This article deals with ‘Competitive Federalism – Indian Polity.’ This is part of our series on ‘Polity’ which is important pillar of GS-2 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here.
Introduction
Competitive
Federalism refers to the concept in which states compete among themselves and
also with the Centre for benefits. This idea gained
significance in India after the 1990s economic reforms in a free-market economy
when states were trying to woo private investment in their territory.
Different states try to make their own policies in a
competing spirit to
Attract more investment,
Provide more jobs to its
residents.
Increase the standard of life
of people living in its territory.
Competitive
Federalism follows the bottom-up approach as
it brings change from the states.
Competitive Federalism in India
In India, the government replaced the Planning Commission by establishing NITI Aayog, with one of the mandates to develop Competitive Federalism in India.
Indian states are making legal reforms for ease of doing business in their state and attract private companies. E.g., Labour Reforms
Gujarat: Making it more difficult for utility workers to go on strike
Karnataka: Allows establishments to be open longer and allows women to work at night.
Rajasthan: Allow companies employing up to 300 staffers to lay off workers or close down without getting the government’s prior approval
Different states are organizing their investment summits to woo investors to invest in their states. E.g.,
Gujarat’s – Vibrant Gujarat
Punjab’s – Progressive Punjab
DIPP is releasing the Ease of Doing Business Report of States
The
impact of competition for attracting investments to the states can be
understood at two levels.
On the one hand, states are under pressure to provide good governance and manage their finances prudently.
On the other hand, they are aware of the negative impact of many of these reform measures on their electoral popularity.
This article deals with ‘Cooperative Federalism – Indian Polity.’ This is part of our series on ‘Polity’ which is important pillar of GS-2 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here.
Introduction
The concept of
federalism is where the governments
at various levels, i.e., central, state, and local levels, work in synergy with
each other for the larger public interest, bypassing the differences
between them.
Some Obstacles to Cooperative Federalism in India
Proclamation of Emergency under Article 356: Post-1977, the arbitrary use of Article 356 to impose President’s Rule in states has been a persistent issue.
Union Dominance in Legislative Matters: The Union’s dominance in legislating over the concurrent list and its interference in the state list are also in special cases, such as while ratifying international agreements.
Governor Appointments without State Consultation: States have no say in the appointment of the Governor.
Centrally Sponsored Schemes: The imposition of centrally sponsored schemes under the ‘One-Size-Fits-All’ approach has been a source of tension. States often find themselves obligated to implement schemes without considering regional variations, leading to inefficiencies.
Fiscal Responsibility and Budgetary Management (FRBM) Act: Forcing states to follow the dictates of the Fiscal Responsibility and Budgetary Management (FRBM) Act before the basic public services of ordinary citizens in States are met.
Deployment of Paramilitary Forces without State Consent: Instances of deploying paramilitary forces in states without their consent, such as the use of central forces in Jammu and Kashmir
Enquiries against Chief Ministers for Personal Reasons: The initiation of inquiries against Chief Ministers for personal or political reasons has been a source of tension.
Non-Devolution of Powers to Local Governments: The reluctance of states to devolve powers to local governments, particularly in matters under Schedule XI & XII, remains a hurdle.
How can we achieve Cooperative Federalism?
Consensus Building: Encouraging dialogue and collaboration among states and the central government. For Example, The Goods and Services Tax (GST) was implemented after extensive deliberations and consensus-building among states.
Reactivation of the Inter-State Council: Strengthening the constitutional body will facilitate cooperative decision-making between the Centre and the States.
Protection of State Interests: Ensuring that on issues such as international treaties, World Trade Organisation obligations, or environmental concerns, the interests of affected states are safeguarded.
Greater devolution of power to states: Ideally, the Union should have only those powers which the state can’t handle and require national unity in the form of matters like defence, communication, foreign policy, etc.
Formation of NITI Aayog after scrapping Planning Commission.NITI Aayog has increased the participation of states in its functioning & decision-making.
States’ Involvement in Governor Appointments: Allowing states to have a say in the appointment and removal of Governors to enhance mutual respect
Reform of Schedule XI & XII: Abolish Schedule XI & XII & instead work towards a new local list outlining activities and sub-activities under Local Bodies within Schedule 7 itself.
Side Note: Reasons for the Rise of Cooperative Federalism post-LPG
End of single-party Rule at Centre & emergence of Coalition Politics: The era post-1990 witnessed a shift from a dominant single-party system to a more diversified and collaborative political landscape with multiple parties forming coalitions to govern
Judicial activism, exemplified by landmark cases such as the S R Bommai case, has been instrumental in preventing the Union government from misusing constitutional provisions. The judiciary, acting as the guardian of the Constitution, has consistently intervened to safeguard federal principles.
Active Media: The active role of media in the post-LPG era has contributed significantly to Cooperative Federalism. Informal and vigilant media have played a crucial role in bringing attention to instances where constitutional provisions are at risk of being manipulated for political gains.
This article deals with ‘Federal System– Indian Polity.’ This is part of our series on ‘Polity’ which is important pillar of GS-2 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here.
Introduction
The idea of federalism as an organizing principle between different levels of a state is quite old. Greek city-states had it. Lichchhavi kingdom of northern India in the 6th century BCE is a celebrated example of a republican system. European Union is a recent example of the idea of federalism being implemented at a trans-national level.
The term “federation” is derived from the Latin word “foedus,” meaning treaty or agreement.
A federation can be formed in two ways.
Integration, i.e. Coming Together Federation: When two or more weak states come together to form a strong union, e.g., USA.
Disintegration, i.e. Holding Together Federation: When a Big unitary state is converted to a federation by granting autonomy to provinces, e.g., Canada and India.
Federal Polity is a system of governance in which sovereignty is constitutionally shared between the centre & states.
Federal system is adopted so that
The federal system is
adopted so that
States & their diversity can flourish with autonomy.
For multicultural societies, federalism is an attractive option. It enables minorities to become majorities in sub-national units
Political Motives
The Federal System provides security from external & internal threats.
Additional central assistance, when required, can be provided by the centre in the Federal System.
Economic Motives
The Federal System provides access to the larger national market
Transfer of resources from other states in case of an underdeveloped state.
