Events during World War 2

This article deals with ‘Events during World War 2 – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

World War  2 (WW2)  broke out

• 1939 : WW2 broke out &  Government of India immediately joined war without consulting Congress or elected members of Central Legislature
• Congress was in full sympathy with victims of fascist aggression . It was willing to help forces of democracy in their struggle against fascism but Congress Leaders asked , how was it possible for an enslaved nation to aid others in their fight for freedom.  They demanded that India must be declared free or atleast effective power put in Indian hands – before it could actively participate in the war & after war, Constituent Assembly should be constituted consisting of elected Indians to frame constitution for India

Official Congress stand was adopted at a meeting of the Congress Working Committee held at Wardha from 10 to 14 September to which, in keeping with the nationalist tradition of accommodating diversity of opinion, Subhas Bose, Acharya Narendra Dev, and Jayaprakash Narayan were also invited. Sharp differences emerged in this meeting.

• Gandhi was for taking a sympathetic view of the Allies. He believed that there was a clear difference between the democratic states of Western Europe and the totalitarian Nazi state headed by Hitler.

• Socialists and Subhas Bose argued that the war was an imperialist one since both sides were fighting for gaining or defending colonial territories. Therefore, question of supporting either of two sides didn’t arise. Instead Congress should take advantage of the situation to wrest freedom by immediately starting a civil disobedience movement.

• Jawaharlal Nehru had a stand of his own. He had been for several years warning the world against the dangers of Nazi aggression, and he made a sharp distinction between democracy and Fascism. He believed that justice was on the side of Britain, France and Poland. But he was also convinced that Britain and France were imperialist countries and that the War was the result of the inner contradictions of capitalism’ maturing since the end of World War I. He, therefore, argued that India should neither join the war till she herself gained freedom nor take advantage of Britain’s difficulties by starting an immediate struggle.

Note – For Indian businessmen and traders in general, war meant an opportunity for fantastically quick profits, particularly so long as it remained distant and did not involve the threat of destruction of property through aerial bombardment or evacuation. Khaliquzzaman (Muslim League Leader of UP) makes the interesting point that the Muslim League was pressed towards greater co-operation with the British by business magnates as well as by ‘our Muslim taluqdars and zamindars  interested in smaller contracts for the supply of wood, charcoal and other small commodities. They could hardly be expected to forego the chance of a lifetime’. It is surely not illegitimate to suspect the existence of similar pressures on the Congress, too.

August Offer

In Europe, War was going against the Allies and France, Belgium , Holland etc had fallen to Axis Powers . Hence, they wanted to win support of Indians to use Indian resources (both man and money) for their cause without any backlash . Hence, they came up with August Offer in August 1940.

First offer to win over Congress & to secure its cooperation was made through August offer (August 1940)

• Certain number of representative Indians would be invited to join Governor General’s Executive Council
• War Advisory Council composed of representatives of Indian States & other interests in national life of India as whole would be established.
• British government would not transfer power to any system of Government whose authority is indirectly denied by large & powerful elements in national life . This was assurance to Muslims.
• Primary responsibility of framing new constitution should rest on Indians was accepted subject to fulfilment of obligations which Britain’s long connection with India has imposed on her & actual constitution making would begin after war  .

Congress & Muslim league both rejected August offer . It came as shock to Congress as it fell very much short of their demands . It offered nothing what constituted core of their demands ie immediate transfer of effective power to Indians . Rejection of August offer prepared grounds for Cripps Mission

National Defense Council was constituted consisting of 30 members including persons from Princely States & British Indian provinces as well as spokesmen of other elements in national life of British India . Congress didn’t join it . Some members of Muslim League joined but later resigned on Jinnah’s advice .

Cripps Mission (1942)

• Two major changes in British politics occurred during 1941.
  • Nazi attacked the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941.
  • In the East, Japan launched a surprise attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor on 7 December. It quickly overran the Philippines, Indo- China, Indonesia, Malaysia and Burma & occupied Rangoon in March 1942.

Hence, War was brought to India’s doorstep.

• Congress Working Committee passed a resolution at the end of December offering to fully cooperate in the Defence of India and the Allies if Britain agreed to give full independence after the War and the substance of power immediately.
• What was involved in this unprecedented military crisis was not only defence of India  but also of China which was essential part of war against Japan. India must not be held for herself but for China too . It was through India that essential supplies could be sent to Chiang Kai Shek’s forces . Ousted by Japanese from Philippines, Americans converted India into base for operations in South East Asia
• Military necessity was determining factor in US & Chinese interest in solution of constitutional deadlock in India for this alone can ensure full Indian support in war efforts

Proposals

• Creation of new  Indian Union which shall constitute a Dominion (C-D) associated with UK by common allegiance to Crown but equal to all dominions in every respect & in no way subordinate to them in its external or internal affairs
• During war & post war till new Constitution is framed , British government in London would retain control
• Body to frame  Constitution to consist of
  • Persons elected by  Legislative Assemblies of Provinces according to system of Proportional Representation
  • Representatives of Princely States
• Constitution framed would be accepted by British government subject to two conditions
  • Any province which wasn’t prepared to accept this consitution can do so
  • Treaty would be signed between British Government & Constitution making body , making provision for all matters arising out of transfer of power as also for protection of racial & religious minorities
• Constitution making body to be elected by Proportional Representation (departure from separate electorates)
• Actual control of Defence and Military Operations would be retained by the British Government

Indian Reaction

Congress rejected it because

• It contained only future promises & no immediate  transfer of power 
• Wanted full freedom & not Dominion Status
• Provision relating to non accession of Provinces was severe blow to Indian unity . They will become enclaves for preservation of foreign authority & permit stationing of foreign troops
• Members to frame constitution from Princely States were to be nominated by rulers & not elected by people
• There was problem regarding proposed Treaty between  British Government & Constituent Assembly . Principle of protection of racial & religious minorities may be loophole for British interference

Failure prepared the ground for congress action against what many Indians now believed to be Imperial war

Muslim  League also rejected it  & objections was

• Scheme of one Indian Union for two principal nations
• They wanted definite concept of Pakistan

Note – Cripps was member of Labour Party and was sympathetic with Indian cause. On his part , he tried his best to give maximum to Indians but he didn’t has free hand in whole episode. Actually, Churchill only wanted to present a picture to the world that Britishers were doing something and gave Indians deal which Indians would reject to give impression that Indians were not ready to negotiate. Cripps went to extend of reaching compromise formula  by which an Indian would be in charge of the Defense Department while the British Commander-in-Chief would retain control over field operations and head a War Department whose functions were specified. But  Linlithgow and C-in-C Wavell were seriously worried that Cripps was conceding far too much real power to the Congress and, together with Churchill, they were able to block the settlement at the last moment. For Churchill, certainly, ‘it mattered not so much that something should be done as that some attempt should be seen to be made’

Individual Satyagraha (Oct 1940-1941)

• Congress Socialists & All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) were in favour of immediate struggle. N.G. Ranga even suggested that the AIKS should sever links with Congress & launch an independent movement. He was, however, checked by P. Sundarayya from doing so. It was in such an atmosphere that the Congress met at Ramgarh in March 1940 under the presidentship of Maulana Azad
• After August Offer,  Gandhi met Viceroy in Shimla . Long  dialogue ended without result
• Convinced that the British would not modify their policy in India, Gandhi decided to start the Individual Satyagraha. The very reason for confining the movement to individual participation was that neither Gandhi nor the Congress wished to hamper the War effort and this could not’ have been the case in a mass movement. Even the aim of the Satyagraha was a limited one i.e. to disprove the British claim of India supporting the War effort whole heartedly.
• Satyagrahi would publicly declare: ‘It is wrong to help the British war-effort with men or money. The only worthy effort is to resist all war with non-violent resistance.’ The Satyagrahi would inform the District Magistrate of the time and place where he or she was going to make the anti-war speech.
• Carefully chosen Satyagrahis — Vinoba Bhave was to be the first Satyagrahi on 17 October 1940 and Jawaharlal Nehru the second
• Individual Satyagraha had a dual purpose — while giving expression to the Indian people’s strong political feeling, it gave the British Government further opportunity to peacefully accept the Indian demands.
• By 15 May 1941, more than 25,000 Satyagrahis had been convicted for offering individual civil disobedience

Crisis of Tripuri and Subash Chandra Bose

• Subash Chandra Bose has joined Non Cooperation Movement after resigning from Indian Civil Services & since then has been promising dynamic young leader of Congress
• He nurtured revolutionary ideas & was never fully happy with Gandhi’s philosophy & technique of political agitation
• 1924 : He was appointed as  CEO of  Calcutta Corporation & government was suspicious of his connections with revolutionaries
• 1928 : He was GOC of Congress volunteers in Calcutta session of congress. During this period he, like  JL Nehru & other young Congressmen came to be influenced by communist ideas & became more critical of Gandhi’s policy & programmes
• Bose differed fundamentally from Gandhi on vital issues such as industrialisation & India’s attitude towards British Government during coming World War . He was critical of  rightist Gandhites who he felt, exploited Mahatma’s influence to promote personal interests .
• Bose complained that Rightists were engaged in power politics & were trying to beat down all opposition within Congress so that they might continue to enjoy power for years . However, Gandhi was still anxious to keep left wing within congress to preserve organisational unity & support Bose’s candidature for Presidentship in 1938.
• Haripura Congress (1938 Session) adopted a resolution which firmly expressed the Congress’s disapproval for war preparations. It asserted that India could not be party to imperialist war & she would not permit her man power& resources to be exploited in interest of British  Imperialism.
• Gandhi didn’t view with favour the Congress attitude of uncompromising opposition to British Government . He also didn’t agree with Draft Plan of Industrialisation & National Development prepared by  National Planning Committee of Congress which was  set on the initiative of SC Bose who strongly believed in industrialisation, land reform & modernisation of agriculture
• Next session was to be held in Tripuri in March 1939 . Gandhi opposed election of Bose & lent his support to candidature of Pattabhi Sitaramayya as President. Bose said that he represented the ‘new ideas, ideologies, problems and programmes’ that had emerged with ‘the progressive sharpening of the anti-imperialist struggle in India.’ The Presidential elections, he said, should be fought among different candidates ‘on the basis of definite problems & programmes.” Old guard rejected saying that Congress President was like that of a constitutional head who represented & symbolized the unity & solidarity of the nation. Bose won by narrow margin . Gandhi issued statement describing Sitaramayya’s defeat as his own defeat which caused much consternation in the country & rallied large section of leading Congressmen against Congress President
• Tripuri Congress adopted following resolutions
  • Reiterated the goal of independence & rejecting of Federal Part of the Act of 1935 .
  • It demanded a constitution for free India through a Constituent Assembly elected by people on basis of adult franchise & without any interference by foreign authority
  • Condemned imperialist  British Foreign Policy as well as fascism in clear terms
• Gandhi’s advice was still considered essential for Congress & National Movement . Breakaway from Gandhian policy and program was impossible for Congress . Gandhi wing as Bose calls pro-Gandhi group in this Indian struggle made it impossible for Congress President to function effectively resulting in deadlock in organisation
• Situation made Bose realise that in absence of an organised & disciplined left wing , it was impossible to balance the Gandhi wing . He felt that primary political need was an organised & disciplined Left Wing Party in Congress . He resigned from  Presidentship & founded Forward Bloc . It was intended to be a radical & progressive party within Congress with view of rallying entire left wing under one banner . But the differences were so deep rooted & fundamental that very soon Forward Bloc became separate independent body
• BOSE REVOLT has not been regarded as struggle between left and right but as conflict arising out of personal differences between Bose and Gandhi. Their style of leadership were different.
• Immediate cause of final rift between two was  Bose’s view in favour of forming a coalition ministry in Bengal which was opposed by Congress old guard , conflict between Bose & Patel over Vithalbhai Patel’s leaving a legacy of ₹ 1Lakh to Bose for carrying on propaganda abroad in favour of Indian struggle for Independence and Bose’s insistence on an immediate showdown with British Government
• But by far the more crucial issues were the attitude of Congress to imminent war in Europe , question of priority in national planning & formulation of economic policy , Bose’s total loss in a purely non violent policy & his fiery patriotism which made him impatient for attainment of India’s freedom .
• In January 1940, Gandhi wrote to C.F. Andrews describing Subhash as “my son”-but a “spoilt child of the family” who needed to be taught a lesson for his own good.

