Indian Capitalist Class and Freedom Movement

This article deals with ‘ Indian Capitalist Class and Freedom Movement– UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

Growth of Indian Industry

Till end of World War I (WW I) , sizable industrial enterprises came up in India & during interwar years, due to various reasons,  it further strengthened .

Reasons of Formation of Indian capitalist class

• Growing tendency towards  import substitution in consumer goods
• Growth in internal trade
• Shifting of internally accumulated capital through trade , moneylending & landowning to industrial investment
• Outflow of foreign capital creating space for indigenous entrepreneurs
• This development happened when Indian capital moved to industries hitherto not developed by foreign capital eg sugar,cement , iron & steel etc 

Note – Till 1944, 62% of larger industrial units controlling 58% of labour force were controlled by Indian capital & smaller industrial units accounted 95% control of Indian capital.

Important points to note about Indian Capitalist class & Nationalism

Economic development of Indian capitalist class in colonial period was substantial & different from usual experience in other colonial countries

• Modest growth in Indian industrialization took place not because of colonial rule but inspite of it . They were in no way junior partners of the Colonists and grew independently.
• They were not junior partners & came up with Indian capital

Attitude of Indian Capitalists towards National Movement

To consolidate their position, they started to organise themselves . Hence, Bengal National Chamber of Commerce came in 1887 & Indian Merchants Chamber in 1907 in Bombay.

1. Before World War I (WWI)

• Historians are divided about their attitude during this period
  • Bipin Chandra : Indian Capitalist Class had developed a long term contradiction with imperialism while retaining a relationship of short term dependence on & accommodation with it . In long run the capitalists desired the end of imperial exploitation and the coming of a nation state. They preferred a nationalist movement within the safe and acceptable limits not guided by left wing radicals but in reliable hand of right wing moderates
  • Aditya Mukherjee : He spoke of multi pronged capitalist strategy to overthrow the Imperialism & maintain Capitalism . They were afraid of organised labour , left wing radicalism and mass movement but as safeguard against these , they didn’t surrendered to Imperialism. Hence, they evolved a strategy to guide nationalist movement into path of constitutionalism & patronised right wingers in Congress
  • Marxist View : They viewed capitalists as matured class with well defined anti imperialist ideology in a way which suits them to maximise their profits
  • Gordon : He makes distinction between the merchants and the industrialists. While the merchants were nationalists but industrialists were the traditional allies of the Raj

Best Explanation : Indian Business men  were guided by pragmatic approach to issues as they arose maintaining the policy of equidistance or avoiding a tilt either in favour of Congress or Government for fear of antagonising or alienating either of them . At this time, they were not constituted as a class and didn’t pull together , had divided interests , clash of ideas and contradiction of strategies. Hence, we cant speak about this period in generalised term and this is reason why different historians gave different views.

• As far as the Colonial Authorities were concerned , the Indian businessmen were both co-operating and opposing at the same time and thus their attitude preclude any clear cut generalisation .

2. During World War

Attitude of the British Capitalists in India insisted on their racial exclusivism & autonomy  as they were averse to granting any concessions either to Indian politicians or businessmen. But these things didn’t brought Congress and business men on same platform rapidly .

• World War and the period immediately after it brought mixed fortunes for Indian business communities.
  • While the industrialists prospered due to wartime developments, the merchants suffered due to currency fluctuations . The rupee collapsed in December 1920, threatening the Indian importers with a possible loss of nearly 30 per cent on their previous contracts; but this helped the Indian exporters and mill owners.
  • The high wartime taxation affected everybody, but the particular changes in the income tax law hurt the indigenous joint family businesses, as their accounting system did not fit in well with the requirements of filling tax returns under the new law.

Marwari and Gujarati traders were aggrieved with the government’s taxation and currency policies but industrialists and big businessmen were less concerned, as the government was also trying hard to buy their support.

• The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms in 1919 introduced the system of “interest representation”, thus giving Indian business-along with labour-representation in the central and provincial legislatures. 
• Fiscal Autonomy Convention in 1919 and the promise of a policy of “discriminatory protection” after 1922 brought the hope of protective tariffs.

Therefore, when mass nationalism started with the advent of Gandhi, it evoked mixed responses from India’s business communities.

3. Non Cooperation Movement

• Marwari and Gujarati merchants
  • They were deeply religious, were drawn irresistibly towards Gandhi as they could find common ground in his Jain and Vaishnava philosophy. His emphasis on non-violence was reassurance against any kind of political radicalism; and his “trusteeship” theory legitimised wealth. Hence, they happily contributed for Gandhi’s constructive program. 
  • When the Non-cooperation movement started, the cotton merchants again supported the boycott movement and donated generously to the Tilak Swaraj Fund.
• But industrialists on the other hand remained silent, or opposed mass agitation outright. An Anti-Non-cooperation Society was started in Bombay with the blessings of Purushottamdas Thakurdas and funds from R.D. Tata. Small section of the capitalists, including Purshottamdas, openly declared themselves enemies of the Non- Cooperation Movement.

4. During Swarajist Times

• After 1922 due to the deteriorating economic conditions all sections of the Indian business community were drawn more closely to the side of nationalism, the industrialists included.
  • Wartime boom collapsed in 1921-22 and was followed by a slump in the industry throughout the 1920s.
  • Non-saleability of goods and large unsold stocks were accompanied by rising labour costs.
  • Situation for the Bombay cotton mill owners was further worsened by their dependence on imported yarn and the growing competition from cheap Japanese goods that started inundating Indian markets from around this time.

Their major grievance at this stage was against the 3.5% excise duty on cotton, for the abolition of which they now joined hands with the swarajists in the legislative assembly

5. Between Non Cooperation Movement (NCM) & Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM)

• In 1921, the European Trading Organisations formed an apex body called Associated Chambers of Commerce (ASSOCHAM) . In response in 1927, the Indian capitalists despite their differences and clash of interests formed their own organisation , the FICCI with Purshottamdas Thakurdas at its helm.
• The battle-lines were further drawn as depression touched India with all its fury in 1929. The government was in desperate need of additional source of revenue & looked towards cotton duties. Cotton duties  were increased from 11% to 15% but nothing was done wrt increasing import duties from textile coming from Lancashire. This irked Indian Industrialists & drew widespread protest from the nationalists with Birla and Thakurdas resigning from Legislative Assembly in protest
• Other source of irritant was artificially fixed high Rupee-Sterling Ratio (1 ₹ =1.06 £ as prescribed by Hilton -Young Commission). The government tried to maintain this high exchange value of ₹ in order to ensure flow of remittances from India & maintain India’s creditworthiness. This was also favourable for British exporters to India but disadvantageous for Indian Exporters . Agricultural exports also suffered because of this . Businessmen wanted lower rate of 1.04 £ as best suited to Indian economic recovery and Currency League was formed  in 1926 with blessings of Gandhi. This currency debate was drawing Congress and Businessmen closer together on a common platform
• But traditionally business groups don’t favour agitational politics. They favour constitutionalism and pressure group politics and since after NCM ended, there wasn’t any agitational program going on, all was well between Congress and Business groups. They were jointly raising voice on raising duties on cotton piece goods against Japanese Competition, currency policy etc . Businessgroups were donating money for Gandhi’s constructive program and Swarajist’s campaign funds but dilemma of supporting Gandhi again came on scene when question of Civil Disobedience came to forefront. Many were still of the view that agitational politics was risky proposition but others believed that this was the only way of getting some concessions from the government. They were happy to hear the news of call of 1st Round Table Conference but their hopes dashed away when Congress passed Lahore Resolution of Complete Independence which sounded too radical. Yet they remained with Congress because of the fear of Communism and threat of continued Labour Strikes if they opposed Congress.
• Large scale labour strikes were going on under Girni Kamgar Union and due to red scare , Dorabji Tata offered proposal to form Indo-European political organisation of the Capitalists to contain communism. Birla and Thakurdas intervened against it and thus open rift with nationalists was averted.

6. During Civil Disobedience Movement

• Thus for various reasons , all sections of Indian Business class started to come near Congress from 1930 & Congress too was sensitive to their interests . When Gandhi announced 11 Points ultimatum to Irwin , it contained 3 specific capitalist demands ie ₹-£ exchange rate , protection of Cotton industry and reservation of coastal shipping for Indian companies (for Walchand Hirachand  and Lalji Naranji’s Scindia Merchant Shipping).
• But when CDM started their response was mixed .
  • Cloth merchants particularly importers supported it by refusing to use foreign goods for specific period
  • Mill owners were nervous and offered little support
  • Bombay industrialists like Tatas (Steel) who depended on Government orders remained skeptical
  • But complete neutrality would have been suicidal , hence FICCI supported principles of the movement & condemned police brutality
• The growing civil unrest not only hampered day to day business but raised the chances of social revolution . They clearly towards the end of movement wanted to get back to constitutionalism and leaders like Birla and Thakurdas preferred to play the role of honest brokers between Congress and the government. If Gandhi signed Truce with Irwin, business pressure was certainly one of the factor in that   
• Before the 2nd Round Table Conference, Government tried to win over business interests by offering them concessions but Thakurdas and Birla which were presenting business interests in Round Table Conference  strictly adhered to Gandhian line in all negotiations on economic matters.
• But they didn’t want to go back to agitational politics when 2nd Round Table Conference ended without result . When Congress announced second CDM in 1932, Business Community broke to various warring factions.

Note – Clear divide was there in Business interests. Each group wanted to secure their benefits which became clear in Lees-Mody Pact of 1933. In this, under the Leadership of Mody of Bombay Cotton Mill Owners , who produced coarse cotton , were prepared to accept preference to Lancashire. In the new policy, Import Duty was applied on Cotton with exception of Lancashire Cotton. Hence, Japanese Textile which competed with Bombay Cotton (Coarse) was to be charged with Import duty making them uncompetitive but nothing was done wrt Lancashire Textile which competed with Ahmedabad Cotton Mills . 