India has a Federal system, but the term federation is mentioned nowhere in the constitution; instead, Article 1 describes India as a Union of states
Federalism and Stability of State
Centralized administration often refuses to decentralize, thinking it will undermine its integrity. But the opposite is true. Decentralization leads to stability, and those who refuse to decentralize often crumble under their weight.
Difference between Federal and Unitary Government
Federal System
Unitary System
Federal Polity has
a ‘dual government.’
Unitary Polity has
a ‘single government.’
It has a written constitution (must)
It may have written
(France) or unwritten (Britain) constitution.
There is a division
of powers between the centre and the states
There is no
division of power, as all the powers are vested in the centre
There is a
supremacy of the constitution
Constitution may be
supreme (Japan) or may not be (Britain)
Federal Polity has
a rigid constitution
Unitary Polity may
have a rigid or flexible constitution.
Federal Polity has
an independent judiciary
Unitary Polity may
or may not have an independent judiciary.
Federal Polity has
bicameral legislature
Unitary Polity may
have two houses (Britain) or one house (China)
Federal System in India
India is holding together federation different from the USA, which is coming together.
The holding together model was adopted for the sake of the unity of the country & national integration – The constituent assembly prescribed the federalist model so that the country could face the challenges of Centrifugal forces effectively.
Features of the Indian System of Federation
Dual Polity: India follows the concept of
a dual polity, with the Union at the Centre and the States at the
Periphery.
Division of
Powers: There is
a well-defined division of powers between the Union and the States,
elucidated in the 7th Schedule of the Constitution.
Supremacy of
the Constitution: The Indian Constitution establishes the supremacy of
the Constitution itself. All laws must conform to its provisions, and any law
inconsistent with the constitution is declared void.
Rigid
Constitution: The constitution
is rigid in its structure, and the method of amendment is also rigid. Provisions
concerned with federal character can be amended by joint action of state
and centre.
Independent
Judiciary: The judiciary in
India is independent and not under the influence of the Union
government.
Bicameralism: The Indian Parliament follows
a bicameral system, where the Rajya Sabha represents the states of the
Indian Federation, and the Lok Sabha represents the Indian people as a
whole.
Asymmetric
Federalism: India
has Asymmetric Federalism in the sense that the rights and
responsibilities of all the states are not the same. The special nature
and needs of certain regions are defined constitutionally via various
sub-clauses of Article 371
Architect of the Indian Constitution, Baba Saheb Ambedkar, believed that for a culturally, ethnically and linguistically diverse and heterogeneous country like India, federalism was the ‘chief mark’, although with a strong unitary bias. This understanding, which was shared by Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Patel and other national leaders, stood at sharp variance with Gandhi’s idea of federalism, who was a votary of decentralization and devolution of power to the lowest unit of Panchayat.
All federal systems, including the American system, are placed in a tight mould of federalism. No matter the circumstances, it cannot
change its form and shape. It can never be unitary. On the other hand,
the Indian Constitution can be both unitary
and federal according to the requirements of time and circumstances. In
normal times, it is framed to work as a federal system. But in times of
distress(e.g. National Emergency), it is designed to make it work as a unitary
system.
Unitary features of the Indian Constitution
Strong Centre: The Indian Constitution leans towards a strong Centre, where the powers are tilted in favour of the Union.
Parliament’s Authority to Change State Boundaries: Parliament holds the unique power to alter state boundaries and names and even create new states.
Single Constitution for Union and States: Unlike other federations, India has a single constitution that governs the Union and the states. It ensures a unified legal framework throughout the country.
Flexible Process of Constitutional Amendment: The process of Constitutional Amendment is less rigid than found in other federations.
Inequality in State Representation in Rajya Sabha: The Rajya Sabha, the upper house of Parliament, does not guarantee equal representation for states.
Unitary Transition During Emergencies: In times of Emergency, the federal structure temporarily transforms into a unitary one. This shift occurs without the need for a formal Constitutional Amendment.
Single Citizenship: There is only single citizenship, i.e. citizenship of India, and no separate citizenship of states.
Unified Judiciary: There is a single judiciary with the Supreme Court at the top that enforces central and state laws.
All India Services: The creation of All India Services, such as the IAS, IPS, and IFS, is a unitary feature.
Integrated Audit Machinery. CAG audits accounts of both Central and State Governments but is appointed by the President only, and states have no say in his appointment or removal.
Office of Governor: The head of state, i.e., the Governor, is nominated by the President and is an agent of the centre in states.
Integrated Election Machinery: India maintains a single integrated election machinery for conducting both central and state elections.
President’s Absolute Veto: The President has an Absolute Veto over the State Bill if the Governor send any bill to the President for consideration.
Is India a federal state or a Unitary state?
India’s
constitutional framework raises the intriguing question: Is India a federal or
unitary state? The answer lies in the nuanced understanding of the features
embedded in the Indian Constitution.
Although there are large unfederal features that are essentially incorporated for the unity and integrity of the country, it is equally important to recognize that all the fundamental federal features are present in the Constitution. The presence of strong unitary elements has led some scholars to categorize India as a “Quasi-federal” state.
Although Article 1 states that India is a Union of states, this doesn’t mean India isn’t a federation. No particular significance is to be attached to the word union because the word union is used in the Preamble of the USA, too, and citing this, BR Ambedkar said the description of India as a Union, although it is a Federation, does no violence to its usage.
At the time of Independence, traumatized by the partition and violence, the Constituent Assembly wanted to ensure the unity and integrity of the new nation. Hence, the framework departed significantly from all existing models of federalism.
When India adopted this system, In the absence of any track record of India in federalism and the tendency to compare all federal states with the US model, jurists found it difficult to certify that the system was indeed federal. It was therefore declared ‘Quasi-Federal’. This description is no longer valid today because the federal principle has taken root and further developed on Indian soil.
After
the 73rd & 74th Amendments & formation of the Panchayati Raj, a new era
was started in the chapter of Indian Federalism.
This article deals with ‘Parliamentary System– Indian Polity.’ This is part of our series on ‘Polity’ which is important pillar of GS-2 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here.
Introduction
In India, there
is a Parliamentary form of
government at the State and Centre levels.
Centre
Article 74 and
Article 75 speak about it.
State
Article 163 and
Article 164 speak about it.