Gandhi had three reasons for not starting immediate movement

• Since cause of Britain & France was just, they shouldn’t be embarrassed in the prosecution of war
• Lack of Hindu -Muslim unity . Hence,  starting mass movement will start rioting .
• Congress wasn’t organizationally fit to sustain movement because of rampant corruption .

28 months of Congress Ministries

This article deals with ‘28 months of Congress Ministries  – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

Introduction

‘The British, after imposing the Act of 1935, decided to immediately put into practice provincial autonomy, and announced the holding of elections to provincial legislatures in early 1937. Nationalists were faced with a new political reality. All of them agreed that the 1935 Act must be opposed root and branch; but the question was how to do so in a period when a mass movement was not yet possible.

Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Bose, the Congress Socialists and the Communists were totally opposed to office acceptance and thereby working within the 1935 Act. The Left case was presented effectively and passionately by Nehru, especially in his Presidential Address at Lucknow in early 1936.

1. Firstly, to accept office, was ‘to negate our rejection of it (the 1935 Act) and to stand self-condemned.’
2. Secondly, office acceptance would take away the revolutionary character of the movement imbibed since 1919.

Behind this issue, said Nehru lay the question ‘whether we seek revolutionary changes in India or (whether we) are working for petty reforms under the aegis of British imperialism.’ Office acceptance would mean, in practice, ‘a surrender’ before imperialism.

Pro-office acceptance leaders agreed that there were pitfalls involved and that Congressmen in office could give way to wrong tendencies. But the answer, they said, was to fight these wrong tendencies and not abandon offices. Moreover, the administrative field should not be left clear to pro-Government forces. Even if the Congress rejected office, there were other groups and parties who would readily form ministries and use them to weaken nationalism and encourage reactionary and communal policies and politics. Lastly, despite their limited powers, the provincial ministries could be used to promote constructive work especially in respect of village and Harijan uplift, khadi, prohibition, education and reduction of burden of debt, taxes and rent on the peasants.

Congress decided at Lucknow in early 1936 and at Faizpur in late 1936 to fight the elections and postpone the decision on office acceptance to the post-election period .

Results  of election

Congress won a massive mandate at the polls despite the narrow franchise. It won 711 out of 1,161 seats it contested. It had a majority in most of the provinces. The exceptions were Bengal, Assam, the NWPF, Punjab and Sind; and in the first three, it was the largest single party (BANPS)

Note – There was evident failure of the Muslim League to make good its claim to be the sole representative of the Muslims. The League failed to win a single seat in the N.W.F.P. and could capture only 2 out of 84 reserved constituencies in the Punjab and 3 out of 33 in Sind. The Congress also won most scheduled caste seats, except in Bombay where Ambedkar’s Independent Labour Party captured 13 out of 15 seats reserved for Harijans.

28 months of Congress Ministries

• During June, it formed Ministries in six provinces: Madras, Bombay, Central Provinces, Orissa, Bihar and U.P. Later, Congress Ministries were also formed in the North-West Frontier Province and Assam.
• To guide and coordinate their activities and to ensure that the British hopes of the provincialization of the Congress did not materialize, a central control board known as the Parliamentary Sub-Committee was formed, with Patel, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and Rajendra Prasad as members.
• Congress was now to function both as a government in the provinces and as the opposition vis-a-vis the Central Government where effective state power lay
• The formation of the Ministries by the Congress changed the entire psychological atmosphere in the country. People felt as if they were breathing the very air of victory and people’s power, for was it not a great achievement that khadi clad men and women who had been in prison until just the other day were now ruling in the secretariat and the officials who were used to putting Congressmen in jail would now be taking orders from them?
• Responsibility was, of course, tremendous. However, there were limitations on the Congress Ministries’ power and financial resources. But, within the narrow limits of their powers, and the time available to them (their tenure lasted only two years and four months), they did try to introduce some reforms, take some ameliorative measures, and make some improvement in the condition of the people — to give the people a glimpse of the future Swaraj.
• Congress Ministers set an example in plain living. They reduced their own salaries drastically from Rs. 2000 to Rs. 500 per month. They were easily accessible to the common people. And in a very short time, they did pass a very large amount of ameliorative legislations

Work done by Ministries

1 . Civil Liberties

• Commitment to civil liberties was as old as Congress itself
• All emergency powers acquired by the provincial governments during 1932, through Public Safety Acts and the like, were repealed; bans on illegal political organizations such as the Hindustan Seva Dal and Youth Leagues and on political books and journals were lifted.
• Securities taken from newspapers and presses were refunded and pending prosecutions were withdrawn.
• In Congress provinces, police powers were curbed and the reporting of public speeches and the shadowing of political workers by CID  agents stopped.
• Thousands of political prisoners were released + many revolutionaries involved in kakori & other conspiracies released
• Difference between the Congress provinces and the non- Congress provinces of Bengal and Punjab was most apparent in this realm. In the latter, especially in Bengal, civil liberties continued to be curbed and revolutionary prisoners and detenus, kept for years in prison without trial

2. Peasants Question

Ministry formation raised the expectations & brought back militancy among peasants & also brought right wingers in power to take back power from clutches of the socialists

2.1 Bihar

• Tenancy Legislation was taken up in all the Congress ruled provinces. The Right Wing did not want to go ahead without negotiations with the landlords & positions varied from province to province
• In Bihar, Congress signed pact with Zamindars regarding the provisions of the Tenancy Bill . Rajendra Prasad & Maulana Azad had been instrumental in this
  • In Bakshat land, permanent tenancy was converted to short term tenancies
  • Bihar  Kisan sabha totally criticised this along with left  leaning congressmen who sympathised with Peasants
  • At this time ban was imposed on Congressmen from participating in Kisan Sabha activities in Bihar
  • Kisan Sabha launched number of movements at regional level to remind congress to implement Faizpur Agrarian Programme

2.2 UP

• In UP there was more left leaning leaders . Tenancy Bill was passed but governor didn’t give assent for two years
• Gave all statutory tenants both in Agra and Oudh full hereditary rights . The rents of hereditary tenants could be changed only after ten years 

2.3 Bombay

• They were able to restore lands to original owners which were confiscated due to no rent campaign of Congress

2.4 Orissa

• Tenancy  bill was passed  granting the right of free transfer of occupancy holdings, reducing the interest on arrears of rent from 12 to 6 per cent and abolishing all illegal levies on tenants.

3. Pro Labour

• Congress had promised better working conditions to the working class , however its policy was influenced by Relations between Right wing & Left wing leaders

Right Wing	Believed that relation between labourers & capitalists will be based on Gandhian principle of Trusteeship
Left Wing	They wanted relationship on class lines

• 1937 :  Labour Committee appointed by Congress accepted a programme
  • Holidays with pay
  • Employment insurance
  • Leave with pay during sickness
  • To devise a way to fix minimum wage
  • Legitimisation of trade unions which pursued policy of peaceful & legitimate means

• The formation of popular ministries initially stimulated labour organization and militancy. Trade union membership went up by 50% in 1938 as compared to 1937, and labour unity was strengthened by the coming together of the AITUC and the moderate N.F.T.U. Major industrial disputes of these years included the great general strike in Bengal jute mills , a series of stoppages in Kanpur cotton mills, textile strikes in Amritsar, Ahmedabad and particularly in Madras province , the strike in Martin Burn’s Kulti and Hirapur iron and steel works in 1938, and the bitter six month-long struggle in the Digboi oil works in Assam (April-October 1939).
• Birla complained of rampant ‘indiscipline’ in Congress provinces  and there were   threats of a flight of capital from Congress-ruled Bombay and U.P. to the princely states where labour laws hardly existed.