Side note – Why their attitude changed after Gandhi’s arrival

• His approach was non violent – capitalists always want peace to flourish their business
• Jain & Vaishnav tradition – most marwari & gujarati same
• His trusteeship theory legitimised wealth
• Although his ideology was not based on capitalist interest but since he was against class politics , these concepts were attractive to them & they happily associated with him

7. After Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM)

• After CDM was suspended in 1934 , it was welcomed by all Business groups. But the major alarming signal now came from the strong rise of Socialism under Jawahar Lal Nehru , Subhas Bose and Congress Socialist Party . However, this Red Scare didn’t throw them into the arms of imperial authorities. Their strategy was to patronise the right wingers within Congress ie people like Vallabhbhai, Rajaji , Rajendra Prasad etc and throw lot behind Gandhi. Gandhians too were eager to get capitalist support and their financial backing to get their lost control over Congress back.

• Major interests of the capitalists at this juncture were to keep the Congress within the bounds of constitutional politics and to clip its socialist wings. For this, they were even prepared to meddle in the internal politics of the Congress. The ‘Bombay Manifesto‘, signed in 1936 by twenty-one Bombay businessmen, contained an open indictment of Nehru’s preaching of socialist ideals, which were deemed prejudicial to private property, and to the peace and prosperity of the country. Although it did not evoke support from any other section of the business community, it strengthened the hands of the moderates within the Congress, like Bhulabhai Desai and G.B. Pant, who put pressure on Nehru to tone down his socialist utterances. The Congress decision to participate in the election of 1937 and accept office thereafter brought the capitalists closer to it.

• Indeed, when the Congress formed ministries in eight provinces, it evoked jubilation and expectations from both labour and capital and the party had to continually balance between the two contradictory interests. During the first two years in office, trade union activities and labour unrest increased phenomenally in the Congress- ruled provinces, particularly in Madras and the United Provinces and the Congress ministries had to adopt a number of resolutions implementing the labour welfare programmes, which it had promised during the election. This irritated the capitalists no doubt, but what further added to it were the conservative economic and fiscal policies of the provincial governments. Faced with financial stringency, these governments had very little choice but to increase taxes, like the property tax or sales tax, which the business did not quite like. They now closed ranks and this alarmed the Congress high command. Therefore, by the spring of 1938, there was a remarkable change in Congress policies, as it tried to placate capitalist interests. The most authentic manifestation of this shift was in its labour  policy which resulted in passage of Bombay Trade Disputes Act , 1938 aimed to prevent strikes but tilted heavily in favour of Capitalists.

8. During Quit India Movement (QIM)

• 5 August 1942, four days before the launching of the Quit India Movement, Purshottamdas, J.R.D. Tata and G.D. Birla wrote to the Viceroy that the only solution to the present crisis, the successful execution of the war and the prevention of another civil disobedience movement was ‘granting political freedom to the country even during the mid of war . But when QIM started with this demand, they were reluctant to support and assured Viceroy opposition to that
• However, once the storm was over, they again came on side of Congress.
• Congress too after the defeat of QIM came under the control of conservatives which preferred  collaborating with the capitalists and remain strictly within the path of  constitutionalism.

Economic Planning & Capitalists

• Some business leaders actively participated in economic planning process initiated by socialist thinking of Nehru
• Under President ship of Bose , congress constituted First planning committee in 1938 & it included Thakurdas, AD Shroff, Walchand Hiracahnd & Ambalal Sarabhai
• Idea of planning was further evinced when in 1944 they independently produced what was known as Bombay plan . It anticipated in a real sense 5 year plans & industrial policies of future congress government 

But why they did this?

From Sumit Sarkar – more far-sighted sections of the bourgeoisie in an under-developed country would be quite ready to accept a measure of state regulation, planning, public investments in basic industries to create a favourable infra-structure for their own growth, and even ‘socialist’ rhetoric—so long as socialism did not mean wholesale nationalization along revolutionary lines. Subhas Bose’s initiative in starting a National Planning Committee in October 1938 under Nehru was thus quite eagerly accepted by Indian businessmen.

End words

• Quite significantly, the Indian capitalists never saw the Congress as their class party or even as a party susceptible only to their influence. On the contrary, they saw the Congress as an open-ended organization, heading a popular movement, and in the words of J.K. Mehta, Secretary, Indian Merchants’ Chamber, with ‘space in it for men of all shades of political opinion and economic views,’ and therefore, open to be transformed in either the Left or the Right direction.
• The maturity of the Indian capitalist class in identifying its long term interests, correctly understanding the nature of the Congress and its relationship with the different Classes in Indian society, its refusal to abandon the side of Indian nationalism even when threatened by the Left or tempted by imperialism, its ability to project its own class interests as societal interests, are some of the reasons (apart from the failure of the Left in several of the above directions) which explains why, on the whole, the Indian national movement remained, till independence under bourgeois ideological hegemony, despite strong contending trends within it.
• Thus, throughout the period under review the relationship between the Indian capitalists and the Congress remained strategic, issue-based and even pragmatic. The former’s commitment to nationalism  was not certainly about business interests and support for Congress was strictly conditional. But they were neither loyalists not unpatriotic and they agreed despite reservations with many aspects of Congress program

Socialist and Communist Movements during Colonial Period

This article deals with ‘ Socialist and Communist Movements during Colonial Period – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

Introduction

• Socialism aims at ending exploitation of vast majority of helpless humanity by small, powerful minority & remove consequent injustices & inequalities from the society .These ideas became widespread after Russian Revolution
• In such circumstances,  some patriotic  Indian intellectuals & militants particularly those who have either lived in western countries or established contacts were drawn towards those ideas eg. Madame Cama, Shyamji Krishna Verma etc . They operated from abroad till World War 1 & were outside Congress framework & hardly made any impact on policies of Congress till end of Non Cooperation Movement (NCM) .But after that Socialist ideas began to influence INC.  Powerful left wing group developed in late 1920s & 1930s,  contributing to radicalization of national movement
• Socialist ideas acquired roots in the Indian soil & became the accepted creed of Indian youth whose urges came to be symbolized by Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose.
• Two important powerful Left Parties emerged
  1. Communist Party of India (CPI)
  2. Congress Socialist Parties(CSP)

Reasons for Growth of Leftist Movement in India

Main reasons for growth were

• Industrial development in certain places like Bombay, Calcutta & Madras  leading to large & concentrated worker’s population in those places . Gradually  they started organizing themselves to demand better working conditions leading to emergence of Trade Unions
• On 7 Nov 1917,  Bolshevik Party led by Lenin overthrew despotic Czarist regime. Lesson learnt that if the common people — the workers and peasants and the intelligentsia — could unite and overthrow the mighty Czarist Empire , then the Indian people battling against British imperialism could also do so
• Socialist ideas began to spread rapidly especially because many young persons who had participated in Non Cooperation Movement (NCM)  were unhappy with its outcome and were dissatisfied with Gandhian policies and ideas as well as the alternative Swarajist programme.
• In 1919 , Third Communist International organised by Soviet government aimed at bringing communist revolution & establishing government of Working class all over world . This gave impetus
• First WW led to  high inflation but industrialists adamant not to increase wages of workers leading to their organised mobilization
• Since Nationalist movement also became mass movement ,  nationalist leaders saw potential to draw masses towards their movement through this . Lala  Lajpat Rai was first president of All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC)

Condition of Workers

• Living condition was miserable
• They worked for 15 & even 18 hours a day
• There were no leave rule & no security of jobs
• They lived in dark,damp slums with no water supply & no sanitary arrangements
• In Coal Mines of Jharia & Giridh condition was even more miserable . They worked from 6 AM to 6 PM + woman & children worked underground + accidents leading to death was frequent & until 1923 government introduced no insurance scheme
• There was no provision of Provident fund . When they aged, were thrown out of job with no avenue of income

Attitude of mainstream National Movement towards workers

Whole process can be divided into different stages

1 . Early Nationalists

• Paid very little attention towards question of workers although truly wretched conditions prevailed
• Major reason for that was anti imperialist movement was in its infancy & nationalists didn’t wish to weaken common struggle against British rule by creating any divisions within ranks of Indian people
• Most of these leaders were from upper strata of society – western educated middle class which included categories of rentiers , professionals & entrepreneurs
• Upto World War (WW) 1, these leaders were just trying to win concessions by means of petitions , memorandums etc & hadn’t thought of raising mass movement

2. Later (towards end of 19th century)

Efforts were organised to secure better bargaining position vis a vis more powerful classes in common anti imperialist front but here two different approaches

Labour vs Indigenous Employer

– Were unwilling to take this question & denied any need of government legislation to regulate working conditions . They actively opposed Factories Act of 1881 & 1889 – But there were nationalist reasons for this because Britishers were doing this not for labour but to make Indian industries out of race by taking from them edge that they get via cheap labour of India + nationalists looked Indian Industrial growth as way to remove poverty .

Labour vs British Enterprises

– Scenario completely altered in this situation – No hesitation in giving full support to workers  because employer & employee were not part & parcel of same nation – Indian National Congress (INC) began campaign against manner in which tea plantation workers were virtually reduced to slaves – First organised strike in Indian history by signalers of Great Peninsula Railways in 1899 in which Nationalist newspapers & Tilak came in full support

Trade Unionism & Communism in India

Meaning of Trade Union

• Association of workers formed with purpose of improving the conditions under which they work in mills & factories
• These workers  were mostly illiterate &  didn’t have any idea in the beginning of forming Trade Unions and uniting themselves.
• There were a few ‘outsiders’ mostly intellectuals, who tried for years to educate and organise them in Trade Unions. Very often they became leaders of the unions.