Definition of Parliamentary System
Government in which the Executive is responsible to the Legislature for its policies is known as Parliamentary System of Government.
It is also known as
Cabinet
System
Responsible Government
Westminster Model of
Government
Features of the Parliamentary System
The President
is the nominal (de jure) head, while the Prime Minister is the real (de
facto) Executive.
The Party, which secures a
majority of seats in Lok Sabha, forms the government.
Ministers are collectively
responsible to
Parliament (i.e. they swim and sink together).
Usually, members of the
Council of Ministers belong to the same Political party and hence share
the same ideology.
There is a double membership.
Ministers are members of the Executive and legislature.
The Prime Minister plays a
leadership role, and he is the leader of the council.
President can dissolve the
lower House on the recommendation of the Prime Minister.
Merits of the Parliamentary System
Harmony
between the Legislature and Executive as members of Executive are members of the
Legislature, too.
Government is
responsible as
it is answerable to Parliament for acts of omission and commission.
Prevents
despotism as Executive is
controlled by various tools like No Confidence Motion, Zero Hour Discussion
etc.
There is ready
alternate government if no-confidence motion is passed against the ruling
party.
It provides broad
representation as the Executive consists of a variety of members
Demerits of the Parliamentary System
The
government is unstable and stands at the mercy of Legislators.
There is no continuity of
policies. When government changes, policies also change, which is bad for
the economy.
The government can become
autocratic if the ruling party enjoys an absolute majority.
It is against the
Principle of Separation of Power.
It is not conducive to
administrative efficiency as ministers are not experts in their
fields.
Why did India Choose the Parliamentary System?
Historical Continuity: Familiarity with the system due to its presence in
British India.
Emphasis on Responsibility: Preference was given to the system that
prioritizes responsibility over stability.
Recognition
of the need to avoid the Legislative-Executive divide, which was necessary for an
immature democracy like that of India
Fear of an Overly Strong Executive: Constituent Assembly feared
too strong Executive
Representation in a Diverse Society: In a diverse society like
India, this system provides representation to more diverse groups in the
Executive
Avoidance of Personality Cult: The alternative to the Parliamentary Executive
was a Presidential form of government. However, the Presidential
Executive puts much emphasis on the President. There is always danger
of a personality cult.
Indian System is different from British System
India Parliamentary System
BritishParliamentary System
Republican system
Monarchial system
Parliament is not supreme and
enjoys limited and
restricted powers due to the
written constitution, judicial review and fundamental rights
It is based on the Doctrine of
Sovereignty of Parliament
PM can
be a member of any of the two houses
PM
should be a member of the Lower house
Non-MP
can be appointed as a Minister, but he has to
acquire
membership within 6 months
MP alone
can be appointed as Minister
There is
no legal responsibility of the Minister
The
legal responsibility of the Minister is present
There is no Shadow Cabinet
Shadow Cabinet is present
Features of the (American) Presidential System
The President in the American
Presidential System holds a dual role as both the head of state and head
of government.
President is elected by the
electoral college for 4 years and can be removed by impeachment.
President governs with help of
his secretaries who are not elected and are answerable to him only.
Advice of secretaries not
binding on the President
The President and his
secretaries are neither answerable to the Congress nor have any
membership.
The American Presidential
System operates on the fundamental principle of the separation of powers
in which the executive, legislature & judiciary are independent &
separate.
Should India switch over to Presidential System?
Question of changing
over to Presidential System has been raised various times
1956
Nehru himself
expressed his doubts about whether the Parliamentary System could meet the
needs of the times and the complexities of modern administration.
1960s
The desirability of
a switch-over to the Presidential system was discussed & several eminent
men, including a person like JRD Tata, advocated a Presidential system for
India.
1967
After Nehru, Congress’s monopoly of power began to
be eroded at the level of States. The Presidential model is
described as a remedy for all of India’s ills.
Indira’s Reign
Demand became the
most prominent
Arguments against
This issue was
sufficiently discussed in the Constituent Assembly, and it made an informed
choice after
considering both the British and American models.
It would violate the ‘basic
structure‘ of the
Constitution.
Presidential system centralises
power in one individual unlike the Parliamentary System, where Prime
Minister is first among equals.
A diverse
country like India can only function with consensus-building. But the Presidential System
works on a “winner takes it all” approach.
‘Outside’ talent can be
brought into a parliamentary system, too. Examples: C.D. Deshmukh, T.A.
Pai, Manmohan Singh etc.
Arguments in flavor
There is no
genuine separation of powers as the legislature cannot truly hold the executive
accountable since the government wields the majority in the House.
During the time of the coalition
government, the government is unstable and stands at the mercy of MPs &
MLAs
Cabinet posts would not be
limited to those who are electable rather than able. Experts can
become ministers/secretaries.
Fear that an elected President
could become a Caesar/Authoritarian is ill-founded since the President’s
power would be balanced by the legislature (including Rajya Sabha)
It is good for diverse country
like India because to get Bills passed, President instead of facing a
monolithic opposition, would have the opportunity to build
issue-based coalitions on different issues.
The Parliamentary system
was taken from Britain, but conditions similar to Britain do
not exist in India. It
requires the existence of clearly defined political parties, whereas, in
India, a party is all too often a label of convenience.
The Present Parliamentary System has been tried and tested for nearly 70 years. As a famous saying goes – Why fix a thing which isn’t broken? Rather than changing the system, we should reform thoroughly and cleanse the electoral processes.
This article deals with the ‘Leather Industry.’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you canclick here.
Introduction
Since immemorial, leather has had universal appeal because of its aesthetic and functional properties.
Main considerations in the Leather Industry
Raw Material: The hides and skin of
cows, goats, sheep, and buffaloes serve as the primary raw materials for
the leather industry. India, being one of the largest producers of
livestock, provides a substantial supply of raw hides and skins.
Water: Water is a vital component
in the tanning process, where raw hides are treated to become leather.
Tanneries are often established near rivers or lakes to ensure a
continuous and sufficient water supply. For instance, tanneries in Kanpur,
Uttar Pradesh, utilize the water from the Ganges River.
Labour
Availability: The
leather industry is labour-intensive, involving various stages like
cleaning, dyeing, cutting, and stitching. It requires huge numbers of
skilled and unskilled labourers.