• In Bengal , Congress supported strike in Jute mills & condemned the repression of jute workers by non congress government
• However, Bombay Province Ministry Introduced Industrial Disputes Bill  aim to prevent strikes & lockouts & crush workers which went on  strike

4. Other constructive works

• Dalit Temple entry allowed by Madras Ministry  (led by C Rajagopalachari)
• A vigorous campaign in favour of prohibition  of liquor
• Grant of ₹ 2 Lakh for Khadi & Hand spinning in Madras.
• Honorary medical officers to be appointed in Hospitals
• Investment in public buildings to be considerably reduced
• Reduction in salaries of ministers
• Declaration of fundamental rights
• Welfare scheme for tribals
• Jail reforms.
• Repeal of Moplah Outrage Act

Challenges to legislatures

• Nearly all the Congress-run states (that is, U.P., Bihar, Bombay, Madras and Assam) had reactionary second chambers in the form of Legislative Councils, which were elected on a very narrow franchise — was less than 70 thousand for the second chambers. These were, therefore, dominated by landlords, capitalists and moneylenders, with the Congress forming a small minority. Hence, majority in the lower house was not enough in order to get any legislation passed .
• There was malicious propaganda set out by communal parties & accused congress of discrimination against minorities.
• Many opportunists entered congress during this period in order to take advantage of office . Gandhi & Congressmen were well known to this situation & wrote about this in Harijan

Congress itself began to lose its popularity as indicated in the drastic fall in its membership, from 4.5 million in 1938-39 to 1.4 million in 1940-41

Government of India Act 1935

This article deals with ‘Government of India Act 1935 – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

Introduction

Even-though, the Government had successfully suppressed the mass movement during 1932-33, it was aware that suppression could only be a short-term tactic. It couldn’t prevent the resurgence of another powerful movement in the years to come. For that it was necessary to permanently weaken the movement. For this British Parliament passed Government of India (GoI) Act 1935

Main Provisions

1 . Related to Provinces

• Provincial Autonomy –  for the first time, Provinces to have separate legal entity . Full freedom & responsible government was given  to provinces except in certain cases .
• Dyarchy introduced by GoI Act,1919 abolished
• Two new states – Orissa and Sind established
• Governors, appointed by the British Government, retained special powers. They could veto legislative and administrative measures, especially those concerning minorities, the rights of civil servants, law and order and British business interests.
• Governor also had the power to take over and indefinitely run the administration of a Province. Thus both political and economic power remained concentrated in British hands; colonialism remained intact.
• Responsible government to be provided to all 11 states . Among them Bengal, Madras , Bombay, UP, Bihar and Assam to have Bicameral Legislature

2. All India Federation

• Act provided for the establishment of an All-India Federation to be based on the union of the British Indian provinces and Princely States. However, entry into Federation was compulsory for Indian Provinces but optional for Princely states.
• This Federation will come into being when the more than 50 per cent of the Princely States formally acceded to it by signing the Instruments of Accession, which would override their previous treaties with the British Crown (this didn’t happen and Federation was never formed)
• Federal Legislature was Bicameral comprising of
  • Council of States having 156 representatives of British India & not more than 104 (40%) of Indian states. It was a permanent house with 1/3 members retiring every 3rd year.
  • Federal Assembly was to have 250 representatives of British India & not more than 125 (33.3%) members of Indian States with normal tenure of 5 years.
• The representatives of the States to the federal legislature were to be appointed directly by the Princes who were to be used to check and counter the nationalists.
• Dyarchy was introduced at the centre,
  • Reserved Subjects included departments of Foreign Affairs , Defence, Internal Security & Ecclesiastical Affairs to be administered by GG through Councillors appointed by him only
  • Transferred Subject were to be administered by Governor General on the advice of popular ministers answerable to Federal Assembly subjected to safeguards
• Federation of India was not intended to be sovereign legislature . It couldn’t amend the Indian Constitution which right remained with British Parliament . Besides, the range of its legislative activities was limited in that it couldn’t enact legislation affecting British suzerainty over India or even armed forces maintained in India.
• Governor General retained power to issue Ordinances

3. Others

• Franchise to be based on Property but increased from 5 million to 30 million
• Separate electorates were extended further to Muslims, Sikhs, Europeans, Indian Christians, Anglo Indians, Sikh Women in Punjab, Mohammedan Women, Indian Christian Women in Madras,  Anglo Indian women in Bengal besides electrodes for Commerce and Industry , Landlord, Labour, University etc
• Transfer of financial control from London to New Delhi, in response to a long-standing demand of the Government of India for fiscal autonomy.
• Secretary of State’s Council was abolished. Not Secretary of State BUT HIS COUNCIL.
• Establishment of Reserve Bank of India (RBI)

Why Britishers gave these concessions

• Hoped that once the Congressmen in office had tasted power and dispensed patronage they would be most reluctant to go back to the politics of sacrifice.

• Reforms could be used to promote dissensions and a split within the demoralized Congress ranks on the basis of constitutionalist vs. non constitutionalist and Right vs. Left. The Left and radical elements, it was hoped, would look  all this as a compromise with imperialism and abandonment of mass politics and would, therefore, become even more strident. Then, either the leftists (radicals) would break away from the Congress or their aggressive anti-Right politics and accent on socialism would lead the right- wing to kick them out. Either way, the Congress would be split and weakened.

• Provincial autonomy, it was further hoped, would create powerful provincial leaders in the Congress who would wield administrative power in their own right, gradually learn to safeguard their administrative prerogatives, and would, therefore, gradually become autonomous centres of political power

• In the Bicameral Central Legislature, members nominated by the princes would constitute 30 to 40 per cent of the seats, thus permanently eliminating the possibility of a Congress majority.

Analysis

• Federal character was seriously distorted by the provisions of safeguards and special responsibility which gave extraordinary powers to the executive head at the Centre and the Provinces. An important point to be noted is that fully responsible government was not introduced at the centre.

• In the provinces, in place of Dyarchy the Act of 1935 provided for responsible government in all the departments. But this was balanced off by wide discretionary powers given to the governors about
  1. Summoning legislatures,
  2. Giving assent to bills and
  3. Administering tribal regions.
  4. Safeguard minority rights, privileges of civil servants and British business interests.

And finally, they could take over and run the administration of a province indefinitely under a special provision.

• The electorate was enlarged to 30 million; but the high property qualifications only enfranchised 10 percent of the Indian population. In rural India, it gave voting right to the rich and middle peasants, as they were presumably the main constituency for Congress politics. So the act, suspects D.A. Low, was a ploy to corrode the support base of the Congress and tie these important classes to the Raj.

• In the bicameral central legislature, members nominated by the princes would constitute 30 to 40 % of the seats, thus permanently eliminating the possibility of a Congress majority.

• Act of 1935 did not mention the granting of dominion status . However much die-hard Conservatives like Winston Churchill might think that the act amounted to Britain’s abdication of empire, his colleagues had consciously chosen the federal structure because, as Carl Bridge has argued, it “would act primarily to protect Britain’s interests rather than hand over control in vital areas”. Its net effect was to divert Congress attention to the provinces, while maintaining strong imperial control at the center.

The Act of 1935 was condemned by nearly all sections of Indian opinion and was unanimously rejected by the Congress. The Congress demanded instead, the convening of a Constituent Assembly elected on the basis of adult franchise to frame a constitution for an independent India.

Why Federation didn’t come to being ?

• The federation scheme ultimately failed because the Princes were reluctant to join it. Their main objection was that the act did not resolve the issue of paramountcy. The Government of India as a paramount power enjoyed the right to intervene in the affairs of their states or even overthrow them if necessary.
• Their other fear was about joining a democratized federal central government, where the elected political leaders of British India would have little sympathy for their autocratic rulers and would provide encouragement to the democratic movements in their territories.
• Furthermore, the larger states did not want to surrender their fiscal autonomy, while the smaller states complained of their inadequate representation in the legislature
• Along with that, Congress and Muslim leaders were also not very much enthusiastic about it. Muslim leaders, first of all, were afraid of Hindu domination and felt that the proposed federal structure was still very unitary. All the representatives of British India to the central legislature were to be elected by the provincial assemblies and this would go against the Muslims who were minorities in all but four provinces. The Congress too did not like the proposed structure of the federation, where one-third of the seats in the federal assembly were to be filled in by the princes, thus tying up the fate of democratic India to the whims of the autocratic dynastic rulers.

Communal Award and Poona Pact

This article deals with ‘ Communal Award and Poona Pact – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

Communal/MacDonald Award

• When Civil Disobedience Movement was going on ,  British PM declared his award in August 1932
• According  to this :
  1. a fixed quota of seats to be elected by Separate Electorate of  Untouchables and to be filled by persons belonging to  the Untouchables; 
  2. double vote, one to be used through separate electorates and the other to be used in  the  General Electorates.
• It means, the depressed classes were given seats which had to be filled by election from the special constituencies in which only they could vote.However, they were eligible to vote in the general constituencies as well.
• Terms of communal award satisfied Muslim  league but left Gandhi in great distress.
• He went unto fast in Yervada jail
• Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya organised a conference of prominent leaders like Dr Ambedkar , Rajindra Prasad ,Rajagopalachari who showed anxiety to save Gandhi .
• Other provisions were women were to be reserved in all states except North West Frontier Province.

Poona Pact

Two groups of Hindus reached a settlement & signed a pact at Poona  called Poona Pact .

Points

• There would be joint electorate for all Hindus & it was decided that Harijan would remain as indivisible part of Hindu community
• 148 seats were allotted to Harijans in Provincial Legislature as against 78 under Mac Donald award
• Adequate representation to depressed classes in local bodies
• Central Legislature : 18% seats to Harijans
• System of reserved seats & primary elections to be terminated after 10 years

Ambedkar  ultimately agreed to it, as the proposed number of such reserved seats  for the depressed classes was increased and a two-tier election system was recommended to ensure proper repre­sentation of such classes.

British government amended Communal Award  & device of Britishers to separate Depressed classes from Hindus failed.

Importance of Poona pact

1. It  is true  that the Poona Pact gave the untouchables 148 seats, while the award had only given them  . But to conclude from  this that the Poona Pact gave them  more than what was given by the Award is to ignore what the Award had in fact given to the Untouchables.  The communal award gave the untouchables two benefits:- (i) a fixed quota of seats to be elected by Separate Electorate of  Untouchables and to be filled by persons belonging to  the Untouchables; (ii)  double vote, one to be used through separate electorates and the other to be used in  the  General Electorates
2. Now, if the Poona Pact increased the fixed quota of seats it also took away the right to do the double vote.

Civil Disobedience Movement

This article deals with ‘ Civil Disobedience Movement  – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

Background

• Anti Simon Movement didn’t immediately become Mass Movement because Gandhi was not convinced that it is appropriate time  & people were not ready for such movement . But now time was reap . People wanted to do some action & Gandhi came to active politics and attended Calcutta Session of December 1928 . He began to consolidate nationalist ranks & reconciled militant left wing under Nehru & Subash
• Lahore Session – announced launching of Civil Disobedience Movement under full leadership of Mahatma Gandhi .
• World Depression during this time led to downfall in prices & hit peasants substantially. Propertied peasant class wanted lowering of taxes from government. 
• Mahatma Gandhi wrote to Viceroy if situation can be saved but discouragement was in store for him . 