1 . Early Attempts to improve workers conditions

• Towards the end of 19th century, Nationalist Intelligentsia began to associate itself with working class agitation but these were sporadic, spontaneous & unorganised revolts

Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee	1878 : tried unsuccessfully to introduce a Bill in the Bombay Legislative Council to limit the working hours for labour
Sasipanda Banerjea	In Bengal, Brahmo Social Reformer, set up a Workingmen’s Club in 1870 and brought out a monthly journal called Bharat Sramjeebi (Indian Labour)

• All these activities were philanthropic in nature & didn’t represent beginning of organised working class movement

2. During Swadeshi Movement Period

• Number of strikes rose rapidly & many Swadeshi leaders enthusiastically threw themselves into task of organising stable trade unions, strikes, legal aid & fund collection drives
• Most  important feature of the labour movement during the Swadeshi days was the shift from agitations and struggles on purely economic questions to wider political issues of the day.

Bengal	– 16 Oct 1905 (day of partition of Bengal) –  workers of Jute Mills & jute press factories , railway coolies & carters all struck work – Burn Company Shipyard in Howrah didn’t permit its workers to participate in Fed Hall meeting & they went on strike
Tamil Nadu	In Tuticorin, Subramania Siva campaigned for a strike in February-March 1908 in a foreign-owned cotton mill saying that strikes for higher wages would lead to the demise of foreign mills.
Punjab	Rawalpindi :  Arsenal and Railway Engineering Workers went on strike as part of the 1907 upsurge in the Punjab which had led to the deportation of Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh. Perhaps the biggest political demonstration by the working class in this period

• This Period also saw faint beginning of Socialist tinge among some of Nationalist Leaders who were exposed to Marxist & social democratic forces in Europe . Eg : Dadabhai Naoroji

3. End of 1910s & start of 20s

AITUC

• Most important happening was Formation of All India Trade Union Congress in 1920
• Tilak developed close association with Bombay workers & played important role , from Punjab Lala Lajpat Rai came & he was first President whereas  Dewan Chaman Lal first General Secretary
• Urged workers to intervene in nationalist politics
• Lala Lajpat Rai was among first in India to link capitalism with imperialism & emphasised greater role of workers in fighting this combination
• Second Session of AITUC  moved resolution in favour of SWARAJ & said swaraj would be for workers & not capitalists
• Congress in its Gaya session of 1922 welcomed formation of AITUC & formed committee to assist its work

During Non Cooperation Movement (NCM)

• Railway workers extended full support to  NCM & Khilafat movement
• Nov 1921 at time of visit of Prince of Wales workers responded to boycott nationwide & in Bombay textile factories were closed with about 1.4 lakh workers on strike

After 1922

• Again  lull in workers movement & reversion to only economic struggle
• Wait till end of 1920s when it again revived with greater vengeance

Personality : MN Roy

• Original Name was Narendranath Bhattachareya &  born in 1889 in poor Brahmin family of Bengal . He was revolutionary Terrorist in early life & got educated from National University of Aurobindo Ghosh. During  WW 1 , wanted to bring armed revolution through German Arms along with Pulin Bihari Ghosh  but failed and went to USA.
• He changed name to MN Roy, studied Marxist literature extensively & became Communist. USA entered war from Britain side & was not safe for him to stay in US . He moved to Mexico where with Russian communist Borodin formed Communist Party of Mexico
• After war , on call of Lenin he went to USSR . He helped evolve  Communist International’s policy towards colonies . Lenin held that Communists should extend support to Revolutionary Movement carried by Bourgeois Nationalists against Imperialist Governments but Roy held that Bourgeois Nationalists were reactionaries & communists should carry their struggle independently forming parties of Workers & Peasants
• In Oct 1920 , came to Tashkent &  opened Military School for training Indian Frontier Tribes + formed  CPI  affiliated to Communist International in 1921

Peshawar Conspiracy Case

• Caliph Controversy happened in 1920 .  Thousands of Muslim Mujahirs (pilgrims) came to his school for training but it was closed by then & they were trained in Communist University of Toilers in Moscow
• When they went back , were arrested & tried under Peshawar Conspiracy case .  2 given 2 year imprisonment & rest 1 year hard imprisonment

4. Mid of 1920s & start of 1930s- Rise of Communist ideology – Formation of Communist Party of India (CPI)& Workers and Peasants Party (WPP)

• Independent of this, various communist organisations were coming up in India since 1920 & in Dec 1925 , they met in Kanpur to form CPI
• Constitution of Party was also announced aimed at
  • Attainment of complete independence 
  • Reorganisation of Indian society on basis of common ownership
  • Distribution of wealth in interest of whole community
• From 1926 , British Communists started to come India for organising Indian Communist Movement. But this infant movement continued to suffer various drawbacks
  • Suffered from paucity of funds
  • Suffered from paucity of cadre
  • British government was hostile towards CPI because of its revolutionary character & affiliation to Communist International
  • Privileged upper strata of Indian society was opposed to it

Workers & Peasants Party (WPP)

• From 1927 , Communists also started to organize themselves into the Workers’ and Peasants’ Parties (WPP), under the leadership of people like S.A. Dange, Muzaffar Ahmed, P.C. Joshi and Sohan Singh Josh
• WPP were formed in Punjab & Bombay ( later found in Meerut too) & main medium of propagation of ideas was Press

Punjab WPP	Mehnatkash (Urdu weekly)
Bombay WPP	Kranti (Marathi Weekly)

• Communist influence on  trade unions was also increasing & they were playing important role in workers strikes( Kharagpur Railway factory Strike of 1928 & Bombay Textile Workers strike) . Communist Girni Kamgar Union(Bombay’s) membership reached 52,000  towards end of 1928. These strikes reached alarming proportions
• Government held Communist responsible for this . To contain & crush them government armed itself with Public Safety Ordinance for purpose of deporting subversive elements +  Trade Disputes Act for introduction of Tribunals for settlement of worker’s problems which practically banned strikes (Note: Bhagat Singh hona ne ehna acts de virodh ch bomb suteya si)

Meerut Conspiracy case

• Communists  were subjected to severe repression by government . In  March 1929 , 32 radical & political Trade Union Activists including three British Communists were arrested on the charge of conspiring against his Majesty’s government under the directions of Communist International . It was alleged that  these Communists wanted to deprive British Monarch his sovereignty over British India by means of general strike & armed uprising
• Basic aim of government was to behead the Trade Unions of leadership & to isolate Communists from National Movement . Soon it became cause celebre & defence was taken by JL Nehru, MA Ansari & Chagla . Gandhi visited them in jail to express his solidarity .  Speeches of defence in court were carried by newspapers familiarising lakhs of people about Communism . However, Britishers succeeded in one respect ie  growing working class movement was deprived of leadership
  • Later Guided by the resolutions of the Sixth Congress of the Communist International, the Communists broke their connection with the National Congress and declared it to be a class party of the Bourgeoisie. Moreover, the Congress and the bourgeoisie it supposedly represented were declared to have become supporters of imperialism.
  • Congress plans to organize a mass movement around the slogan of Poorna Swaraj were seen as sham efforts to gain influence over the masses by Bourgeois leaders who were working for a compromise with British imperialism . In   1931, the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was described as a proof of the Congress betrayal of Nationalism.

• 1934 – Communists renewed their militant Trade Union activities . There were strikes at Sholapur , Nagpur & Bombay . Government panicked & finding it difficult to control banned Communist Party in June 1934. But many Communist carried their activities in Congress & newly formed Congress Socialist Party

5. After 1935

• Indian economy began to improve after 1936 which earlier was suffering due to depression & in 1937, Congress Ministries formed arousing people’s aspirations
• In 1939, number of strikes went to 406( 156 in 1936)
• Important development of this period was the attempt made by the leftists and socialists to unite the trade unions and peasant organizations for a collective movement. Indeed it was the phase of the expansion of the trade union movement.

Congress Socialist Party & Socialist parties

• 1934 (same year when CPI was banned) : after end of Civil Disobedience Movement (CPM), section of Congressmen decided to enter into Legislatures to work for cause of Congress & Gandhi endorsed them. But there was other section who in response to this formed Socialist Party within Congress Organisation to prevent erosion of Revolutionary character
• Socialists believed in Marxism too but there were differences
  • Socialists owed their allegiance to Congress whereas Communists owed allegiance to Communist International
  • Congress Socialists were Nationalists whereas Communists believed in goal of International Communist Society
• Attracted by Marxism, Communism and Soviet Union, they did not find themselves in agreement with the prevalent political line of the CPI. Ultimately they came together and formed the Congress Socialist Party (CSP) at Bombay in October 1934 under the leadership of Jayaprakash Narayan, Acharya Narendra Dev and Minoo Masani with Sampurnananda as first President

Their Ideology (from Their Constitution)

1. To work for acceptance of Congress Socialist Party programme by INC
2. To organise workers & peasants for their own economic upliftment as well as for carrying on the movement for achievement of Independence & Socialism
3. Organise Youth Leagues, Woman’s Organisation & Voluntary Organistions & secure their support for CSP Programme
4. To resist any negotiations with British government on Constitutional issues

They adopted separate program for

Workers	– Freedom to form Trade Unions – Right to go on Strike – Living wages – 40 Hours of Work a week – Insurance against unemployment, sickness & accident
Peasants	– Abolition of Landlordism – Encouragement of Cooperative Farming – Exemption from rents & taxes on uneconomical farms – Reduction of land revenue – Abolition of feudal levies

Although now they were working with Bourgeois to achieve  Independence but their ultimate aim was formation of Socialist Society in India . CSP from beginning assigned itself with task of transforming Congress & strengthening it – in both ideological & organisational sense

For attainment of twin objectives of Socialism & Freedom they followed three lines of activities

• Inside the Congress,  they worked out anti-imperialist and nationalist programmes of the Congress as Congressmen
• Outside the Congress,  they mobilised the workers, peasants, students, intelligentsia and women for the cause of socialism
• They also sought to integrate the above two lines of activities.