Concentrated
Demand: The
presence of a concentrated demand for leather products, both domestically
and internationally, plays a crucial role in shaping the leather
industry.
Reasons: UP has a well developed Leather Industry
Historical Factor: The rich history of Mughal patronage in the region played a significant role in developing leather craftsmanship in UP.
Water Availability: Major leather centres like Kanpur are strategically located along the banks of the Ganga River.
Demand:
UP is one of the most populous regions in India. The high population density creates a consistent demand for leather products like footwear.
UP has a well-developed sports industry, and leather is an essential material used in sports equipment manufacturing—for instance, cricket balls and footballs.
The proximity of UP to Haryana, a state with a robust automobile industry, creates a leather market for car seats and interiors.
Government Policies: Supportive government policies, subsidies, and initiatives have encouraged entrepreneurs and investors to establish and expand leather-related businesses in UP.
Reasons: Why is Tamil Nadu a significant Leather Industry?
Historical
Reason: Tamil
Nadu’s leather industry has historical roots as the British colonialists
initiated leather production in the region to meet the military needs
(boots, belts, etc.)
Abundant
Water Resources: The
presence of rivers like Cauvery and Palar ensures a consistent water
supply.
Access to
Market: Proximity
to major automobile manufacturing centres, especially in Chennai, provides
a ready market for leather products used in automobile interiors.
Skilled
Workforce: The
state boasts a skilled workforce proficient in leather craftsmanship.
Government
Initiatives and Support: The Tamil Nadu government has implemented various
policies and initiatives, like the Tamil Nadu Leather Development
Corporation, to promote the growth of the leather industry.
Reasons: Why is West Bengal a significant Leather Industry?
Historical
Reasons: During
World War II, the soaring demand for army boots and belts acted as a
catalyst for the leather industry in West Bengal. Consequently, Bata has
also set up their plant in West Bengal at the place now known as Batanagar (in 24 South
Pargana)
Cheap
Labour: West
Bengal and its neighbouring states, such as Bihar, provide a vast pool of
skilled and unskilled workers at competitive wages.
FreshWater: West Bengal benefits from the
presence of the Hugli River, providing a consistent and ample supply of
fresh water required for leather manufacturing
Market
Domestic
Demand: West
Bengal, a populous state with a growing economy, offers a robust domestic
market for leather products.
Port
Facilities: West
Bengal has strategic ports such as Kolkata Port and Haldia Port. These
ports facilitate the export of leather products to international markets.
Problems of Leather Industry
Inadequate Supply of Hide and Low Hide Quality:
Cultural Factors: In India, cattle are considered sacred and a source of wealth. Unlike the US and other Western countries, Indians do not sell their cattle for slaughter.
Laws on Cow Slaughter: Several states have imposed bans on beef and cow slaughter, negatively impacting the leather industry.
Right-Wing Vigilantism: Right-wing vigilantism frequently harms people from castes involved in flaying, leading many to abandon the profession, causing difficulties when cattle die and need to be flayed.
Poor Quality Hide: Flaying, considered polluting work, is done by lower caste individuals without proper scientific equipment, resulting in lower hide quality.
Problems with Tanning:
Tanning
Pollution: Tanning,
done with Chromium salt and sulfides, pollutes rivers when untreated
wastewater is dumped, rendering the water unsuitable for drinking and
commercial purposes.
Competition from China:
During the 1980s and 90s, the US leather industry moved to China due to strict environmental laws, enabling China to acquire US technology and capital.
The dominance of MSMEs
In India, Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) dominate the leather sector, making it challenging to compete with global players.
Lower Demand:
Religious
Considerations: Religious
beliefs in India affect leather usage, leading to lower demand for leather
products.
Climatic
Conditions: Warm
weather makes leather jackets and garments unsuitable, affecting demand.
Price
Consciousness: Indian
consumers prefer cheaper synthetic substitutes due to price consciousness.
This article deals with the ‘Jute Industry (in India and World).’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you canclick here.
Jute Industry
India
is the major producer of jute, along with Bangladesh. China and Pakistan are
other notable producers.
Bangladesh: Bangladesh is the world’s largest producer of jute. The jute industry is a vital sector of their economy, employing millions.
India:
West Bengal: The majority of India’s jute mills are concentrated in West Bengal
Andhra Pradesh: Andhra Pradesh also has a significant jute industry.
China: China also has a notable jute industry, with mills in cities like Nantong and Qingdao.
Pakistan: Pakistan has a smaller but significant jute industry, mainly centred around cities like Karachi and Lahore.
Jute Industry is mostly located in India & in India concentrated in West Bengal. WHY?
Raw material: The majority of jute is cultivatedin West Bengal. The favourable climate and soil conditions in this region are ideal for jute cultivation.
Energy: Proximity to coal mines in Raniganj and Jharia provides a stable energy source for jute processing.
Water: Jute processing requires substantial amounts of water. The Hooghly River (a distributary of the Ganges) in West Bengal ensures a reliable and abundant water supply for the jute mills.
Cheap Labour: West Bengal, along with states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, provides a large pool of skilled and unskilled labour at relatively low wages.
Capital: Kolkata, the capital of West Bengal, had well-established banking and financial facilities during the British colonial period.
Problems faced by Jute Industry
Geographical Disadvantages: After partition, jute mills remained in India while the prime jute-producing regions ended up in Bangladesh.
Intense Competition from Bangladesh: Bangladesh adopted modern technology in jute production, thus reducing production costs and making their products more competitive in the global market.
Labour Union Problems: Frequent strikes and disputes in jute mills hindered regular operations, affecting overall productivity.
Competition from Synthetic Packing: The growing usage of synthetic materials for packaging has decreased the demand for jute products.
Lack of Marketing Strategy for Eco-Friendly Appeal: There are insufficient efforts in promoting jute as an eco-friendly and biodegradable material in international markets.
This article deals with the ‘Woolen Industry (in India and World).’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you canclick here.
Woolen Industry
Major
wool producers include
Australia
Australia is the largest wool
producer.
Australian Merino sheep are renowned for their
fine wool quality.
New Zealand
New Zealand is another
prominent wool-producing nation.