11 Point Demand of Gandhi

In March 1930 , Gandhi again addressed Viceroy through English friend Reynolds in letter which went in vain. Demands were 

• Prohibit intoxicant
• Abolish Salt Tax
• Reduce military expenditure
• Accept Postal Reservation bill
• Reserve coastal shipping for Indians
• Impose custom duty on foreign cloth
• Change in ratio between ₹ & £ (1.04 £ instead of 1.06£)
• Reduce rate of land revenue
• Release of political prisoners
• Abolish CID or give its control to citizens
• Issue license of arms to citizens for self protection
• Reduce expenditure on Civil Administration

It was a compromise  formula, which included, according to Sumit Sarkar’s classifcation,

• Six “issues of general interest”, like reduction of military expenditure and civil service salaries, total prohibition, discharge of political prisoners not convicted of murder, reform of the CID and its popu­lar control and changes in the arms act;
• Three “specific bourgeois demands”, like lowering of the rupee-sterling exchange rate to 1 s 4d, protective tarrif  on foreign cloth and reservation of coastal traf­fic  for Indian shipping companies;
• Two “basically peasant themes”, i.e., 50 per cent reduction of land revenue  and its subjec­tion to legislative control  and abolition of salt tax and government.
• Salt monopoly,was a mixed package to appeal to a wide cross­ section of political opinions and unite the Indians once again under one overarching political leadership.

Dandi March

• Started on 12 March 1930 with 78 chosen followers from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi(none was woman) & made salt in violation of salt law. This was  symbol of Indian’s refusal to live under British rules
• Bombay Chronicle wrote, ” in history of national movements this event is most glorious & most important.”

Side Topic : Gandhi openly told Viceroy about his plans of Salt Satyagraha and also said they can arrest me if they think that was right . This can be seen in contrast with Communist Movement of Lenin which work under utmost secrecy. Gandhi didn’t believe in that. Infact , he equated secrecy with violence.

Side Topic : Why Salt?

• 1882 Salt Act gave the British a monopoly on the collection and manufacture of salt, limiting its handling to government salt depots and levying a salt tax.Violation of the Salt Act was a criminal offence. Eventhough salt was freely available to those living on the coast (by evaporation of sea water), Indians were forced to purchase it from the colonial government.
• Initially, Gandhi’s choice of the salt tax was met with incredulity by the Working Committee of the Congress,Jawaharlal Nehru and Dibyalochan Sahoo were ambivalent; Sardar Patel suggested a land revenue boycott instead. The British establishment too was not disturbed by these plans of resistance against the salt tax.
• Gandhi had sound reasons for his decision. The salt tax was a deeply symbolic choice, since salt was used by nearly everyone in India. An item of daily use could resonate more with all classes of citizens than abstract demand for greater political rights.
• The salt tax represented 8.2% of the British Raj tax revenue, and hurt the poorest Indians the most significantly.
• Explaining his choice, Gandhi said, “Next to air and water, salt is perhaps the greatest necessity of life.”
• Gandhi felt that this protest would dramatize Purna Swaraj in a way that was meaningful to the lowliest Indians. He also reasoned that it would build unity between Hindus and Muslims by fighting a wrong that touched them equally.

Programme of the movement was as follows:

1. Salt law should be violated everywhere.
2. Students should leave colleges and government servants should resign from service.
3. Foreign clothes should be burnt.
4. No taxes should be paid to the government.
5. Women should stage a Dharna at liquor shops, etc.

Spread of Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM)

• Reached northern extreme to North Western corner under Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan called frontier Gandhi . He organised pathans under society Khudai Khidmatgars / Red Shirts
• In Peshawar , 2 platoons of Gadhwali soldiers refused to fire . Nationalism begun to penetrate into Army as well
• In Eastern most corner ,  Manipuris took part & in Nagaland  Rani Gaidinliu ,16 years old took part in it &  jailed . She was freed in 1947 when India became free

Side topic – Rani Gaidinliu

• Gaidinliu (1915–1993) was a Naga spiritual and political leader who led a revolt against British rule in India.
• At the age of 14, she joined the Heraka religious movement of her cousin Haipou Jadonang.
• Movement later turned into a political movement seeking to drive out the British from Manipur and the surrounding Naga areas. Within the Heraka cult, she came to be considered an incarnation of the goddess Cherachamdinliu.
• Gaidinliu was arrested in 1932 at the age of 16, and was sentenced to life imprisonment by the British rulers.
• Jawaharlal Nehru met her at Shillong Jail in 1937, and promised to pursue her release. Nehru gave her the title of “Rani”, and she gained local popularity as Rani Gaidinliu.She was released in 1947 after India’s independence, and continued to work for the upliftment of her people.
• An advocate of the ancestral Naga religious practices, she staunchly resisted the conversion of Nagas to Christianity. She was honoured as a freedom fighter and was awarded a Padma Bhushan by the Government of India

Methods adopted

1 . Salt Satyagraha

• Gandhi in Dandi
• C Rajagopalachari in Madras province
• In Dharsana , planned to be done by Gandhi but he was arrested . Sarojini Naidu, Imam sahib(Gandhi’s associate ) & Manilal (gandhi’s son) did that with 2000 volunteers & was non violent with police lathi charging them but they responded nothing . Injured comrades carried on stretchers & other column making way to take place . Widely reported by US reporter Webb Miller
• Wadala suburb 
• Balasor & Puri District of Odisha
• Midnapore in coastal Bengal 
• It was just a catalyst & beginning for rich variety of defiance

2. Boycott of foreign cloth & liquor

• Vigorous boycott of foreign cloth and liquor shops and had especially asked the women to play a leading role in this movement. Along with the women, students and youth played the most prominent part in the boycott of foreign cloth and liquor
• Traders’ associations and commercial bodies were themselves quite active in implementing  boycott, as were the many mill owners who refused to use foreign yarn and pledged not to manufacture coarse cloth that competed with khadi.
• Liquor boycott brought Government revenues from excise duties crashing down

3. Chawkidari Tax

• In Eastern India , there was refusal to pay the Chowkidari tax.
• Chowkidars, paid out of the tax levied specially on the villages, were guards who supplemented the small police force in the rural areas in this region. They were particularly hated because they acted as spies for the Government and often also as retainers for the local landlords.
• Widely took place first in Bihar
• In Bengal , with onset of monsoon it was difficult to make salt . Hence movement shifted to anti- Chawkidari tax

4. No Land Tax

• In Kheda district, Bardoli taluqa in Surat district, and in Jambusar in Broach, a determined no-tax movement was in progress — the tax refused here was the land revenue.
• Villagers in  thousands, with family, cattle and household goods, crossed the border from British India into the neighbouring princely states such as Baroda and camped for months together in the open fields. Their houses were broken into, their belongings destroyed, their lands confiscated

5. No Revenue – No Rent

• In UP
• No-revenue part was a call to the zamindars to refuse to pay revenue to the Government, the no- rent a call to the tenants not to pay rent to the zamindars. In effect, since the zamindars were largely loyal to the Government, this became a no-rent struggle

6. Prabat pheris

• Bands of men, women and children went around at dawn singing nationalist songs, became the rule in villages and towns.

7. Patrikas

• Illegal news-sheets, sometimes written by hand and sometimes printed , were part of the strategy to defy the hated Press Act, and they flooded the country.

8. Vanar & Manjari Sena

• Children were organized into vanar senas or monkey armies and at least at one place the girls decided they wanted their own separate manjari sena or cat army!

Gandhi Irwin Pact

Background

• 1930 : British Government summoned first Round Table Conference (RTC) to discuss Simon Commission Report but Congress boycotted . That proved to be abortive
• For a conference on Indian affairs without Congress was like staging Ramlila without Rama & government now tried to negotiate agreement with congress so that it would attend RTC
• On 26 Jan 1931 , Gandhi with other members of Congress working committee were released . Negotiations for settlement began &  Gandhi Irwin Pact was signed by Gandhi on behalf of Congress & Lord Irwin on behalf of British government 
• Importance – placed Congress on equal footing with Government

Side Topic : First Round Table Conference (RTC)

• Before Simon Commission had submitted report, Torries fell and Labour Government came in Britain. They showed intention to make Constitutional changes after ascertaining views of all shades and called for RTC.
• But when First RTC held, Congress was deeply involved in Civil Disobedience Movement . Government was well aware that without taking Congress on board these negotiations would not yield anything
• Congress placed some conditions for attending RTC and prominent was

Recognition of India’s right to secede at will and grant of fully responsible government both at Central and Provincial levels

This wasn’t  acceptable to government and they proceeded without Congress

• First Round Table Conference (RTC) was held in Nov 1930 – 89 Persons participated in it
  • 16 from British Political Parties
  • 58 various Indian Political Parties

MR Jayakar	Hindu Mahasabha
TB Sapru	Liberals
Agha Khan , Shafi , Fazlul Haq ,  Jinnah	Muslims
Ambedkar	Depressed Classes
KT Paul	Christians
Members representing interests of Princely States

• Despite all its handicaps , it did arrive at two important things
  • It recommended the formation of an All India Federation of British Indian Provinces & Indian States.
  • It also proposed to establish a responsible government at the centre with certain safeguards for the transitional period. However, to the disappointment of the nationalists, the period of transition was not clearly specified.

Outcomes of Pact

• Struggle was provisionally suspended
• Disobedience prisoners were to be released (but relatively little attempt seems to have been made for saving the life of Bhagat Singh)
• Remission of all fines not yet collected
• Return of confiscated lands not yet sold to third parties
• Lenient  treatment for those government employees who had resigned
• Government also conceded the right to make salt for consumption to villages along the coast
• Right  to peaceful and non-aggressive picketing
• Congress demand for a public inquiry into police excesses was not accepted, but Gandhis insistent request for an inquiry was recorded in the agreement.
• Gandhi agreed to participate in RTC on three principles
  1. Establishment  of Federation  of India
  2. Establishment of responsible government
  3. Certain safeguards for British Government which would get due place in future constitution of India

• But why Gandhi signed Pact is mystery. There is some evidence that the crucial role was played by business pressures. A surcharge of 5% had been imposed on cotton piecegoods imports in early February, despite some Cabinet opposition and loud protests from depression affected Lancashire obviously on political grounds. Purshottamdas went to see Gandhi at Allahabad in order to try to put commercial pressure on him. Thakurdas was in Delhi during the negotiation

Yusuf Meher Ali, soon to become a prominent Socialist leader, denounced unequivocally ‘the politics of compromise’ and ‘change of heart’, and bitterly attacked ‘the Birlas, Purshottamdas Thakurdas’, Walchand Hirachands, Husainbhai Laljis, who are now out and busy in making efforts to obtain the fruits of the suffering and sacrifices of others’.