Their Impact

• Mixed Reaction among  Congressmen

Gandhi	Rejected their idea of class war. Gandhi did not believe in the necessity of the abolition of Princely order, Zamindari and Capitalism. He wanted to bring about a change of heart in the princes, zamindars and capitalists so that instead of considering themselves the owners of the states, zamindars and factories they should behave as the trustees for their subjects, tenants and workers.
Left Congressmen	Like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose welcomed the formation of the Congress Socialist Party, although neither Nehru nor Bose joined the party.

• 1936 – three Socialists Narendra Dev , JP & Achyut Patwardhan inducted into Congress Working Committee . It was sure that Socialist agendas started to make up in Congress policies
• Politically & ideologically they were able to give congress a left leaning .  Faizpur session adopted an agrarian programme, containing such items as reduction of revenue, abolition of feudal dues and levies, introduction of cooperative farming, living wage for the agrarian labourers and formation of peasant unions
• Impact on Congress organisationally- 1/3rd votes in All India Congress Committee were of left & Nehru & Bose elected as President from 1936 to 1939 because of them
• Congress Socialists played an important role in the Kisan (peasant) movement. Through the efforts of Prof. N.G. Ranga, Indulal Yagnik, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati the All-India Kisan Sabha was organised in  1936.
• Congress Socialists changed the Congress Party’s policy from aloofness to closer involvement in the affairs of Princely states. The Congress socialist activists also took part in the democratic movements of the people in the princely states against their autocratic rulers.

Failure of these movements

Despite the fact that the Left cadres were among the most courageous, militant & sacrificing of freedom fighters, the Left failed in the basic task it had taken upon itself— to establish the hegemony of socialist ideas & parties over the national movement. It also failed to make good the promise it held out in the 1930s. This is, in fact, a major enigma for the historian & reason for this can be

• Left invariably fought the dominant Congress leadership on wrong issues. It chose to fight not on questions of ideology but on methods of struggle and on tactics.
• Left also failed to make a deep study of Indian reality. With the exception of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Left saw the dominant Congress leadership as bourgeois , its policy of negotiations as working towards a compromise with imperialism & any resort to constitutional work as a step towards the ‘abandonment of the struggle for independence’
• It saw all efforts to guide the national movement in a disciplined manner as imposing restrictions on the movement. It constantly counterposed armed struggle to non- violence as a superior form and method of struggle, rather than concentrating on the nature of mass involvement and mobilization and ideology. It was convinced that the masses were ever ready for struggles in any form if only the leaders were willing to initiate them.
• Left parties, groups and individuals failed to work unitedly except for short periods. Nehru and Bose could not work together for long and bickered publicly in 1939. Nehru and the Socialists could not coordinate their politics. Bose and Socialists drifted apart after 1939.

Brief Sketches of Socialists

1 . JayaPrakash (JP)

• Born in 1902 in Bihar
• 1921 : Discontinued his study at Patna College to participate in NCM
• After that, he went to US for receiving University Education & did physical work to finance himself . There he came in contact with Communists & became marxist
• When he came back, he saw Communists in India were taking orders from Moscow . Although he appreciated Bolshevik Revolution but didn’t like this & joined Congress
• 1930 : was made President of Congress Labour Research Department
• Main role in formation of CSP

2. Ashok Mehta

• Born in 1912 at Sholapur to Prominent Gujarati Writer
• Educated at Bombay University
• Joined CDM & jailed at Nasik
• For number of years he edited CSP journal = CONGRESS SOCIALIST

3. Dr Ram Manohar Lohia

• Born in nationalist Marwari family in 1910
• Educated at BHU, Calcutta University & Berlin Uni in Political economy
• On his return Nehru made him incharge of Foreign Affairs
• He was influenced by Social Democratic Ideas of West & Gandhian ideas & didn’t believe in Marxism or Communism
• Founded journal CONGRESS SOCIALIST

Jawahar Lal Nehru & Socialism

• JL Nehru imparted socialist vision to national movement
• Nehru propagated the ideas of socialism and declared that political freedom would become meaningful only if it led to the economic emancipation of the masses
• He used his enforced leisure in jail, during 1922- 23, to read widely on the history of the Russian and other revolutions.
• In 1927 , he  went to Switzerland for treatment of his ailing wife & came in contact with various socialist leaders . Then he was invited to attend International Congress against Colonial Oppression and Imperialism, held at Brussels, and came into contact with communists and anti-colonial fighters from all over the world . After exchange of views, he realised that how the development of European capitalism, which required raw materials for industrial production and extensive markets for the finished goods, led to imperialism, and how European capitalism had fattened on the exploitation of countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America.
• Same year he visited the Soviet Union and was deeply impressed by the new socialist society
• He came to conclusion that exploiters have their native allies in form of landlords & industrialists & even if country is freed from  Britishers those oppressors would keep on oppressing . Hence, national emancipation of colonies also included emancipation of masses
• In 1927 , whole Simon Commission episode started . When Nehru Committee report discussions were held, JL Nehru challenged attainment of Swaraj ie Dominion status  as goal  & demanded  complete independence . He was the first to move resolution in Madras session of 1927 demanding Real independence instead of mirage of  dominion status
• 1928, Jawaharlal joined hands with Subhas to organize the Independence for India League to fight for complete independence and ‘a socialist revision of the economic structure of society.’
• Lahore Session 1929 speech – “I am a socialist and a republican, and am no believer in kings and princes, or in the order which produces the modern kings of industry, who have a greater power over the lives and fortunes of men than even the kings of old, and whose methods are as predatory as those of the old feudal aristocracy.’ India, he said, would have to adopt a full ‘socialist programme’ if she was ‘to end her poverty and inequality.”
• He criticized Gandhi for refusing to recognize the conflict of classes, for preaching harmony among the exploiters and the exploited, and for putting forward the theories of trusteeship by the capitalists and landlords.
• But Nehru’s commitment to Socialism was given within a framework that recognized the primacy of the political, anti- imperialist struggle so long as India was ruled by the foreigner . Nehru, therefore, did not favour the creation of an organization independent of or separate from the Congress or making a break with Gandhi and the right-wing of the Congress. The task was to influence and transform the Congress as a whole in a socialist direction.

Women and Indian Freedom Movement

This article deals with ‘ Women and Indian Freedom Movement – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

The Women Question

• This question first aroused in the discourses as Western Observers like James Mill used  this to construct a civilizational critique of India .Hence, status of Woman became main focus of reforming agenda of modernizing Indian intellectuals in 19th Century
• They imagined a golden past where women were treated with dignity & honor & urged reforms to these traditions . Female Infanticide was banned , Sati was abolished & Widow Remarriage was legalized

Problem with this approach

• In all these cases, reforms were legitimised by referring to the shastras
• No women were ever involved in reform movement  . In Mani’s words, “women are neither subjects nor objects but, rather, the ground of the discourse on sati; women themselves are marginal to the debate”.
• It was the  middle class women and their issues that found greater focus in the process of the anti-colonial movement . The range of issues that came up in this situation was therefore demands such as women’s education, women’s representation in various bodies, property rights and so on. For an upper caste woman the matter of education and widow remarriage was significant while for the lower caste woman in the early twentieth century just the right to cover her breasts and to be able to go to the temple of worship or learning would mean a qualitative difference . But Lower Caste Woman never figured in the debates.

And all this reformist zeal ended with virulent Hindu backlash when Age of Consent Bill in 1891 sought to push age of marriage for woman from 10 to 12 . It was seen as invading the autonomy of native masculinity

Position of Women before Colonialism

• Women status in ancient India was never static & uniform
• Manu wrote that  both Shudras & Women were debarred from Vedic ritual rites & he gave permanent dependent status for woman to be protected by their father, husband & sons at different stages
• Immediately before colonial times , women were groomed to become good wives , serve their husbands as supreme god & expected to give birth to sons . If their husband die  , they were to spend their lives in strictest discipline of celibacy cherishing memories of dead husband

Muslim Society

• Simlar restrictions on Muslim women
• Two reform movements in Muslims
  • Islamic Revivalism by Ulama
  • Modernisation campaign by Educated Middle Class

both movements constructed SHARIF culture (sharif women were to be in Purdah)

For Hindu & Muslim women, this doesn’t mean only Purdah but multitudes of complex social arrangements which maintained social & not just physical distance between the sexes . By end of 19th century , the ideal of Purdah had become universalized for both elites & commoners & both Hindus & Muslims

Education Movements for women in 19th century

Agency of spreading Education lay with three groups

British  Rulers	– Colonial government since 1850s particularly Law member Bethune & Hunter Commission  recommended for women education
Indian Male Reformers	– Radhakanta Deb started  School Book Society – MG Ranade started Prarthna Samaj – Keshub Chandra Sen in Brahmo Samaj – Swami Dayanand’s Arya Samaj
Educated Indian Women	– Sister Subbalakshmi – Madras – Begum Rokeya Hussain – Muslim Women in Bengal – Pandita Ramabhai – Western India

But improvement in education didn’t improved social position of women remarkably  & answer to this lie in motivation behind programs to educate women

• Colonial Government wanted to educate women because it wanted Civil Servants to be married to educated women so that they didn’t have to face psychological trauma of split house-hold +  thought English educated mother would give birth to sons which would be loyal to the Raj
• Educated Indian Middle class males wanted  Victorian ideal of companionate marriage

Hence, new concept of womenhood became fine blending of self sacrificing Hindu Wife & Victorian helpmate . Education far from emancipatory further confined women to idealised domestic roles as good wifes & better mothers

But there were other rebels-like

• Tarabai Shinde, a Marathi woman from Berar, published a book entitled, A Comparison Between Women and Men. In this she protested against the fact that in a new colonial society men enjoyed all the rights, opportunities and benefits of change, while women were blamed for all the evils and were still bound by the old strictures of pativrata
• Pandita Ramabai
  • She formed Arya Mahila Mandal in 1881 in Pune to promote female education especially for child widows
  • In 1889 , she started Mukti Mission to give refuge to young widows deserted by their families. Later she started ‘Sharda Sadan‘ to provide vocational training , food and shelter to child widows.
  • She  was a social rebel in true sense. She was a Brahman woman who remained unmarried for a long time; she was well versed in the ancient shastras, married a man from a Sudra caste defying the restrictions on hyper-gamy, then became a widow with an infant daughter, refused to withdraw herself from public life, went to England to study medicine, and there converted to Christianity. As she asserted her independent choice and crossed the boundaries that Indian patriarchy had set on the freedom of women, she was equally criticized by the reformers and damned by the conservatives, as both considered her to be a social threat