New Zealand wool is valued for
its softness.
South Africa
The country has a substantial
sheep farming industry.
South African wool is
recognized for its durability.
Argentina
Argentina, particularly the
interior and rain shadow areas of Patagonia, is a significant wool
producer.
Location Factors for Woolen Industry
Climate: Temperate and semi-arid
conditions are conducive to sheep farming and wool production.
Abundant
Grazing Land: Vast
expanses of grasslands and grazing areas are conducive for sheep farming
activities.
Sheep Breeds: Specialized sheep
breeds, like Merino sheep in Australia, have been developed over the years
to produce high-quality wool efficiently.
Traditional
Livelihood: Sheep
farming has been a traditional livelihood in regions like Australia, New
Zealand, Patagonia (Argentina), etc., and passed down through generations.
Decline of Woolen Industry in the Great Britain
During the Industrial Revolution, Yorkshire emerged as
a significant hub for woollen textile production due to:
Abundant local supply of wool
Access to water from nearby streams
Availability of coal for powering machines
However, the Yorkshire woolen industry declined. It can be attributed to:
The commencement of
large-scale sheep rearing in the South Hemisphere (SH) made it challenging
for Yorkshire to compete in terms of pricing.
Introduction of cheaper
synthetic fabrics, which the Yorkshire industry couldn’t compete with.
As a consequence, the industry in Yorkshire suffered, leading to its downfall. Yorkshire’s woolen industry still uses imported wool from the South Hemisphere, but it has lost its former glory.
Indian Woolen Industry
Factors influencing Woolen Industry in India
Nature of Raw Material: The location of raw material sources is not crucial as wool is non-perishable and lightweight.
Market Conditions: Winters in Northern India are extremely cold, fostering a high demand for woolen products. Approximately 75% of the woolen industry is concentrated in the northern states.
Important Note
Apparels: Imported wool is preferred due to the coarseness of Indian wool, which can cause discomfort.
Non-Apparels: Indian wool is utilized for making carpets and blankets.
Major centres in India
Near Raw Material
J&K
Srinagar
Punjab
Ludhiana,
Dhariwal, Amritsar
Gujarat
Jamnagar
(raw material from Kathiawar)
Rajasthan
Bikaner
& Barmer
Near Market
J&K
Srinagar
Punjab
Ludhiana,
Dhariwal, Amritsar
Kanpur
1870:
Woollen textile setup to meet requirement of British Indian army
Mumbai
& Chennai
They mostly utilize imported wool for making apparels
This article deals with the ‘Silk Industry (in India and World).’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you canclick here.
Location Factors of the Silk Industry
Cheap
Labour: Historically
and even in contemporary times, the silk industry heavily relies on cheap
skilled labour, particularly women, due to their dexterity and precision
required in the delicate process of silk production. Cheaper labour
reduces production costs significantly, making it economically viable for
manufacturers.
Proximity to
Mulberry Farms: Silk-producing
units are often located near mulberry farms to reduce transportation costs
and ensure a constant supply of leaves for the silkworms.
Climatic
Conditions: Silkworms
require a specific temperature range for their growth and cocoon
formation. Regions with moderate temperatures and high humidity are
conducive to sericulture. Extreme cold or hot climates are unsuitable.
Well-Drained
Soil: Silkworms
are susceptible to diseases in waterlogged soil.
Water
Availability: The
silk industry requires a significant amount of water, both for mulberry
cultivation and for the rearing of silkworms.
Government
Support: Government
policies, subsidies, and incentives play a vital role in the growth of the
silk industry.
Transportation
and Connectivity: Good
transportation infrastructure, including roads, railways, and ports,
facilitates the movement of raw silk and finished products. Well-connected
regions have a competitive advantage.
Side Topic: Silk Formation Process
India and Silk Industry
India is home to various types of silk, including Mulberry, Tasar, Oak Tasar, Eri, and Muga. Among these varieties, Mulberry silk dominates, constituting 74% of the total silk production.
Major Producers include
Mulberry Silk
Mainly in Southern states 1. Karnataka 2. Tamil Nadu 3. Andhra Pradesh
Non-Mulberry Silk
1. Jharkhand 2. Chhattisgarh 3. Odisha 4. North East
Importance of Silk Industry in India?
Women-Friendly
Occupation: The
Silk Industry in India is a women-friendly occupation, with women
consisting of more than 60% of the total workforce.
Ideal for
upliftment of Weaker Sections in Rural Areas: This industry is an ideal
program for weaker sections in rural areas due to its low capital
intensity and short gestation period.
Eco-friendly
activity: As a
perennial crop with good foliage and root spread, Mulberry contributes to
soil conservation. Waste from silkworm rearing can be recycled as inputs
to the garden.
Fulfil equity
concerns: As
end-product users are mostly from the higher economic groups, the money
flows from high-end groups to low-end groups.
Export
Potential: India’s
Silk Industry has significant export potential, allowing the country to
earn foreign currency.
Challenges faced by Indian Silk Industry
Decreased Export Revenue: The
Indian Silk Industry has been grappling with a decline in export earnings,
primarily caused by the global recession and diminished demand for silk
products in Western nations.
Intense Price Competition: Intensified price
competition due to the incorporation of low-cost Chinese silk or
artificial/synthetic silk yarns has forced natural silk traders to resort
to distress sales to remain competitive.
Reduction in Cultivated Area: The
cultivation of mulberry silk has suffered due to a consistent reduction in
the area of mulberry cultivation.
India is a leading producer. WHY?
Raw Material: India’s leading silk
production is facilitated by the cultivation of mulberry plants. These
plants can be grown on any soil type, including hill slopes and have a
high tolerance for drought conditions.
Labour: Sericulture does not demand
hard physical labour. Silkworms, the critical players in silk production,
can be reared by individuals, especially women and older people, making
them an ideal source of supplementary income for households.
Low Capital
Requirement: Sericulture
requires minimal capital investment. This affordability enables tribals
and impoverished sections to engage in silk production, boosting their
economic prospects.
High Demand: In India, the demand for
silk consistently exceeds the domestic supply. This demand-supply gap
necessitates the import of silk to meet the market requirements.
Karnataka has a well-developed Silk industry. WHY?