Negative Impact- Peasants took it as betrayal because neither there was any promise of tax reduction nor their confiscated land was returned. The pact, rather than police lathis, broke the morale of the Peasants

Achievements of first phase

• The vast mass of the people were undoubtedly impressed that the mighty British Government had  to treat their movement and their leader as an equal and sign a pact with him. They saw this as a recognition of their own strength, and as their victory over the Government. Thousands who flocked out of the jails as a result of the pact were treated as soldiers returning from a victorious battle and not as prisoners of war returning from a humiliating defeat. They knew that a truce was not a surrender, and that the battle could be joined again, if the enemy so wanted.
• Marked a critically important stage in the progress of the anti-imperialist struggle. The number of people who went to jail was estimated at over 90,000 — more than three times the figure for the Non Cooperation Movement of 1920- 22.
• Imports of cloth from Britain had fallen by half; other imports like cigarettes had suffered a similar fate.
• Government income from liquor excise and land revenue had been affected. Elections to the Legislative Assembly had been effectively boycotted. A vast variety of social groups had been politicized on the side of Indian nationalism
• The participation of Muslims in the Civil Disobedience Movement was certainly nowhere near that in 1920-22. The appeals of communal leaders to stay away, combined with active Government encouragement of communal dissension to counter the forces of nationalism, had their effect. Still, the participation of Muslims was not insignificant, either. Their participation in the North-West Frontier Province was, as is well known, overwhelming.
• Support that the movement had garnered from the poor and illiterate, both in town and in the country, was remarkable indeed.
• For Indian women, the movement was the most liberating experience to date and can truly be said to have marked their entry into the public space

Karachi Congress of 1931

Congress met in Karachi on 29 March 1931 ie 6 days after Bhagat Singh , Rajguru & Sukhdev have been executed . All  along route , Gandhi was greeted with black flags .

Main resolutions passed at Karachi Session of 1931

1 . About Bhagat Singh’s death

• Drafted by Gandhi by which it, ‘while dissociating itself from and disapproving of political violence in any shape or form,’ admired ‘the bravery and sacrifice’ of the three martyrs.’

2. About Delhi Pact(Gandhi Irwin pact)

• Congress endorsed the Delhi Pact and reiterated the goal of Poorna Swaraj

3. About Fundamental Rights

Eventhough the Congress had from its inception fought for the economic interests, civil liberties and political rights of the people, this was the first time that the Congress defined what Swaraj would mean for the masses. 

• Guaranteed the basic civil rights of free speech, free press, free assembly, and freedom of association; equality before the law irrespective of caste, creed or sex; neutrality of the state in regard to all religions
• Elections on the basis of universal adult franchise
• Free  and compulsory primary education.
• Substantial  reduction in rent and revenue, exemption from rent in case of uneconomic holdings, and relief of agricultural indebtedness and control of usury
• Better conditions for workers including a living wage, limited hours of work and protection of women workers; the right to organise and form unions to workers and peasants
• State  ownership & control of key industries, mines and means of transport.
• The culture, language and script of the minorities and of the different linguistic areas shall be protected.

The Karachi resolution was to remain in essence the basic political and economic programme of the Congress in later years.

Resolution on fundamental rights and economic policy  has often been interpreted as a major concession to placate the Left. It is true that some officials suspected in it the hand of M.N. Roy . But there was in reality precious little of ‘socialism’ in the 20-points of the Karachi Resolution, which combined general democratic demands (civil liberties, legal equality, adult suffrage, free primary education, and a state policy of religious neutrality) with much of Gandhi’s 11-points of 1930, plus fairly   modest promises to labour (living wages, an end to forced labour, trade union rights, etc.), a vaguely worded clause about control by the state of key industries and mineral resources, and a very moderate programme indeed of agrarian change. Only ‘substantial reductions’ were promised in land revenue and rent, there was no reference to the burning issue of rural indebtedness, and obviously no intention at all of eliminating landlordism or redistributing land. 

Second Round Table Conference (RTC)

• Held in London but nothing much was expected
• In the intervening period the situation had  undergone a change. On 26 August 1931 , MacDonald’s Labour Cabinet resigned and a new coalition government dominated by the Conservatives was formed under him. Wellingdon succeeded Lord Irwin in Delhi in April 1931. Sir Samuel Hoare a leading conservative became Secretary of State for India.
• Overwhelming majority of Indian delegates to RTC, hand-picked by the Government, were loyalists, communalists, careerists, and place-hunters, big landlords and representatives of the princes. They were used by the Government to claim that the Congress did not represent the interests of all Indians
• The Second Session ended on 1 December, 1931 and made recommendations on the matters such as:
  1. Composition of the Indian Federation
  2. Structure of the Federal Judiciary
  3. Mode of accession of States to the Federation
  4. Distribution of Financial Resources.

These were same as had been suggested earlier by the Nehru Committee Report. The proceedings of the conference were bogged down by the communal issues. 

• British Government refused to concede the basic Indian demands.  Gandhi came back at the end of December 1931 to a changed political situation.
• Delhi Pact  had raised the political prestige of the Congress and the political morale of the people and undermined and lowered British prestige. New Viceroy believed that the Government had made a major error in negotiating and signing a truce with the Congress, as if between two equal powers. They were now determined to reverse it all.

British Policy after 2nd Round Table Conference

British policy was now dominated by three major considerations

• Gandhi must not be permitted to build up the tempo for a massive mass movement, as he had done in 1920-1 & 1930
• The Government felt that  functionaries — village officials, police and higher bureaucrats — and the loyalists — ‘our friends’ — must not feel disheartened that Gandhi was being ‘resurrected as a rival authority to the Government of India,’ and that the Government was losing the will to rule.
• Nationalist movement must not be permitted to gather force & consolidate itself in rural areas

Gandhi came back & crushing of movement

• While Gandhi was in London, Government prepared secret plans for coming showdown & decided to launch hard & immediate blow against any rival movement at very outset.
• JL Nehru was arrested in UP, Abdul Gaffar Khan was arrested in NWFP & in Bengal government was ruling thru draconian ordinances .  Whole state was converted into Civil Martial Law . Within week, leading Congressmen were behind jails &  80,000 satyagrahis were jailed
• The non-violent movement was met by relentless repression. The Congress and its allied organizations were declared illegal and their offices and funds seized. Nearly all  Gandhi Ashrams were occupied by the police.
• Peaceful picketers, Satyagrahis  were lathi-charged, beaten and often awarded rigorous imprisonment and heavy fines, which were realised by selling their lands and property at throw away prices. Prisoners in jail were barbarously treated.
• No-tax campaigns in different parts of rural India were treated with great severity. Lands, houses, cattle, agricultural implements, and other property were freely confiscated.
• Wrath of the Government fell with particular harshness on women. Conditions in jails were made extraordinarily severe with the idea of scaring away women from the Satyagraha.
• The freedom of the Press to report or comment on the movement, or even to print pictures of national leaders or Satyagrahis, was curtailed. Within the first six months of 1932, action was taken against 109 journalists. Nationalist literature — poems, stories and novels — was banned on a large scale.

End of Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM)

• In 1933 ,Gandhi confessed failure of movement & resigned his membership of congress & confined his work to upliftment of Harijans . Harijan upliftment became his principle concern . He started All India Anti Untouchability League in Sept 1932 & weekly Harijan in Jan 1933 even before his release . He went out on Harijan tours between Nov 1933 & Aug 1934
• Gandhi personally decided to abstain from it after his final release from jail in April 1933  . It was suspended temporarily in June 1933 &  was finally withdrawn in April 1934

If the colonial policy of negotiations by Irwin had failed earlier, so had the policy of ruthless suppression by Willingdon. People had been cowed down by superior force; they had not lost faith in the Congress. Although the movement from 1930 to 1934 had not achieved independence and had been temporarily crushed, the Indian people had been further transformed. The will to fight had been further strengthened; faith in British rule had been completely shattered

Civil Disobedience Movement versus Non Cooperation Movement

Feature	CDM	NCM
Objective	Complete independence	Swaraj and redressal of two issues
Methods	Non cooperation and violation of unjust laws	Only non cooperation
Govt reaction	Ruthless repression	Moderate repression
Participation
1 Muslims	Low (only under frontier Gandhi)	Huge on account of the khilafat issue
2 Women	High	Marginal
3 Lawyers & students	Low	High
4 businessmen	More	Less
5 Peasant	Less	More
Imprisonments	3 times than in NCM
Level of control	Was there but some violence seen in Sholapur	Very controlled
Outcome	Communal Award	– Revolutionary Activities – Swarajist Party

Simon Commission / Indian Statutory Commission(1927-29)

This article deals with ‘ Simon Commission  – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

Background

• Govt of India Act,1919 had provision that further constitutional changes were to be considered within 10 yrs but since 1919, Indian leaders were demanding early consideration . British government remained adamant that they will consider anything after 10 years
• 1927: Conservative Party was expecting their defeat in elections & they didn’t want to leave this important matter in hands of Labour government . They appointed Statutory Commission to Report working of Act of 1919 with view to modify or amend it

Other Reasons

• At this time, Communal situation in India was at its ebb. Tory government wanted to send Commission at this time to give expression that India wasn’t yet ready to govern themselves
• Result of activities of Swarajist Party and youth activities led by Nehru and Bose which made real nature of Govt of India Act 1919 public

Boycott of Simon Commission

• 7 member All White Commission under Sir Simon
• Note – One of its members was Clement Attlee, who subsequently became the British Prime Minister and eventually oversaw the granting of independence to India and Pakistan in 1947
• Commission was to decide whether Indians were fit to govern themselves & nothing referred wrt Swaraj.
• Indians considered it as insult that no Indian is considered fit enough to decide political future of India

Hence , All parties boycotted the commission

(Note : Muslim League led by  Shafi, Justice Party of madras ,  Unionist Party of Punjab, central Sikh Sangh & All India Achut Federation didn’t boycott)

British government gave following reasons for not taking any Indian Member

• Since  committee had to report its proceedings to  British Parliament so it was justified to appoint British members only. Argument don’t hold weight because there were two Indian Members of British Parliament- Lord Sinha and Mr. Saklatwala.
• As there was no unanimity of Indian opinion on the problem of Constitutional development, it was not possible to appoint any Indian as its member.
• Actually Birkenhead was afraid that in a mixed commission, there could be an alliance between the Indian and British Labour representatives.
• Irwin declared that Indians had been excluded from the membership of Commission because they could not give an accurate picture of their capacity to govern to the Parliament and their judgement was bound to be coloured.