Women & Freedom Movement

• Started with Swadeshi Movement but within accepted gender ideology in which home was rightful arena of women . They Boycotted British goods , crushed their glass bangles etc
• WW 1 – Saw two women leaders, Annie Besant (started Home Rule League & Presided Congress in 1917) & Sarojini Naidu who was delivering speeches since 1906 at Congress Sessions & led delegation to meet Secretary of State Montagu  to demand female franchise & also moved resolution in Congress Session demanding equal voting rights

Coming Of Gandhi

• Marked major rupture in women’s participation in nationalist movement . What Gandhi did was he changed focus from MOTHERHOOD to SISTERHOOD. Women was represented as no slave to their husbands & capable of making supreme sacrifices
• He realised in SA about power of self sacrifice of women & decided to harness it in service of nation . Sita- Draupadi – Damayanti were role models & Britishers were equated with Ravana. 
• But he too accepted what he called NATURAL DIVISION OF LABOUR BETWEEN SEXES. Roles he expected for them in freedom struggle were as mothers and supporters of men and as examples of selfsacrifice and non-violence, as spinners of Khadi, picketing at foreign cloth and liquor shops and by shaming men into action. Gandhi considered women most worthy in their traditional place and avocation i.e. concerned with household tasks and upbringing of children. Thus, the vision and imagination of Gandhi was coloured with patriarchal values.
• Gandhi accepted womens biological weakness but turned that weakness into power by glorifying their strength of soul.

Non Cooperation Movement (NCM) & Women

• Gandhi initially prescribed limited role but women claimed for themselves greater role
• Nov 1921 : thousands of women greeted Prince of Wales with demonstrations
• Wife, sister & neice of CR Dass stunned nation by participating in open street demonstrations
• At Ahmedabad, Bi Amma (mother of Ali Brothers) addressed 6,000  gathering of women to join men in picketing
• In Andhra , Durgabhai collected over thousand of her compatriot Devadasis to listen to Gandhi & they gave 20,000 in donation for the nationalist cause
• Although Gandhi himself wasn’t keen but women themselves took initiatives

Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM) & Women

• Gandhi didn’t want to contain women in original core group of volunteers of Dandi March but in his way when he addressed meetings many women joined . Thousands of women got involved in manufacture of salt , picketing etc
• They joined in Parbhat Pheris & girls organised their own Manjari Senas in competition to Vanar Senas of boys.
• They carried on Gandhi’s constructive program of spinning cloth with Charkha
• In Chittagong Armoury Raid , Kalpana Dutta was prominent member of Indian Republican Army . Other women like Pritilata Waddedar also joined movement later.

Revolutionary Movement

• They were involved & many a times not only in supportive roles
• They were actually shooting pistols at magistrates & governors
• Durgavati Devi/ Durga Bhabi (wife of Bhagvati Charan Vohra) was prominent member of HSRA . She accompanied Bhagat Singh on the train journey in which he made his escape in disguise after Saunders killing.

Quit India Movement

• Significant Female activism
• All front rank male leaders were behind jails & women took charge
• Sucheta Kriplani coordinated non violent resistance & Aruna Asif Ali gave leadership to underground revolutionary activities

Communist Party and Women

• Ban was lifted from them in 1941 & back in 1920-30s various women were members which again began to attract them
• In Tebhaga movement of Bengal in 1946 under communists which demanded 2/3 produce to sharecroppers , women participated in large numbers.  Nari Bahinis or Women Brigades resisted colonial police with whatever weapon they could lay hand on & became martyrs
• Then they participated in Telangana Movement from 1946 to 51 against Nizam of Hyderabad .
• In most cases, they joined on their own , acted as secret messengers , arranged shelters & few of them took up guns . But communist leadership preferred to take only supportive & secondary role from women & couldn’t think of women outside the conventional structures of gender relations because they thought women became source of sexual immorality & indiscipline within ranks of rebels

Indian National Army (INA)

In 1943 , INA raised &  Bose decided to add Women’s Regiment under Rani of Jhansi regiment commanded by Captain Laxmi Sehgal.  They consisted of working class women of all classes & religions who were fully trained militarily for combat

Pakistan Movement & Women

• Pakistan Movement opened for Muslim women new space of political action
• In 1930s, they were participating in a united front with Hindu sisters to claim women’s rights but division appeared in 1935 when issue of reservation on communal basis came up . Some of leaders of All India Women’s conference refused to accept joint electorates when their men were not prepared to do so
• Muslim League also sought to universalize its politics & in 1938 started women’s subcommittee to involve Muslim women

End Words

• During struggle for freedom, they didn’t raise issues which affected them as women & their own goals were subordinated to those of national liberation, community honour or class struggle
• Some leading nationalists like Nehru believed that once political freedom was achieved , women’s question would resolve automatically after they became force with voting power

Some Women Associations

Women’s Indian Association	– Started in 1917 in Madras – By Margaret Cousins & Annie Besant
National Council of Women	– Started in 1925 as branch of International Council of women – Main leader – Lady Mehribai Tata
All India Women’s Conference	– To promote women’s education – Main leader : Margaret Cousins – Eventually got involved in nationalist struggle & lobbied for all sorts of women’s rights from franchise to marriage reform
Bharat Stree Mahamandal	– Started in 1910 – Opened branches all over India to promote women’s education – By Sarala Devi Chaudarani  (niece of Rabindranath Tagore)

About Some Women Leaders

1 . Aruna Asaf Ali

• Breaking the social conventions, married to a Muslim Congressman Asaf Ali.
• Went to prison during CDM and Individual Satyagraha.
• Hoisted tricolor at Gowalia tank after Maulana Azad’s arrest.
• In Quit India Movement , all her property was confiscated by the Colonial government
• Editor of  ‘Inquilab’ a monthly journal of Congress

After independence

• First Mayor of Delhi elected in 1958
• Posthumously awarded Bharat Ratna in 1997

2. Sarojini Naidu

• Graduated from London
• One of the first women to participate in Freedom struggle
• Under mentorship of G.K.Gokhale
• Later  participated in all programs of Gandhi, including Dandi March
• Served as President of Indian national congress.
• Participated in 2nd Round Table Conference
• Even her daughter Padmaja Naidu, 21, was arrested in  Quit India movement.

3. Madam Bhikaiji Cama

• Herself influenced by Dadabhai Naoroji
• She Inspired Indian youth in UK
• Ran newsletter “Bande Mataram” and organization “Free India Society”.
• Unfurled first national flag of India in Germany.

4. Sucheta Kriplani

• Born in 1908 in Ambala and educated in Lahore. Right from childhood she dreamt of free India
• In 1932 , she entered Public services and in 1939 , she joined Politics
• Impressed by her work to serve the nation, Gandhi choose her for Individual Satyagraha & was arrested for that
• In Quit India Movement , she went underground & carried on the movement. She founded Under Ground Volunteer Force for this
• Founded All India Mahilla Congress
• During riots at independence, she did work for resettlement of women who had suffered at that time

After independence

• CM of UP from 1963 to 1967 . She was first women CM of independent India

5. Kalpana Dutta

• Student of higher education from Bengal and hated English rule and language . She even wanted pledge of her school during childhood days to be changed from – To be loyal to God and King to To be loyal to God and Country
• After completing her school education, she took admission in Calcutta University where she came in contact of Revolutionaries .
• She conducted raids on government buildings but police failed to gather evidences against her
• Then she joined Surya Sen and was involved in Chittagong Armoury Raid.
• She was arrested & was released in 1943 . Then she joined Communist Party and married Communist leader PC Joshi

6. Pritilata Waddedar

• Born in 1910
• Very  intelligent student and did BA from Calcutta University
• Joined Surya Sen later . She conspired with Surya Sen to raid Night club frequently visited by English to avenge death of their comrades which police had killed in various raids. In counter attack , she was hit in her leg. She knew that she would be caught , hence she consumed packet of Potassium Cynide as per their plan.

7. Rani Gaidinliu

• Led political movement seeking to drive out the British from Manipur and the surrounding Naga areas & arrested in 1932 at the age of 16
• She was released in 1947 after India’s independence, and continued to work for the upliftment of her people.

8. Rajkumari Amrita Kaur

• Member of Royal family from Punjab
• Graduated from England, influenced by Gandhi
• Jailed for Quit India movement

9. Rehana Tyabjee

• Member of affluent family, her father was a Judge.
• influenced by Gandhi, joined Sabarmati Ashram, NCM, opposed Untouchability + child marriage
• President of Youth congress
• Jailed for QIM
• First muslim lady to sing Vandemataram in Congress session

10. Cpt. Laxmi Sahgal

• Young medical student
• Became Captain of all-woman Rani of Jhansi regiment of the Indian National Army (INA) under Subhash Chandra Bose.
• Led the troops in Burma during WW2, but caught by the British army.

Caste Movement during Colonial Period

This article deals with ‘ Caste Movement during Colonial Period – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

British Colonialism  and  Caste

• There is a debate on  transformation of Indian society under the impact of colonialism and its administrative mechanisms.  Part of this debate is whether there was continuity of caste system and other pre-colonial social-structures including caste OR it was mere product of British imagination.
  • Louis Dumont ( French scholar and writer of a famous book on caste, Homo Hierarchicus) based on study of certain texts presented image of caste based on purity and pollution & hierarchy . These values, according to Dumont, separate Indians culturally from Western civilization, making India a land of static, unchangeable, ‘oriental’ Brahmanical values.
  • Nicholas Dirks and others have challenged this notion of caste. They opined that Brahmans and their texts were not so central to the social fabric of Indian life. Brahmans were merely ritual specialists, often subordinate to powerful ruling families. The caste-based Brahmanical model of traditional India was an invention of the British Orientalists and ethnographers, according to this view

Was it a British construct?

