets, and Narendra Modi didn’t attend the last one.
  • Less relevant in addressing contemporary global issues: For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, there were concerns about the organization’s effectiveness in coordinating responses and providing support to member states.
  • Lack of cohesion among members: Nine Commonwealth countries abstained from UN voting condemning Russia in the on-going Russia-Ukraine war.