Methods used in Anti-Simon Protests

• Congress session in Madras (December 1927) meeting under the Presidency of M.A. Ansari decided to boycott the commission “at every stage and in every form”.
• Congress converted boycott into popular movement
• It temporarily united different groups in India . Different  parties were trying to lay common political program

Bombay	– Hartal in whole city when Simon commission landed here ( 3Feb1928) – Rallies , processions & black flag demonstrations
Madras	T Parkasam  led processions
Punjab	Huge demonstrations
Other places	Lucknow (kites flown with Simon go back on it) , Vijaywada, Poona, Calcutta – wherever they went welcomed with black flag & Slogans of Simon go back

Government Repression

• Tried to suppress with heavy hand . There were lathi charges & brutal beating

Lahore	Lala Lajpat Rai was beaten by police & succumbed to death . Bhagat Singh & comrades avenged his death
Lucknow	Jawahar lal Nehru &  Govind Ballab Pant  beaten up

• Revived Revolutionary Activities in some parts  (especially Bengal & Punjab) 

Birkenhead challenge & Nehru Report 1928

Lord Birkenhead, the Conservative Secretary of State responsible for the appointment of the Simon Commission, had constantly harped on the inability of Indians to formulate a concrete scheme of Constitutional Reforms which had the support of wide sections of Indian political opinion. This challenge was taken up and meetings of the All-Parties Conference were held to finalise a scheme which popularly came to be known as the Nehru Report after Motilal Nehru.

Main Provisions of Nehru Committee Report

• Same constitutional status to India wrt Self Government as enjoyed by Canada, Australia  & its Parliament should have power to make laws & should be known as Commonwealth of India
• Constitution should include Declaration of Rights guaranteeing Freedom of Conscience & Free profession & practice of religion
• There would be no state religion & state shouldn’t directly or indirectly endow to any religion
• Constitution would define Citizenship
• NWFP & Sind (to be separated from Bombay) would have same constitutional status as other provinces
• Abolition of separate electorates & instead of that reservation of seats for Muslims at center & also in provinces having Muslims in minority
• Princely states to  transfer exercise of Paramountcy from Governor General to Govt of India & conflicts between Commonwealth of India & Princely states to be decided by Supreme Court
• Governor General would be Kings representative who would act on advice of Executive Council & similar arrangement in Provinces where Governor would be representative of Govt of India
• Hierarchy of Courts with Supreme Court at its apex
• Nehru Report contained virtually no federal features although committee conferred the establishment of a federal constitution . But it didn’t take concrete steps for its establishment
• Residuary subjects with Centre ( like in Govt of India Act 1919)
• Later  more proposals added – Communal Representation was to be reconsidered after ten years

Nehru Report as a reversal of Lucknow pact:

• Reservation of seats for Muslims only in Provinces where they were a minority 
• Proposed to abolish the Separate Electorate and discard the reservation of seats for Muslim majorities in Punjab and Bengal
• This was the reversal of Lucknow pact

Reactions & response to Nehru Report

1 . Within Congress

• Opposition from young group led by JL Nehru & Bose for acceptance of Swaraj & not Poorna Swaraj as goal
• Compromise reached at Calcutta Session of 1928 .  Either British government accept  Nehru Report in its entirety in one year else their demand will shift to Poorna Swaraj & they will start Civil Disobedience Movement for its achievement.
• Note – Already in August 1928, the “Independence of India League” was formed with Jawahar Lal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose as Secretaries and S. Srinivasa Iyengar as President for the cause of Poorna Swaraj

2. Muslim League

• At the All Parties Conference held at Calcutta in December 1928 to consider the Nehru Report, Jinnah, on behalf of the Muslim League, proposed three amendments to the report:
  • 1/3rd representation to Muslims in the Central Legislature
  • Reservation to Muslims in Bengal and Punjab legislatures proportionate to their population, till adult suffrage was established
  • Residual powers to Provinces.
• This wasn’t accepted & he joined group led by Aga Khan & Mohammad Shafi . 1928 breakdown did contribute considerably to the aloofness and positive hostility of most Muslim leaders towards Civil Disobedience two years later. Hence, Hindu – Muslim Unity atleast of Elites of both Religion was lost.

3. Hindu Mahasabha

• They also rejected Report on communal basis

4.  British Government

Outrightly rejected by British government because

• Not made after taking permission from the Government
• Even not accepted  by all parties at All Party conference . Hence, donot represent all people

Jinnah’s 14 Points

• March 1929 : Jinnah gave 14 points which were to become the basis of all future propaganda of Muslim League
  • Federal Constitution with Residual Powers to Provinces.
  • Provincial autonomy.
  • No Constitutional Amendment by the Centre without the concurrence of the states constituting the Indian federation.
  • All legislatures and elected bodies to have adequate representation of Muslims in every province without reducing a majority of Muslims in a province to a minority or equality.
  • Adequate representation to Muslims in the services and in self-governing bodies.
  • One-third Muslim representation in the Central Legislature.
  • In any cabinet at the Centre or in the Provinces, one- third to be Muslims.
  • Separate electorates.
  • No bill or resolution in any Legislature to be passed if three-fourths of a minority community considers such a bill or resolution to be against their interests.
  • Any territorial redistribution not to affect the Muslim majority in Punjab, Bengal and NWFP.
  • Separation of Sindh from Bombay.
  • Constitutional reforms in the NWFP and Baluchistan.
  • Full religious freedom to all communities.
  • Protection of Muslim rights in religion, culture, education and language.

Differences between Nehru Report & Simon Commission Report

Simon Commission	Nehru Report
Appointed by British Government	Appointed by all major parties of India
All members were English	All members were Indians
No mention of idea of Self Government	Contained its imminent application
Executive was to remain supreme & independent of legislative control	Executive was to be responsible to legislature both at centre & provinces
Separate electorate for minorities	Rejected separate electorate & instead proposed reservation of seats for muslims
No provisions regarding Fundamental Rights	Provisions regarding Fundamental Rights were there
No provision regarding reducing Governor General power	Governor General reduced to constitutional head with no real power
No provision of Adult franchise	Present

Delhi Manifesto

• June 1929, a Labour Government headed by Ramsay MacDonald took power in Britain and Lord Irwin, the Viceroy, was called to London for consultations.
• Oct 1929 : Lord Irwin’s Declaration that government intends to draw a new constitution after asserting various shades of Indian political opinion at Round Table Conference to be held in London
• Two days later, a conference of major national leaders met and issued what came to be known as the Delhi Manifesto, in which they demanded that it should be made clear that the purpose of the Round Table Conference was not to discuss when Dominion Status should be granted, but to formulate a scheme for its implementation.
• Later Irwin told Gandhi personally that he was not in position to give any assurance they are demanding

Lahore Session , 1929 & Moving toward Poorna Swaraj

• Honour of hosting what was, perhaps, the most memorable of the Congress annual sessions went to Lahore, the capital city of Punjab, and the honour of declaring ‘Purna Swaraj’ as the only honourable goal Indians could strive for went to the man who had done more than any other to popularize the idea — Jawaharlal Nehru.
• Jawaharlal Nehru’s Presidential Address was a stirring call to action: ‘We have now an open conspiracy to free this country from foreign rule and you, comrades, and all our countrymen and countrywomen are invited to join it.‘
• On the banks of the river Ravi, at midnight on 31 December 1929, the tricolour flag of Indian independence was unfurled amid cheers and jubilation. Amid the excitement, there was also a grim resolve, for the year to follow was to be one of hard struggle.
• It was on 26 January 1930 , public meetings were to be held at which the Independence Pledge would be read out and collectively affirmed. This programme was a huge success, and in villages and towns, at small meetings and large ones, the pledge was read out in the local language and the national flag was hoisted

Revolutionary Movements (Phase 2)

This article deals with ‘ Revolutionary Movements (Phase 2) – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

Rise of Second Phase of Revolutionary Movement

• Most of Revolutionary Terrorists were jailed during WWI but in order to create more harmonious atmosphere for Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms government released most of them under general amnesty
• When Non Cooperation Movement (NCM) was launched, on the request of Gandhi & CR Das they stopped their activities in order to participate in it & give it a chance . But sudden suspension of NCM shattered their hopes & they began to look for alternatives .
• Many were drawn to idea that violent method alone can make India free . Two strands of revolutionary terrorism developed
  • One in Punjab, U.P. & Bihar
  • Other in Bengal

Influence on these groups

Apart from getting rid of Britishers , two things influenced these groups

1. Upsurge of working class trade unionism after the War. They could see the revolutionary potential of the new class and desired to harness it to the nationalist revolution.
2. Russian Revolution and the success of the young Socialist State in consolidating itself.

Hindustan Republican Association (HRA)

• Founded in October 1924 by  Ram Parsad Bismil, Jogesh Chandra  Chaterjee & Sachin Sanyal at Kanpur
• To organize armed revolution to overthrow colonial rule and establish in its place a Federal Republic of the United States of India whose basic principle would be adult franchise.
• To finance their activities and with objective of propaganda ,they decided to organise dacoities . Most important action of HRA was Kakori Robbery in 1925. 10 men held 8 Down train at Kakori(village near Lucknow) carrying official railway cash
• Government reaction was quick and hard. It arrested a large number of young men and tried them in the Kakori Conspiracy Case. Ashfaqulla Khan, Ramprasad Bismil, Roshan Singh and Rajendra Lahiri were hanged, four others were sent to the Andamans for life & 17 others were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment. Chandrashekhar Azad remained at large.

HSRA: Hindustan  Socialist  Republican ASSOCIATION

• After Kakori Conspiracy case ,revolutionary ranks were decimated . But soon new batch of young men from Punjab & UP who also came under influence of socialism met at Pherozshah Kotla on 9 Sept 1928 & reorganised HRA as HSRA
• Founders were Bhagat Singh, Bhatukeshwar Dutt, Sukhdev etc.

Activities

1 . Saunders murder or Lahore conspiracy case,December 1928

• HSRA was rapidly moving away from individual heroic action and assassination and towards mass politics. Lala Lajpat Rai’s death, as the result of a brutal lathi-charge when he was leading an anti-Simon Commission demonstration at Lahore on 30 October 1928, led them once again to take to individual assassination
• He was killed by Bhagat Singh ,Azad and Raj Guru
• They justified their act through poster saying that murder of a leader respected by millions at unworthy hands of ordinary police official was insult on nation

Note : They wanted to kill Scott

2. Bomb in central legislative assembly, April 1929

• HSRA decided to let people know about its changed objectives & need of revolution by masses .
• Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw bomb in central assembly to create awareness among people against passage of the Public Safety Bill and the Trade Disputes Bill (to strike hard Communist Lockdowns during Depression ) which would reduce the civil liberties of citizens in general and workers in particular.
• The aim was not to kill, for the bombs were relatively harmless, but, as the leaflet they threw into the Assembly hail proclaimed, ‘to make the deaf hear’ & to get arrested & use trial court as forum for propaganda

3. Assembly Bomb Case

• Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt were tried in the Assembly Bomb Case. Then the police was able to uncover the details of Saunders assassination and Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Rajguru, and several others were tried in the Lahore Conspiracy case.
• Bhagat Singh and his comrades turned the court into a forum of propaganda.
• Their statements were published in the newspapers and widely discussed by the people. Their defiant and courageous conduct in the court won them the admiration of the people. Even believers in non-violence loved them for their patriotism.