• Starting from the Vedas and the Great Epics, from Manu and other dharamsastras, from puranas texts, from ritual practices, the penal system of Peshwa rulers who punished culprits according to caste-principles, to the denunciations of anti-Brahmanical ‘reformers’ of all ages; everything points towards the legacy of pre-colonial times. But at the same time , it is also true that there were many non-caste affiliations and identities too which determined position of any group . It was the colonial state and its administrators who made caste as a measure of all things and the most important emblem of traditions.
• William Jones translated and published Manu Dharma Sastras or The Laws of Manu (1794).  It became the main authority in imagining of Indian tradition as based on varnasrama- dharma (social and religious code of conduct according to caste and stage of life). Scholars have questioned the attempt to codify Indian social relations according to this single, orthodox Brahmanical text.
• The basic objective of the colonial state was to procure data about Indian social life so as to tax and police its subjects. From the early nineteenth century, the company officials turned increasingly to literate Brahmans or to scribal and commercial populations to obtain such information. Brahmans had an incentive to argue that India was a land of age-old Brahmanical values. They insisted that effective social-control and cohesion could be achieved only if hierarchical jati and varna principles were retained.
• Hence, Caste was not a fabrication of British rulers designed to demean and subjugate Indians but at the same time it wasn’t the only characteristic to define Indian society, point which britishers missed .
• However, this interpretation did serve the colonial interests as by condemning the ‘Brahmanical tyranny’ colonial administration could easily justify their codes to ‘civilize’ and ‘improve’ the ‘fallen people’.

Phase  1 of Caste Movement

• The moderate leadership was elitist, middle class. They definitely couldn’t take up the cause of untouchables. The extremist leadership was lower middle class and rested heavily on the support of caste people. So they too couldn’t alienate them by taking up cause of untouchables.
• The winds of change however couldn’t leave them isolated and in 1917, Indian National Congress (INC) passed a resolution condemning untouchability. But nothing concrete was done in this phase.

Factors Behind Mobilization of Lower Caste

• New Sources of Status under British Empire : There was a growing realization of the significance of the new sources of status i.e. education, government jobs, political participation and an awareness that these new sources of status too had been monopolized by the brahmans. In this the British policies and Christian missionaries helped a lot. In fact for some time it was believed that one way of protest against the caste disabilities was to convert into christianity but it failed for obvious reasons. But as a result organized caste movements began to grow in many parts of the country –
  • Ezhavas and Pulayas in Kerala,
  • Chamars in Punjab, UP and Chattisgarh,
  • Nadars in TN,
  • Namasudras in Bengal.

• Bhakti : Another important factor behind their mobilization was the spread of the message of bhakti. Thus following movements began to preach the message of Equality
  • Sri Narayan Dharma Paripalna Yogam (SNDPY) worked among the Ezhavas
  • Matua among the Namasudras
  • Adi Hindu movement among the chamars in UP.

• Sanskritization : There ensued a process of Sanskritization among the lower classes where those with social mobility ambitions chose to follow the customs of higher caste hindus like sati, child marriage, women seclusion etc.

• British Census :  Risley in 1901 Census  adopted a procedure to organize castes on basis of ‘social precedence’ . To the Indian public this appeared to be an official attempt to freeze the hierarchy, which had been constantly, though imperceptibly, changing over time. As a result of this, a number of caste associations emerged to contest their assigned position in the official hierarchy, each demanding a higher position and organizing their fellow caste members in the colonial public space.

• Reaction to Hindu Revivalism : At the same time the increasing hindu revivalist tendencies also alarmed them because if for the Brahman Hindus, the ancient age was a golden age and the present was a dark age, for untouchables it was the opposite.

1 . Brahmo Samaj & Raja Rammohan Roy

• Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833) & Brahmo Samaj indirectly challenged the legitimacy of caste.
• Brahmo Samaj (1828) saw itself as an advocate of a new, universal, casteless religion. Paradoxically, however, Brahmos themselves became an exclusive endogamous community within Hinduism.

2. MG Ranade & National Social Conference

• M.G. Ranade founded a reformist organization, National Social Conference in 1887, aimed to persuade Indians to modernize their values & behavior. One of the chief aims of this was to campaign against the ‘evils’ of caste.
• But they did not regard every aspect of caste as an ‘evil’, to be annihilated. Nevertheless, Conference adherents were expected to endorse so called upliftment for the untouchables 

3. Jyotirao Phule and Satyashodak Samaj in Maharastra

• He wrote against Brahman privileges and domination in 1850s.
• He directly attacked Brahmanism &  represented Brahmans as Aryan invaders who conquered local indigenous people by force and concealed their act of usurpation by inventing ‘caste system’.
• In 1873, Phule established the Satyashodhak Samaj, an organization for challenging Brahmanic supremacy.
• He turned the Orientalist theory of Aryanisation of India upside down.” The Brahmans, he argued, were the progeny of the alien Aryans, who had subjugated the natives of the land and therefore the balance now needed to be redressed and for achieving that social revolution, he sought to unite both the non-Brahman peasant castes as well as dalit groups in a common movement
• But in the 1880s and 1890s, there were certain subtle shifts in the non-Brahman ideology, as Phule  focused more on mobilizing the Kunbi peasantry. There was now more emphasis on the unity of those who laboured on the land  and a contestation of the claim by the Brahman-dominated Poona Sarvajanik Sabha that they represented the peasantry. He appropriated Maratha identity to all the labourers of land and claimed that  Kshatriyas, who were the ancestors of the Marathas, lived harmoniously with sudras and asserted them in resisting Aryan assaults. But this emphasis on Kshtriyas led to diminution  of Interest in the mobilization of dalits.
• While kshatriya identity was constructed to contest Brahmanical discourse that ascribed  to them inferior status, it also inculcated an exclusivist ethos that separated them from  Dalit Groups who were treated once a brother in arms.Ironically such indigenous construction of identity also impacted colonial stereotyping as dalit mahars and mangs were no longer treated as Martial races and disbanded from colonial service in 1892.
• Satyasodhaks failed to evolve a unified and homogeneous sense of identity over a longer period. After 1919 Reforms,  there was a schism in the movement with the upper caste (but non brahman) elements breaking off to fight elections. In 1930s, it came close to Gandhian movement and merged into it and in this merger Kesavrao Jedhe played an important role.

4. Hindu Nationalists and Defense of Caste

• Hindu nationalists  resisted modernization of Indian social order. Although they sometimes deplored certain features of caste such as untouchability, they insisted that caste in its true form was essential to spirit of Hinduism. It represented a legacy of higher moral values from the national past.
• Vivekananda condemned the oppressive treatment of untouchables and other subordinate castes. Yet, he defended caste and varna hierarchy as a natural order and matter of national pride.

Phase 2 (1919- 1934)

• It ignored the question till 1917  and then took it up only when dalit leaders had organised themselves and were about to steal the initia­tive  from the Congress. Brahman domination of the early Congress, were much to blame for this inaction.
• By this phase, the character of Indian National Movement (INM) had changed. Masses were the key. Gandhi was a champion of lower classes as well. So he drew them in through constructive work. He also gave them the name Harijan and began to support the temple entry movements.

• Lower Caste Groups in order to assert themselves tried to appropriate collectively some visible symbols like temple entry, sacred thread, rituals, community pujas etc hitherto reserved for the higher castes.

Temple Entry

– Such movements were particularly strong in Kerala ,the most important being Vaikkom Satyagraha in 1924-25 and the Guruvayur Satyagraha in 1931-33. – There was Mushiganj Kali Temple Satyagraha in Bengal in 1929 – Kalaram satyagraha in Nasik in 1930-35.   Local and national Congress leaders actively participated in a few and organized satyagrahas and eventually won them temple entries. These temple entry movements created the widest possible unity. People from highest castes to the lowest outcastes broke social customs and fought together. People and leaders from all over the country flocked in and fought. All the methods of Indian National Movement were used.

Social Rights

– Apart from the religious rights, the lower castes also demanded social rights and when denied organized themselves.   – In state of Travancore,  Nadars were also not allowed to wear shoes, golden ornaments and carry umbrellas. Their women were not allowed to cover the upper parts of their bodies.  Under influence of Christian Missionaries, there was attempt by Nadar women  to cover their breasts like the higher caste women and this was violently resisted in 1859. This issue flared up again in 1905 between the Ezhavas and the Nairs in Quilon in 1905.   – In Bengal when the high caste Kayasthas refused to attend the funeral ceremony of Namasudras, they resorted to a boycott of working in their fields.   – In 1927  in Mahad, Ambedkar organized a satyagraha to demand water from the public tank.

• Then came the political mobilization and this was led by Ambedkar.
  • In 1927 , he publicly burnt a Manu Smriti.
  • He voiced his views against performances of traditional labour services and ‘village duties’ by the mahars.
  • Initially , He also advocated forced temple-entry . He took lead in the Kalaram temple-entry campaign (1930) at Nasik and in the satyagraha for drawing of water by untouchables from the Mahad tank in Maharashtra.   But In 1934 , he wrote to the Temple Satyagrahis emphasizing the futility of temple movements and instead urging them to focus on political representation and education. If political gates are opened, temple gates would automatically open.
  • He believed that Dalit grievances could be redressed only by a complete overhaul of Hindu Society and not just by a reformist approach.
  • In 1936 he founded Independent Labor Party to mobilize the poor and the untouchables and in 1942 All India SC Conference at Nagpur with  claim that Dalits to be separate from Hindus.