Karnataka’s
thriving silk industry has prospered due to several factors.
Raw Material:
Mulberry thrives in
Karnataka’s climate, making it readily available for sericulture.
Karnataka utilizes the Bombax
variety of silkworms, which can be reared throughout the year with a high
yield.
Water Supply:
Karnataka benefits from an
abundant supply of soft water, which is crucial for silk
production.
Labour Force:
Women play a significant role
in rearing silk worms, contributing to the labor force involved in silk
production.
Capital Investment:
During World War II,
capitalists in Mysore accumulated substantial wealth, providing a
financial boost to the silk industry.
Mysore’s silk was in high
demand for making parachutes, further driving economic growth in the
region.
Technological Advancements:
Karnataka benefits from the
presence of the Central Silk Board located in Bangalore.
Location of Silk Industry in the World
China dominates global silk
production, contributing approximately 80% of the total output.
India is another substantial
producer, accounting for around 18% of the global silk production.
Countries like Japan, Brazil,
Thailand, and Vietnam individually produce 0.5% or even less of the
world’s silk supply.
Why is China a leading producer?
China
holds a prominent position as the leading silk producer due to several factors.
Climate: China’s temperate and
tropical climate provides an ideal environment for cultivating silk.
Technology: Scientists have
developed hybrid silk varieties with higher yields.
Labour: China has abundant &
skilled labour.
Government
Policy: Sericulture
in China is organized through cooperatives, ensuring efficient production
and distribution.
Japan was earlier a major producer but now produces less than 0.5%.
Japan
was once a significant producer, but currently, its silk production has
declined drastically, accounting for less than 0.5% of the total output.
Labour:
The industrial sector offers
higher wages, leading to a scarcity of labour for sericulture.
Capital:
Other sectors provide better
returns on investment compared to silk production.
Lost Market:
Traditional Japanese attire
like kimonos are no longer widely worn by Japanese women, resulting in a
diminished market for silk products. Kimonos are predominantly reserved
for ceremonial occasions in contemporary Japan.
Entrepreneurship:
An example is Koromo town,
where the silk industry was in decline, and both land and labour were
available at a low cost. Toyota seized this opportunity, purchased land in
the area, and transformed it into an automobile manufacturing
facility.
This article deals with the ‘Cotton and Textile Industry (in India and World).’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you canclick here.
Location Factors of the Cotton & Textile Industry
Many
factors have influenced the establishment of cotton and textile industries in
India.
Proximity to Raw Material: Unlike other industries where the weight or perishability of raw materials is a critical concern, cotton and textile industries benefit from the fact that cotton is relatively lightweight and non-perishable. Therefore, being in immediate proximity to the source of raw cotton is less important than in some other industries.
Proximity to Market: Given the importance of market demand in dictating the type of cloth to be produced, a significant consideration is the proximity to the consumer markets. Being close to the market facilitates efficient distribution and reduces transportation costs.
Water Availability: The textile industry involves processes like dyeing and bleaching that require substantial amounts of water. Consequently, the availability of water bodies such as rivers and lakes plays a role in industry location.
Energy Availability: Cotton and textile production requires a considerable amount of energy, particularly in processes like spinning, weaving, and finishing.
Labour Supply: Textile production involves intricate processes that require skilled workers, and a region with an ample labour pool can provide a competitive advantage.
Capital and Finance: Access to financial resources can facilitate expansions, modernization, and technological advancements.
Climate: Climate considerations are also relevant. Dry climates can lead to thread breakages during textile production. Historically, this led to the preference of coastal areas with higher humidity for textile industry setup. However, technological advancements, such as artificial humidifiers, have diminished the climate-related constraints on industry location.
At
present, the trend is to locate industry at or close to markets, as the market
decides what kind of cloth is to be produced.
Cotton Industry in India
Cotton Industry in Ancient & Medieval India
The cotton textile sector has been integral to India’s traditional industries. Across the globe, India held a renowned reputation for crafting muslin, an exceedingly delicate form of cotton fabric, along with calicos, chintz, and various other superior cotton textiles.
The development of the textile industry in India stemmed from many factors.
Firstly, the nation’s tropical climate made cotton the optimal fabric, providing a large market.
Secondly, India has abundant raw materials due to the substantial cultivation of cotton.
The country possessed an abundant reserve of skilled labour necessary for this industry.
During the Colonial Era
Initially, the British didn’t foster the growth of the native cotton textile sector. They shipped raw cotton to their mills in Manchester and Liverpool, then imported the finished goods back to India. These products were more affordable due to mass production in British factories.
In 1854, the first modern cotton mill was set up in Mumbai. The city had various advantages as a hub for cotton textile manufacturing:
It was situated close to Gujarat and Maharashtra, key cotton-producing regions.
Mumbai’s status as a financial centre provided access to the necessary capital for industrial initiation.
Its urban nature attracted a substantial labour force, ensuring a readily available pool of affordable workers.
The machinery required for cotton textile mills could be directly imported from England.
Subsequently, Ahmedabad saw the establishment of two more mills, namely the Shahpur Mill and the Calico Mill.
By 1947, the total number of mills in India rose to 423. However, this situation changed after the partition, leading to a significant downturn in the industry. This was because most of the prime cotton-producing areas were now in West Pakistan, leaving India with 409 mills and only 29% of the previous cotton-producing territory.
After Independence
After Independence, this
industry gradually recovered and eventually flourished.
Production of cotton cloth has
increased almost five times since Independence. Cotton textile has been
facing tough competition from synthetic cloth.
Importance of Cotton and Textile Industry
India’s
Cotton and Textile industries are vital to the nation’s economic landscape,
owing to their multifaceted significance and widespread impact.
Backward Linkage with the Agriculture Sector
Employs 4.5 crore individuals
Approximately 12% of the nation’s total exports are comprised of textiles and textile products.
Rural Development: Cotton cultivation and subsequent processing through the textile value chain often occurs in rural areas. As a result, the growth of these industries contributes to rural development.
Location of Cotton and Textile Industry in India
The Cotton and Textile industry is located in almost every state where one or more
locational factors have been favourable.