4. Activity in the jail

• Nearly 100 revolutionaries arrested from HSRA fought for treatment as political prisoners by keeping fast . Jatin Das died on 64th day of his fast
• Bhagat Singh,  Sukhdev & Raj Guru were hung on 23/03/1931 as capital punishment for Lahore conspiracy case
• As news of their hanging spread , a death like silence engulfed the entire nation . Bhagat Singh soon became a  legend in the country with popularity rivalling that of Gandhi

5. Viceroy bomb case

• Azad was involved in attempt to blow train in which viceroy Irwin was travelling
• He killed himself in a park in Allahabad in February 1931 to avoid arrest by police

Ideological Development of North Indian Revolutionaries

HRA

• 1925 Manifesto  had set forth its objective ie establishment of Federal Republic of United States of India by an organised & armed revolution
• Basic principle of  republic would be Universal Adult Suffrage & abolition of all systems that make exploitation of man by man possible
• It advocated nationalisation of railways & large scale industries such as steel, ship building & mines

Bhagat Singh & HSRA

• Major shift – All revolutionaries of HSRA turned to Socialism & Marxism & this shift is epitomised by life & thoughts of Bhagat Singh (through his letters, statements & writings)

Bhagat Singh

Life of Bhagat Singh

• Born in 1907  in a patriotic family , son of Congressman & nephew of famous revolutionary Ajit Singh
• Was deeply influenced  by Ghadar hero, Kartar Singh Sarabha
• Was a voracious reader and had read extensive literature on Socialism, the Soviet Union and revolutionary movements the world over. At Lahore he and Sukhdev organized study circles for young students (This devotion to intensive reading was also true of other leaders such as Bejoy Sinha, Yashpal, Shiv Varma and Bhagwati Charan Vohra. Chandrashekhar Azad knew little English; but he too fully participated in political discussions and followed all major turn in the field of ideas )

Foundation of Naujawan Bharat Sabha (NBS   1926)

• Already before his arrest in 1929 ,he had abandoned his faith in terrorism & individual heroic action. He had come to believe that broad popular mass movements alone could liberate India & mankind from servitude
• For this he made NBS in 1926 to carry out political work among youth, peasants &’workers

• Bhagat Singh never identified revolution with the cult of the bomb . This was the  only reason they threw a relatively harmless bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly in 1929.Their strategy was to get arrested and then turn the courts into arenas for the propagation of their ideas.

He changed meaning & method of revolution

• Method : revolution can be achieved by  arousing the masses and organizing a mass movement. Just before his execution, Bhagat Singh declared that “the real revolutionary armies are in the villages and in factories“.
• Meaning : Revolution was no longer equated with mere militancy or violence. Its first objective was national liberation and then the building of a new socialist society (a society in which there is no exploitation of man by man & of nation by nation )
• Philosophy of Bomb (written by BC Vohra,Azad & Yashpal)  also favoured above definition of revolution

Bhagat Singh defined socialism in scientific manner . It meant abolition of capitalism & class domination . He fully accepted Marxism & class approach to society

• Bhagat Singh was the first leader who understood full dangers of communalism . According  to him Communalism was big danger than colonialism & even criticised Lala Lajpat Rai when he took communal politics after 1924 . People must free themselves from mental bondage of religion & considered religion as a matter of personal belief of man . He wrote Why am a Atheist in which he said any man who stands for progress has to challenge every item of old faith .

• His relevance in present times : Communalism, student politics,  inequality, scientific approach.

Revolutionary Terrorism in Bengal

• Began reorganizing after 1922 & started their underground activities but continued to work in Congress at same time because it provided them access to masses
• Problems – Congress divided in Bengal after CR Das’s death into SC Bose & JM Sengupta . Yugantar joined forces with Bose wing & Anushilan Samiti with Sengupta.  Hence there was always factionalism of Yugantar vs Anushilan  (YvsA)
• By 1924, they  understood utter inadequacy of individual heroic action & accepted the strategy of national liberation through armed seizure of power by mass uprisings. But, in practice, they still relied upon small scale ‘actions’, in particular dacoities and assassination of officials.
• 1 March 1924 : Gopinath Saha made an unsuccessful assassination attempt on  Commissioner of Calcutta & was hanged . This started large scale repression & put large number of revolutionaries in jails including Bose who was released in 1926
• From 1926  because of YvsA rivalry , new groups came up called REVOLT GROUPS  mainly of new revolutionaries who were fed up of old revolutionary leaders

Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930)

• Main leader was Surya Sen
  • Active participant of NCM
  • Became teacher in Nationalist School in Chittagong & commonly known as Masterda
  • Arrested in 1926 & released in 1928 . In 1929 became Secretary of Chittagong District Congress
• Soon gathered gang of youth revolutionaries & formed a plan to organise an armed rebellion on small scale to demonstrate that British rule could be challenged . To equip adequately they planned to raid several districts . First such raid in Chittagong
• Carefully prepared plan – occupied two armouries + cut telephone & telegraph + damaged railway lines connecting Chittagong with Calcutta
• First band captured Police Armoury & other captured Auxiliary Force Armoury . Raid was on name of Indian Republican Army , Chittagong Branch . Then they gathered outside police station pulled down Union Jack & raised Indian flag . Surya Sen was declared President of Provisional Revolutionary  Government
• They knew cant face troops directly &  started guerrilla war . Surya Sen was captured after 3 years because of local support in 1933 . He was tried & hanged

Points to notice about Revolt Groups

• Extremely secular (although earlier  werent  communal too but their ideology was tinged with hindu religiosity).  Many groups now included Muslims
• Large scale participation of women ( Kalpana Datta & Pritilata Waddedar in Surya group)
• Led to major revival of revolutionary activity after this . In Midnapore, 4 Magistrates were assassinated + 2 IGs assassinated + life attempt on 2 Governors + Bina Das assassinated Governor while receiving degree at Convocation in 1932

But

Unlike Bhagat Singh & his comrades, Bengal Revolutionaries failed to evolve a broader radical Socio-Economic programme

Decline of Revolutionary Terrorism

• Declined in the 1930s
• Most important reason was national movement opposed to violence & terrorism even when its leaders admired the heroism of its youthful practitioners and defended them in the courts and condemned the police repression directed against them.
• With death of Azad in encounter in Allahabad on 27 Feb 1931 came to end in North India & with capture & hanging  of Surya Sen in Bengal

Significance

• Set rare examples of death defying heroism in cause of complete independence . Their desperate deeds won them a lasting place and they became popular among  their compatriots
• Brought new ideology of socialist thought in India
• Large number of them turned to Marxism as Bhagat Singh and many of his comrades had already done in the 1920s. Many joined the Communist Party, the Congress Socialist Party, the Revolutionary Socialist Party and other left parties and groups. Others joined the Gandhian wing of the Congress.

Bardoli Satyagraha

This article deals with ‘ Bardoli Satyagraha – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

Introduction

Held in 1928 in Gujarat led by Vallabhbhai Patel, making Patel  one of the main leaders of the independence movement. 

Events that led to the Bardoli Satyagraha

• In 1925, the Taluka of Bardoli in Gujarat suffered from floods and famine, but government of the Bombay Presidency raised the tax rate by 30%  that year,
• Despite petitions from civic groups,Government refused to cancel the rise in the face of the calamities

Satyagraha

• Due to this, Bardoli Peasants decided to organize a campaign. Patel accepted Presidency of Peasants
• Gandhi also supported this movement through his writings in Young India and 2 visits although he was not directly involved  .
• Satyagraha was started by taking oath on respective gods . Those who refused to sign were subjected to social boycott
• Campaign included
  1. Non payment of taxes
  2. non-cooperation
  3. submission to arrest
  4. resignation of offices.
  5. economic boycott by refusing to supply officials and other members of the opposition with non-essential goods and services.
  6. For an official to receive any services in the Taluka, he had to have the permission of the Satyagraha headquarters, which was particularly alarming to the government.

Response of Government and Final Settlement

• Government issued final notices urging the peasants to pay the assessment or suffer forfeiture of land. The peasants refused to comply with these notices. 
• Government of Bombay became stern and took all repres­sive measures such as attachment of land, and crops, and confiscation of cattle and other movable property.

• In response, K.M. Munshi and Lalji Naranji resigned from the Bombay Legislative Council .This was followed by Vitthalbhai Patel’s threat to resign who was Presi­dent of the Bombay Legislative Council. The pressure of the Legislative Assembly was so strong that the government was obliged to take a soft stand against the movement
• Workers in Bombay textile mills went on strike and there was a threat to bring about a railway strike that would make movement of troops and supplies to Bardoli impossible.
•  Even the flames of Bardoli had reached to Punjab and many jathas of peasants were despatched to Bardoli.
• British government had high stakes in the Bardoli agitation. The Simon Commission was about to come in India and the Congress declared that it would have nation-wide boycott of the Si­mon Commission. Looking to the national importance of Bardoli , British government took a soft-line. Vallabhbhai Patel was contacted and some kind of agreement was struck.
• An enquiry committee was constituted by the government un­der the Broomfield and Maxwell (Broomfield Maxwell Commission). Committee suggested reducing the en­hancement of land tax from earlier 30% to 6% .

Note – There was social upliftment of Kaliparaj caste– who worked as landless laborers (Patidars tilled their land with traditional debt-serfs, who were Dubla tribals known as Kaliparaj (‘black people’), and who constituted 50% of the population of Bardoli. The Kaliparaj were extremely backward and were praised by Gandhi’s secretary Mahadeb Desai in his Story of Bardoli (1929) as most ‘innocuous and guileless’ and ‘law-abiding’. Kaliparaj bonded labourer was assured of a minimum of food and clothing by the Patidar, and the realities of exploitation were somewhat veiled by an element of traditional mutuality. In movement ,  Kaliparaj on the whole rejected the bait of land on easy terms being offered by government officials.