1 . Gandhi vs Ambedkar on Caste

• Gandhi distinguished between issue of untouchability and endogamy & dining restrictions. He wanted INM to focus on untouchability but not on endogamy &  dining restrictions because these were not disabilities imposed on Dalits and were practiced among Dalits and among caste people as well.
• Ambedkar asserted that untouchability was an outcome of caste system, so caste system should be abolished (Annihilation of Caste ). Gandhi believed untouchability was a product of thinking of ‘high and low’ and had nothing to do with caste system so caste system needn’t be abolished.
• Goal of Harijan Sevak Sangh (1932), established by Gandhi and his close associates, was to instill habits of cleaniness and social propriety in their untouchable beneficiaries and to wean them away from toddy-drinking, meateating and unseemly sexual indulgences. 

	Gandhi	Ambedkar
What to do with Caste System	Reform	Annihilate
Reasons	Reasons given in favour were that – 1. It leads to Division of Labour 2. Decentralisation 3. Job security	Reasons given to annihilate were – 1. It actually has led to Caste system became rigid 2. All the power usurped by Brahmins 3. For lower castes, only low grade jobs were available
Process	Change of heart of Upper Caste by educating them (through papers like Harijan) and temple entry	– Make law to punish those who practice it – Educate the lower castes – Also started magazines like Bahishkrit Bharat

• Campaign of Gandhi significantly undermined the moral  and religious basis of untouchability, but, as Bhikhu Parekh has argued,  it dignified the untouchables, but failed to empower them.

2. Communal Award of 1932

• When the Communal Award, 1932 gave separate electorates to Dalits, Gandhi opposed the communal electorates for Dalits and demanded that increased number of seats be reserved for them but they should be elected by everyone. He undertook 2 major fasts to press for his demand on this issue. Ambedkar on the other hand supported the Award while MC Rajah opposed it since he favored a joint electorate.
• After the Poona Pact ,there was a cooperation between Gandhi and Ambedkar for some time and it led to founding the Harijan Sevak Sangh but it failed to last for long.

But unlike Muslim breakaway politics, Dalit Self Assertion did not go very far and their politics was soon appropriated in the INM in 1940s

• Ambedkar found in 1942 All India SC Conference at Nagpur with  claim that dalits are  separate from hindus. But still it couldn’t break away Dalits from INM fold.
• One reason is that not many Dalits believed in his separatist politics and Gandhi had acquired immense popularity even among them. His constructive work programme naturally played a big role in allaying their concerns. This lack of mass support made his movement weak and he couldn’t play another Jinnah.
• In 1946 elections , his party won only 2 out of 151 reserved seats and on this basis Cabinet Mission could safely conclude that Congress was a genuine representative of the Dalits. Even now a furious Ambedkar tried to prove his base by trying to initiate a mass satyagraha but failed to get much support. Then Congress absorbed him into the Constituent Assembly by offering nomination to Ambedkar for a seat in the Constituent Assembly and then by choosing him for the chairmanship of the constitution drafting committee.
• Soon Ambedkar realised the futility of his association with the Congress, as its stalwarts refused to support him on the Hindu Code Bill. He resigned from the cabinet in 1951 and then on 15 October 1956, barely a month and a half before his death, he converted to Buddhism, along with three hundred and eighty thousand of his followers. This event is often celebrated as an ultimate public act of dissent against a Hinduism that was beyond reform

3. Madras Presidency Movements – Justice Party, MC Rajah and Periyar

• Here it was associated with creating a distinct Dravidian Identity as well. By the late 19th century, Brahmans consisted of less than 3% of the population but monopolized over 45% of the government jobs. They showed a public disdain for Tamil and the Dravidian culture and ethnicity. This motivated the Velalas to mobilize to uphold the Dravidian entity and in this they were aided by the Christian Missionaries who emphasized on the antiquity of Tamil and the Dravidian Culture. They also argued that the status of shudra was an imposed one by the Northern Brahmans  and caste system too was not indigenous to Tamil land

• In 1916, Justice Party was formed as a formal political party of non-Brahmans to demand for separate political representation of the non-Brahmans and it defied the NCM and participated in the elections of 1920. Naturally it won a big victory. But soon it became clear that it represented only the richer classes and thus its social base narrowed as the untouchables moved away under the leadership of MC Rajah. MC Rajah drew closer to Congress and even participated in CDM making it a resounding success in TN.

• Soon another movement, the Self Respect movement by EV Ramaswamy Naicker Periyar developed which was very radical and championed the Dravidian entity and Tamil language. He had left Congress in 1925 accusing it to be a Brahman organization and then worked to mobilize the Dalits. He believed that self respect was needed before self rule. Associating Sanskrit and North India with Brahmans, he launched scathing attacks on both.
• Periyar advocated outright atheism as the only true rational worldview. Periodically, the movement organized dramatic assaults on religions and priestly symbols like beating of priest and idols with shoes, and burned ‘sacred’ texts like Manusmriti. He turned Ramayna upside down and portrayed Ravana as the ideal South Indian king. He organized many programmes of temple entry .
• Unlike other caste movements, non-Brahmin movements in Madras showed signs of REGIONAL SEPARATISM. This became evident when in 1937 C Rajgopalachari proposed the introduction of Hindi as compulsory language in Madras. There were huge demonstrations against this and Tamil language movement spread from elites to the masses . This political campaign slowly propelled into a demand for separate ‘Dravida Nad’ .  
• In 1944, Justice Party of which Periyar was president changed it’s name to Dravida Kazhagam (DK) with it’s primary objective being separate non-Brahmin or Dravida Land

Foreign Policy under British Raj

This article deals with ‘ Foreign Policy under British Raj – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

Frontier & Foreign Policy

• Policy adopted by the British to consolidate their rule in India included securing it’s boundaries  
• To certain degree India influenced the foreign policy of whole Britain .  Being jewel in crown  & large size of Indian subcontinent,  defense of India was important part of British foreign policy

Reasons influencing

1 . Communication & Transport

• Industrial revolution led to invention of Railway, Roads & engines
• Men & material can be rapidly transported
• These facilities were not only for Britishers but other powers too like Russia . There was threat that they can come & attack via land too

2. Political & Administration

• Controlling the frontiers
• Securing the trade routes

International Situations affecting Foreign Policy

• In the 19th century – situation was favorable to British
• Have already defeated Dutch, French & Portuguese  to became undisputed naval power
• Hence, only land frontiers with Russia & China figured in Foreign policy of British India

1 . Threats of French Attack

• 1807 after French naval defeats – Napoleon planned to attack India via land route – there were apprehensions of joint French , Persian & Russian attack 
• Compelled Lord Minto, immediately to send 4  diplomatic missions as a counter move to avert the impending threat.
  • Malcolm was sent to  Tehran
  • Elphinstone to Kabul
  • Seton to Sindh
  • Charles Metcalfe to Lahore.
• As a result of the efforts of these diplomatic missions, friendly treaties were concluded with the respective governments with a view to meeting the challenge of the French . This was first ever step taken by British in foreign policy
• Although French threat disappeared with defeat of Napoleon in Battle of Waterloo but threat of Russians remained which dominated British Indian foreign policy for decades

2. Decline of China

• India never apprehended attack from China because frontier was naturally guarded by lofty Himalayas
• In history , China extended its sovereignty over Tibet but in 18th & 19th century her power declined

3. Threat from Russia

• Idea of Russian Peril – propagated by Lord Palmerston (British Foreign Secretary) 
• British checked Russian in Mediterranean sea.  They advanced towards north western frontier of Afghanistan => Alliance with Sikhs strengthened

4. Afghanistan

• British were anxious to protect Afghanistan because it was the emporium of their trade & only entrance to Central Asia from their side
• But it was British vs Russia in Afghanistan

Afghan Policy of British Raj

Afghan Policy was mainly led by British fears of Russian Attack ie RUSSOPHOBIA.

Two Anglo Afghan Wars were fought

• First Anglo Afghan War 1838 (Sikhs under Ranjit Singh were also party)
• Second Anglo Afghan War (under Lord Lytton)

First Anglo Afghan War (1838-43)

• Disastrous for British & led to  recall of Auckland
• 1838 : Tripartite Treaty signed between British, Sikhs and Shah Shuja (deposed ruler of Afghanistan in Sikh protection)
• 1839: British and Sikhs replaced Dost Mohammad by Shah Shuja (puppet)  as ruler of Afghanistan after defeating him
• But people didn’t accept Shah & there was rebellion in 1841
• Had to restore Dost Mohammad Khan on throne in 1843

• After that some significant changes happened . Punjab & Sind both fell to Britain & they reached natural Indian Boundaries
• Dost Mohammad Khan always remained neutral. Be it Crimean wars of 1854-56 with Russia or Revolt of 1857

Second Anglo – Afghan War (1878- 80)

• 1874 : liberals lost & Conservatives under Disraeli came to power who were believers of forward policy . They send Lytton as Viceroy and he led government to go for 2nd Anglo Afghan war
• 1878 : Sher Ali (Afghan Ruler) refused British envoy although he accepted Russian envoy in the Afghan Court. This leads to the second Anglo Afghan War with Britishers emerging victorious
• 2nd Anglo Afghan War => Afghans lost => Abdur Rahman (grandson of Dost Mohammad ) was placed as pupet on Throne in return of surrender of all political control to British

After World War I & Russian Revolution – Situation changed

• Afghanistan demanded full independence
• 1919 : Habibullah (Amir & Son of Abdur) was murdered . He was succeeded by Amanullah who declared war against British India
• 1921 Treaty – Afghanistan was declared independent  with control on foreign affairs

North West Frontier Policy

• Annexation of Sindh and Punjab brought the British into direct contact with the hill tribes. These hill tribes were practically free owing only nominal allegience to Amir of Kabul
• Inhabiting dry and difficult terrain, living on meagre resources but endowed with courage, endurance and military skill, these people frequently indulged in mass raids and plundering of the British Indian border
• Two distinct methods of administering the frontiers & conducting relations with tribes developed because they share border with two different provinces

Bombay	– Valleys were broader and less torturous than Punjab – Closed Frontier system was adopted – Under this, frontier was patrolled & no tribal man beyond the border was allowed to enter  British territory without pass
Punjab	– Open frontier – For its protection, forts and garrisons were built to guard the narrow passes. To encourage tribesmen to forsake their old habits of plunder the government allowed them to trade in the British Indian territory.