South India
Coimbatore, Madurai, Tirunelveli and Bengaluru
Central India
Ahmedabad,
Vadodara, Ujjain, Nagpur, Indore, Kolhapur and Solapur
UP
Kanpur,
Agra and Hathras
West Bengal
Kolkata
(due to port facilities)
Punjab
Ludhiana
Important Points
Among the major centres of
this industry, Ahmedabad, Bhiwandi, Solapur, Kolhapur, Nagpur, Indore, and
Ujjain stand out, which are strategically located in proximity to
cotton-producing regions, optimizing their supply chains.
The role of
hydroelectricity in
shaping the industry’s geography cannot be overlooked. Cotton textile
mills began to sprout away from traditional cotton-producing areas due to
the availability of hydroelectric power. This shift is particularly
evident in Tamil Nadu.
Labour costs can play a pivotal role
in determining industry locations. Centres like Agra, Ujjain, Bharuch,
Agra, Hathras, Coimbatore, & Tirunelveli capitalized on lower labour
expenses, prompting the industry to be located away from primary
cotton-producing areas.
Reasons: Why Cotton and Textile Industry is located in Mumbai?
Mumbai,
known as the “Cottonopolis of India,” is the epicentre of the
country’s thriving cotton and textile industry.
Abundant Raw Material: Maharashtra,
particularly the region around Mumbai, has black soil well-suited for
cotton cultivation.
Access to Premium Cotton: Being a
busy port, Mumbai historically had access to international trade routes as
a bustling port city, allowing the import of long-staple cotton from
places like Egypt.
Favourable Climate: Mumbai’s proximity to the sea
results in a humid coastal climate conducive to textile manufacturing.
Reliable Power Supply: The Tata
hydroelectric grid in the nearby Western Ghats provides a consistent and
reliable source of power.
Availability of Soft Water: The Mithi
River in Mumbai supplies soft water, which is ideal for dyeing and
bleaching (important processes in the textile industry).
Capital and Financial Infrastructure: During the
American Civil War, Mumbai-based capitalists amassed substantial profits
through the cotton trade. They later reinvested this wealth into the
establishment of textile industries. Today, Mumbai is home to a
well-developed banking and financial sector.
Skilled and Affordable Labour: Mumbai and
its surrounding regions provide a vast pool of labour, which is both
skilled and cost-effective.
Access to Expansive Markets: Mumbai’s
strategic location places it at the heart of India, with access to the
local and national markets.
Reasons: Why Cotton and Textile Industry is located in Gujarat?
Abundant Raw Materials: Gujarat benefits from its proximity to cotton-producing districts in the state and neighbouring regions.
Water Availability: Water is a crucial resource in textile manufacturing, particularly for dyeing, cleaning, and bleaching. Gujarat benefits from water sources such as the Sabarmati and Khari rivers.
Proximity to Markets: Gujarat has a large domestic market for textiles, owing to its population and the presence of major industrial and commercial centres.
Port Facilities: Gujarat’s coastline is dotted with major ports like Kandla, Mundra, and Pipavav. These ports offer excellent connectivity for the export of textile products.
Government Support: The state government has been proactive in supporting the growth of the textile industry through favourable policies, incentives, and infrastructure development.
Reasons: Why Cotton and Textile Industry is located in Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu)?
Abundant Raw Material Supply: Tamil Nadu
has a consistent and substantial cotton supply. The region is known for
cultivating a specific variety of cotton known as “Cambodia
cotton,” which is highly sought after in the textile industry.
Energy Resources: Coimbatore is home to the
Pykara Hydel project, a significant source of hydroelectric power.
Water Resources: Access to ample water resources
is critical for various stages of textile production, including dyeing,
cleaning, and bleaching—Coimbatore benefits from the Noyyal River.
Market: Coimbatore has a massive demand due
to its proximity to large consumer markets in the southern states,
including Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.
Problem faced by Indian Cotton Textile Industry
Fierce International Competition: The industry faces fierce competition from countries like Bangladesh, Vietnam, and Ethiopia, which enjoy Duty-Free Access or have signed Free Trade Agreements with major markets such as the EU and USA. This advantage puts Indian textiles at a disadvantage in terms of pricing and market access.
Most Indian mills are small-scale operations, preventing them from achieving the economies of scale enjoyed by larger competitors.
Mechanization vs Job Dilemma: The Indian industry is caught in a dilemma regarding mechanization. While mechanization can enhance productivity, it also threatens traditional jobs. Balancing technological advancement with employment opportunities is a critical challenge.
Competition from synthetic textiles: The rise of synthetic textiles has further intensified the struggle for market share. Synthetic textiles often offer cost advantages and versatility.
Cotton Farmers under stress: Indian Cotton Farmers face immense stress due to various factors, including the monopolization of seeds by a few major corporations and the introduction of genetically modified crops like BT Cotton.
Location of Cotton and Textile Industry in the World
The
foundation of the cotton and textile industry lies in cotton cultivation.
Cotton is primarily grown in regions with favourable climatic and soil
conditions. Significant producers of cotton
include
United States: Cotton is grown in southern states like Texas and Mississippi
India: Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh
China: Northwest regions, particularly Xinjiang
Pakistan: Sindh and Punjab provinces contribute significantly to Pakistan’s cotton production
Brazil: Mato Grosso region
After
cotton is harvested, it goes through a series of processing stages. Major cotton processing centres are concentrated
in:
United States: Southern
states like North Carolina.
India: Textile Mills are concentrated in
Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu
China: Coastal regions like Shanghai,
Zhejiang, and Jiangsu
Pakistan: Karachi, Faisalabad, and
Lahore
Brazil: São Paulo and Santa Catarina
Analysis: Rise and Fall of Textile Industry in Manchester & Lancashire
The
textile industry in Manchester and Lancashire has a rich history that witnessed
remarkable growth during colonial times but declined significantly after World
War II.
Rise during Colonial Times
Favourable Climate: Manchester and Lancashire’s location was advantageous due to the moist Westerlies, providing high humidity levels and preventing threads from breaking during manufacturing.
Abundant Raw Materials: Cheap cotton was available from its colonies, such as India and Egypt.
Strategic Transportation: The proximity of Liverpool as a major port city facilitated the import of raw materials and the export of finished products.
Quality Water Sources: Streams from the Pennine hills provided soft water, ideal for dyeing and bleaching.