Swarajist Party

This article deals with ‘ Swarajist Party  – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

Introduction

• Non Cooperation Movement (NCM) ended in Feb 1922 . Gandhi arrested & sentenced for 6 years imprisonment for spreading disaffection against Government
• This resulted in spread of disintegration, disorganisation & demoralisation in nationalist ranks
• What congress was facing at this moment was  the basic problem that any mass movement has to face: how were they to carry on political work in the movements’ non- active phases?

Note – years from 1922 to 1927 are at first sight dominated entirely by a sense of anti-climax, were all the more acute because Gandhi’s promise in 1920 of Swaraj within a year had aroused such soaring expectation.

 -By March 1923, Congress membership (for the 16 out of 20 provinces which had sent reports to the AICC) had fallen to 106,046, less than one-third of what U.P. alone had claimed two years before. 

Formation of Swaraj Party

• At Gaya Session (1922) one faction led by CR Das(President) & Motilal Nehru (Gen Sec ) demanded that they shouldn’t boycott elections for Legislative Assembly (LA) that was coming & should continue agenda after going in L.A & making work of Assembly impossible(Pro Changers)
• Other faction led by Patel & Rajendra Prasad opposed this(No Changers)  & ultimately No changers won the vote .
• CR Das & Motilal resigned from Congress & announced formation of Congress Khilafat Swaraj Party or Swaraj Party on 1 Jan 1923.

Swarajist’s idea behind joining Legislative Assembly

• Work in the Councils was necessary to fill in the temporary political void, keep up the morale of the politicised Indians, fill the empty newspaper spaces, and enthuse the people. 
• Even without Congressmen, Councils would continue to function . Non- Congressmen would capture positions of vantage and use them to weaken the Congress. 
• By joining the councils and obstructing their work, Congressmen would prevent  Government from getting some form of legitimacy for their laws.

Swarajists claimed that they would transform the Legislatures into arenas of political struggle on which the struggle for the overthrow of the Colonial State was to be carried out.

Motilal – Das Duo

• Das (born in 1870) and Motilal (born in 1861) were highly successful Lawyers who had once been Moderates but had accepted the politics of boycott and non-cooperation in 1920.
• They had given up their legal practice, joined the movement as whole time workers and donated to the nation their magnificent houses in Calcutta and Allahabad respectively.
• They were great admirers of Gandhi . Both were brilliant and effective Parliamentarians. One deeply religious and the other a virtual atheist , both were secular to the core.
• They complemented each other and formed a legendary political combination.
  • Das was imaginative and emotional and a great orator
  • Motilal was firm,  analytical, and a great organizer and disciplinarian

Argument of No Changers

• No-Changers opposed council-entry mainly on the ground that Parliamentary work would lead to the neglect of constructive and other work among the masses, the loss of revolutionary zeal and political corruption.
• Constructive work among the masses, on the other hand, would prepare them for the next round of Civil Disobedience.

Reunion

• Fear of repetition of disastrous Split of 1907 was building up
• Both groups started to move towards mutual accommodation . Swarajists also realised that however useful parliamentry work might be, real sanctions which would compel government to accept national demand would be through mass movement & this need unity
• Special Session of the Congress held at Delhi in September 1923, the Congress suspended all propaganda against Council entry and permitted Congressmen to stand as candidates

Gandhi’s reaction towards Swarajists

• Gandhi released from jail on 5 Feb 1924 (elections were already over and Swarajists won many seats) on health grounds & he completely opposed the Swarajists in Council Entry & considered obstructing work of councils was inconsistent with Non Cooperation. Split seemed to be on horizon. Government hoped & banked for it
• But later his stance changed, courageous and uncompromising manner in which the Swarajists had functioned in the councils convinced Gandhi that, however politically wrong, they were certainly not becoming a limb of imperial administration. 
• 6 November 1924, Gandhi brought the strife between the Swarajists and no-changers to an end, by signing a joint statement with Das and Motilal that the Swarajist Party would carry on work in the legislatures on behalf of the Congress and as an integral part of the Congress. This decision was endorsed in December at the Belgaum session of the Congress over which Gandhi presided. He also gave the Swarajists a majority of seats on his Working Committee.

Election propaganda & Work inside legislature

• Held in Nov 1923,  although Swarajists got very less time to prepare & there was very limited franchise of less than 5%, they
  • won 43 out of 101 seats in Central Assembly
  • Emerged as largest party in Bengal & Bombay although not in Madras & Punjab

• They won most of seats against Liberals (who participated in 1920 elections too & were branded as government agents) but performed badly against independents who had local sympathies with them

• In Central Assembly, they formed alliance with Md Jinnah (independents) & Liberals like Madan Mohan Malviya & similar alliances in Provinces

• Although legislatures had very less power & Executive was responsible to British government . Along with that Viceroy & Governor can Veto any Bill but Swarajists forced Government to certify each legislation exposing to world real nature of Legislature

• Took three major causes & delivered powerful speeches which Press covered in detail too
  1. Problem of Constitutional advance leading to Self-Government
  2. Civil liberties, release of political prisoners, and repeal of repressive laws
  3. Development of indigenous industries

• Methods of the Swarajists
  • Destructive side emphasised rejection of the votable parts of the budgets and rejection of proposals emanating from the bureaucracy.
  • Constructive side, they sought to move resolutions calculated to promote a healthy national life and displacement of bureaucracy.

• Swarajist activity in the Legislatures was spectacular by any standards. It inspired the politicised persons and kept their political interest alive. People were thrilled each time the all- powerful foreign bureaucracy was humbled in the councils.

Local Elections

• During 1923-24, Congressmen captured a large number of Municipalities and other local bodies.
  • Das became the Mayor of Calcutta (with Subhas Bose as his Chief Executive Officer)
  • Vithalbhai Patel- the President of Bombay Corporation
  • Vallabhbhai Patel of Ahmedabad Municipality
  • Rajendra Prasad of Patna Municipality
  • Jawaharlal Nehru of Allahabad Municipality.
• The no-changers actively joined in these ventures since they believed that Local Bodies could be used to promote the constructive programme.

Constructive work by Swarajists

• Council Entry for wrecking reforms from within was the main, but by no means the sole, objective of the Swarajists. 
• Swarajists could ill-afford to ignore the constructive programme as they knew that some day they might have to leave the Councils and resort to Civil Disobedience along with those who did not go to the Councils. Hence, they were also involved in Constructive work
• It must, however, be admitted that the Swarajists, being chiefly engaged in council-entry and Parliamentary politics, could do little to implement the programme as zealously and steadfastly as the No-Changers could.

1 . Khadi

• Swarajists didn’t share the views of Gandhi on Khaddar & hand spinning . Although CR Das accepted Charkha & Khaddar as instrument of improving life of Indian people but he didn’t subscribe to commercial utility of Khadi .
• Swarajists made no fetish of Khaddar but they missed no opportunity in exhorting people to use  Khadi . The instructions issued by the Swaraj Party to all its members required them to attend the meetings of the Central Assembly and Provincial Councils dressed in pure Khaddar.

Note – Khadi was expensive as Gandhi admitted privately to Motilal in 1927 that khadi was proving an uphill task , it was still so much more expensive, after all, than either imported cloth or Indian mill-cloth.

2. Untouchability

• In Vykom, in South India , Reformers resorted to Satyagraha to secure for untouchables the right to use a public road leading to a Hindu temple. This initiative received full support from Gandhi and the Swarajists. The Swarajists passed a resolution sympathising with the satyagraha movement at Vykom.

• In Tarakeshwar incident, Swarajists took very keen interest against the autocracy of a Mahant. Under Swarajist pressure in Legislative Assembly, Temple was handed over to Committee by Mahant .

3. Other

• Made people aware of the revenue of intoxicants that British government was earning & for alien government revenue was more important than health & moral welfare of people

End of Swaraj party

• Suffered major loss with death of CR Dass in June 1925

• In absence of any National Movement , Communalism raised its ugly head & political frustration of people begun to found expression in communal riots

• Limit of obstruction was reached & government was certifying every legislation they were rejecting . They realise that there was no going forward inside legislature & anything can be done by mass movement outside

• Swarajists also could not carry their coalition partners for ever and in every respect, for the latter did not believe in the Swarajists’ tactic of ‘uniform, continuous and consistent obstruction

• By 1924, the Swarajist position had weakened because of widespread communal riots, split among Swarajists themselves on Communal and Responsivist-Non-Responsivist lines, and the death of C.R. Das in 1925 weakened it further.
  • Responsivists among Swarajists—Lala Lajpat Rai, Madan Mohan Malaviya and N.C. Kelkar—advocated cooperation with the Government and holding of office wherever possible to protect the so-called Hindu interests.They accused the Non-Responsivists like Motilal Nehru of being anti-Hindu and a beef-eater.
  • On the eve of the 1926 elections, Motilal’s old rival Madan mohan Malaviya formed an Independent Congress Party in alliance with Lajpat Rai and the Responsive Cooperators

Thus, the main leadership of the Swarajya Party reiterated faith in mass civil disobedience and withdrew from legislatures in March 1926, while another section of Swarajists went into the 1926 elections as a party in disarray, and did not fare well.

Achievements of Pro Changers

• Great achievement lay in their filling the political void at a time when the national movement was recouping its strength

• They showed that it was possible to use the legislatures in a creative manner

• They also successfully exposed the hollowness of the Reform Act of 1919 and showed the people that India was being ruled by  “lawIess laws”

• Vithalbhai Patel was elected speaker of Central Legislative Assembly in 1925.

• A noteworthy achievement was the defeat of the Public Safety Bill  which was aimed at empowering the Government to deport undesirable and subversive foreigners (because the Government was alarmed by the spread of Socialist and Communist ideas ).

• Development of considerable links between Indian business groups and Swarajist politicians, for the latter proved extremely helpful in prodding the government into granting protection to Tata’s steel industry in 1924, under the new policy of ‘discriminating protection‘ enunciated by the Fiscal Commission of 1921.

What No Changers did in meantime?

• No-Changers carried on laborious, quiet, undemonstrative, grass-roots constructive work around
  1. promotion of khadi and spinning
  2. national education
  3. Hindu-Muslim unity
  4. struggle against untouchability
  5. boycott of foreign cloth.
• This work was symbolized by hundreds of Ashrams that came up all over the country where political cadres got practical training in khadi work and work among the lower castes and tribal people
• It brought some much-needed relief to the poor, it promoted the process of the nation-in-the-making; and it made the urban-based and upper caste cadres familiar with the conditions of villages and lower castes.