Abundant Energy: The availability of coal from Northern England and Wales served as a reliable source of energy.
Expansive Market: The demand for textiles in Europe And the massive market in British colonies provided a market for the finished product.
Decline after World War II
The
decline of the Textile industry after World War II can be attributed to the
following factors.
Loss of Colonies: Post-World
War II, the loss of colonies meant that the dirt-cheap raw
materials(cotton) from India and Egypt were no longer readily
available.
Competition from Other Nations: Emerging
players like Japan entered the global textile market with cheaper
production methods.
Reason: Cotton Industry in the USA
In the
USA, there are two important regions of the cotton and textile industry, which
can be attributed to several geographical factors.
New England Region
It is located in the northeast corner of the US and emerged as a hub for cotton-related activities.
Major factors of the concentration of cotton and textile industry include
Its proximity to major urban centres like Boston and New York
Easy access to ports for exporting cotton
The region attracted immigrant workers, adding to the labour force and diversity of skills.
The availability of coal from the Appalachian region ensured a stable energy supply, powering the cotton mills.
Cotton Belt in the South
The Cotton Belt, stretching
across states such as North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama,
Mississippi, and parts of Texas and California, constitutes the heartland
of cotton cultivation in the USA. This region boasts vast expanses of
fertile land, forming large cotton-growing areas.
Transformation
from Slave Labour to Mechanization: Historically, the cotton industry in the South
relied heavily on slave labour. However, over time, technological
advancements led to the mechanization of cotton production. Highly
efficient machines revolutionized the industry, making it less reliant on human
labour.
Hydroelectric
Power: Major
rivers in the cotton-producing regions have been harnessed for
hydroelectric power generation.
Reason: Cotton Industry in China
Various
factors contribute to the thriving cotton industry in China, with a major
concentration in the bustling city of Shanghai.
Favourable
Climate: Shanghai
is a port city with a humid climate. This humidity is crucial in the
cotton industry as threads are less likely to break during production.
Raw
Material: The
Yangtze-Kiang Delta, where Shanghai is located, is fertile ground for
cotton cultivation.
Transport: Shanghai benefits from its
status as a port city, offering easy access to international markets.
Additionally, the city is well-connected by rail and road networks,
facilitating the movement of raw materials and finished products.
Water and
Energy: The
Yangtze River not only serves as a transportation route but also provides
a source of water and energy. Access to water resources is crucial for
textile industries. Furthermore, the river can be harnessed for
hydroelectric power.
Labour: With a large population,
Shanghai has a pool of skilled workers who contribute to the manufacturing
process.
Market: Within 1000 nautical miles,
major markets like Kobe, Taiwan, South Korea, and Hong Kong are
accessible, facilitating international trade. Moreover, within China,
cities like Nantong, Wuhan, and Chongqing, connected via the Yangtze
River, create a robust domestic market.
Other centres in
China include Hwang-Ho Valley, Sichuan, Nanjing, Beijing,
etc.
This article deals with ‘National Register of Citizens– Indian Polity.’ This is part of our series on ‘Polity’ which is important pillar of GS-2 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here.
What is the National Register of Citizens (NRC)?
On the eve of Independence, the Indian government felt the need to identify Indian Citizens. Hence, the National Register of Citizens was conducted in 1951 in respect of each village, showing the houses and holdings of each person in a serial order. Based on the National Register of Citizens, the Citizenship of each person was confirmed.
This Register was used to be kept in the office of the District Collector and Sub Divisional Officer. But in 1960, on the orders of the Home Ministry, all data was given to the Police and was never updated after that.
The issue in Assam: Due to the large-scale migration of Bangladeshis in Assam, the need was felt to recognize the Indian Citizens.
Assamese vs Outsiders
The
issue of Outsiders coming into Assam dates back in history.
Assamese used to resent the settlement of outsiders (Bengali and Bihari labourers) brought by Britishers to work in Tea Plantations.
After Independence, Assam saw a large-scale arrival of Bengalis.
During the persecution of Bengali Muslims in Bangladesh at the end of the 1960s, more than 10 lakh people came to Assam to take shelter. After the formation of Bangladesh, most of them went back, but some stayed.
Even after 1971, Bangladeshis kept on settling in Assam.
All
this created fear in the indigenous population of Assam. They started to fear
demographic change, converting them into a minority and heavy stress on the
limited resources of Assam.
Assam Accord
1978: Powerful agitation under the All Assam Students Union (AASU) started, which demanded that before conducting elections, the problem of illegal migrants should be solved. They demanded the removal of those who arrived after 1961 from Assam.
1985: Assam Accord between Rajiv Gandhi
Government and AASU
Those who arrived between 1951 and 1961 will be given full Citizenship and the right to vote.
Those who have arrived after 1971 will be sent back
Those who arrived between 1961 and 1971 were given Citizenship, but the right to vote wasn’t given
A Special Package was given for the development of Assam
Oil Refinery, Paper Mills and Technical institutions would be opened in Assam
But due
to politics, little happened over the decades. Finally, in 2014, the Supreme
Court asked the state government to update the 1951 NRC in a timebound manner
and conduct the exercise under its supervision.
NRC updating process in Assam
NRC updating involves
the procedure of adding the names of individuals (or their descendants) whose
names are found in either of the following lists.
Any of the Assam’s Electoral Rolls up to March 24 1971, or
National Register of Citizen of 1951, or
Any of the admissible documents stipulated, such as land or tenancy records, citizenship certificate, permanent residential certificate, etc.
In August 2019, the updated and final National Register of Citizens, which validates bonafide Indian citizens of Assam, was released with over 19 lakh applicants who had failed to make it to the list (and many were Hindus).
Hence, this process
has the danger of exclusion and inclusion errors, and a large number of
legitimate Indian citizens could end up being denied their rights. Along with
that, Illegal migrants out of NRC will be sent back to Bangladesh. However,
India does not have any deportation treaty with Bangladesh. Moreover, there are
apprehensions that a large number of stateless people can be created in India,
thus impacting the overall image of people.
Assam Accord vs Citizenship Amendment Act
There are inherent differences between the Assam Accord and the Citizenship Amendment Act, as the Amendment provides citizenship rights to Hindu migrants who have arrived post-1971.