Lord Dalhousie’s policy

• Policy of Fines, Blockades & Expeditions
  • Fines were imposed as a punishment for plunder and murder
  • blockades for keeping crisis within certain limits
  • expeditions were led against the tribes which resorted to mass plunder and rampage.
• In view of the high rate of casualties, the British officers were discouraged from visiting the tribal region.
• It created employment opportunities and encouraged the tribals to enlist themselves in military and para-military forces.
• It strengthened its hold on the region by constructing roads and railway lines

Till 1890 – British policy in Sindh was more effective than in Punjab

Reasons were

• Physical difference – Already mentioned
• Jigra ie  tribal council of the pathans  in Baluchistan consisted of few leaders & was easy to deal with them but in Punjab there were large number of leaders . Consensus was reached with dificulty & even if reached , very less chances that all will abide

Durand Line  1896

• Establishment of peace on NWF was a complex problem as usually Amir of Kabul intrigued with frontier tribes  . Lord Lansdowne wanted to settle it forever .  Sir Mortimer Durand was appointed to negotiate a boundary agreement

Amir Of Kabul	To retain Wakhan, Asmar, Kafiristan, Mohmand and a portion of Wazirstan;
Britishers	Swat, Bajaur, Darwaz Kurrum Valley, Chalgeh and New Chaman+tribal areas of Gomal Pass

• It gave legal right to britishers to enforce subordination upon tribes like Waziris, Afridis & Bajauris . There were numerous revolts because of agreement because these tribes didn’t accept British Subordination

Lord Curzon

• Having intimate and personal knowledge of the area and the people, Lord Curzon –(1899-1905)–proposed the withdrawal of British Indian regular troops and replacing them with bodies of tribal levies.
• Besides gaining confidence of the frontier and creating local responsibility for maintaining law and order the proposed change had the additional advantage of being less costly.

Tibet Policy of British Raj

• Tibet is a landlocked country encircled by chains of mountains with average height of 10,000 feet above sea level  with meagre resources . People loved isolation . China had nominal suzerainty over Tibet but in practice in 19th century with decline of Manchu dynasty Chinese influence  over Tibet was almost non existent
• With no threat , in the beginning British interest in Tibet was purely commercial . Warren Hastings send two missions in 1770s for commercial purposes
• But eventually British interest increased . Reasons can be
  • In view of the declining power of China, and scramble among the foreign powers to divide it into spheres of influence, Tibet assumed great strategic importance particularly for the British and the Russians.
  • After the extension of British influence over Nepal, Bhutan and Sikkim, the boundaries of British India and Tibet came very close to the each other.
  • When Russian advance reached Pamirs,it posed  a threat to security of India from the northern side.
  • During the 19 th century , British interest in teak and shawl wool increased considerably. There was a tremendous pressure of the traders on the government to develop regular traffic with Tibet through Bhutan.
  • There were rumours that Mongol of Russian nationality , Agwar Dordshi had gained confidence of Dalai Lama & was shutting between Lhasa & Petersburg

The lure of the closed land was too strong to resist, the fear of Russia was too great to be ignored and the desire for trade was too powerful to overcome for  Curzon . England was reluctant to sanction any interference but Curzan was able to extract permission to send Col Younghusband to Tibet . 700 Tibetans slaughtered & Treaty was signed & Tibet was reduced to protectorate of Britain.  Russia accepted this showing bogy of Russian danger was superfluous

• Chinese revolution in 1912 – New government wanted to make Tibet a Chinese part but Dalai Lama declared independence.  Representatives of China & Tibet invited to Shimla in 1912 to settle the issue . 2 treaties were signed
  • British accepted China’s suzerainty over eastern zone or the inner zone. The outer zone or the western zone was declared autonomous.
  • By another treaty it was decided to draw a boundary between Tibet and British India which is named after the British delegate Henry McMahon.

Nepal Policy of British Raj

• Nepal was Hindu Gorkha kingdom.  After securing the control of the valley of Kathmandu in 1768,the Gorkhas steadily encroached upon both east and west, and occupied Kumaon, Garhwal , Sikkim and the Shimla hills. These areas were conceded to the British after the Gorkhas were defeated by the Treaty of Sagauli in 1816.
• After the treaty the British used a great deal of tact and skill in their dealings with the rulers of Nepal. They treated Nepalese ruler as sovereign and addressed him as ‘Your Majesty’.
• To them, the kingdom of Nepal was a stable and secure buffer between India and Tibet or China. To great satisfaction of the British, Nepal displayed no signs of entertaining any sentiments against the British. Relations between them were of peaceful co-existence & confidence. They were based  on the assumption that there existed an alliance between the two sides.
• The Nepalese on their part maintained perfect neutrality during the revolt of 1857, whereas  British enlisted a large number of Gorkhas as mercenaries in their army.
• Without any formal alliance treaty ,Nepalese government molded their foreign policy in accordance with British interests

Sikkim Policy of British Raj

• Small Principality between Bhutan & Nepal
• Strategically important because through it, Tibet can be reached through its two passes i) Kalimpong & Jelep La pass leading to Chumbi valley ii) Along Tista river to Sihaste
• Civilised by Tibetan Monks & ruled by Aristocratic family , Sikkim was an independent country
• Closing decades of 18th century , Gurkhas temporarily vested  their control over it . British however restored its independence & in 1861 declared it to be protectorate .

Bhutan Policy  of British Raj

• Adjacent to Sikkim. Being poor, Bhutanese frequently raided plains for looting & in one of the raids they kidnapped Raja of Cooch Behar who was a British protectorate
• To rescue him , Warren Hastings attacked Bhutan . They were defeated & small strip of land from Bhutan annexed to British territories
• Even after that they continued to raid when Britishers were busy elsewhere + mistreated British Delegates
• To settle this , Young husband Expedition in 1904-06 .
• Finally Treaty of friendship  was signed at Punakha & they recognized Bhutanese ruler as sovereign in all matters except foreign affairs

Burma Policy of British Policy

Here British policy was decided by Timber resources and threat from French Empire of South East Asia.

1st Anglo – Burmese War

• 1824 to 1826
• In SE Asia, French were moving ahead during that time
• Earlier Burma had small principalities each sovereign in its own respect . It was united by ruler Alaungpaya near about 1760
• Bodawpaya extended by conquering Arakan , Manipur .Hence, they started to share border with British
• 1822 : Burma annexed Assam too . Britishers declared war on Burma in 1824
• Burma lost &  Treaty of Yandabo signed with them
  • British conquered Assam, Cachar, Manipur, Jaintia  & Arakan
  • Compensation to British 
  • Burmese were forced to enter into commercial treaty with Britishers giving them rights of forests , natural areas
  • British Resident to be placed at Ava

2nd Anglo Burmese War

• Fought in 1852
• Now Britishers were occupying all coastal area except coastal province of Pegu
• This they did by 2nd Anglo-Burmese  war & renamed it Lower Burma

3rd Anglo Burmese War

• Fought in 1885
• French were moving upwards & Burma signed Treaty with France for Trade ( mainly Timber of North Burma in which Britishers were interested too)
• Opportunity to attack  and finally they attacked
• Guerrilla warfare by Burmese army.  Huge British army was used (40,000) & huge losses to Britishers
• Finally whole of Burma was annexed

In 1935, Burma separated from India due to growing ties between Burmese and Indian nationalists .

In 1948, Burma got independence from British Empire .

Civil Services under British Raj

This article deals with ‘ Civil Services under British Raj – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

Civilian bureaucracy was meant only to implement policies framed in Britain  . Distance between London & India , the difficulty of communication & their command over information from the field gave them a considerable amount of  discretion & initiative . IN THEIR HEYDAYS THEY WERE MOST POWERFUL OFFICIALS IN EMPIRE IF NOT THE WORLD .

Evolution of Indian Civil Services

1 . Initial Times

• Establishment of  bureaucracy of civil servants under the British rule was a gradual process.
• East India Company employed in its regular service apprentices, writers and factors nominated by the Directors. They had no regular scale of pay and they were partly compensated by private trade.
• Administrative responsibility of the Company increased as it assumed territorial control over large tracts of India.

2. Developments under Warren Hastings

• Regulating Act of 1773 banned private trade for all the civil servants who were employed in the collection of revenue or the administration of justice.
• Warren Hastings felt the need to reorganize the district level administration.
• Administrative functions were taken away from the private agencies 

3. Developments under Cornwallis

Separation of Powers and De-Indianisation of Civil Services

• Lord Cornwallis reorganized the civil-bureaucracy by specifying administrative responsibilities.
• He separated the work of revenue collection from administration of justice.
• He eliminated  Indians from the administration of justice and revenue-collection.
  • Muslim judges were replaced by the European covenanted servants as Circuit Judges
  • Work of settlement, registry and accounts was transferred to the Board of Revenue managed by the covenanted English civil servants.

4. Developments under Wellesley

• Wellesley believed in a strong and professionally trained bureaucracy.
• He did not adopt the policy of separation of judiciary and executive and combined the power of justice, revenue-collection and policing.
• He established the College of Fort William (1800) to train civil servants and to acquaint them with the language and history of India. It was a short-lived experiment that was given up in 1802 by the orders of the Court of Directors. Haileybury College was founded in 1806 and it was given statutory status by the Charter Act of 1813. This institution provided training to the civil servants to be employed in the Company’s service in India.

5. Charter of 1833

• Competition for recruitment
• But it was limited competition among candidates nominated by the directors => couldn’t improved situation

6. Charter of 1853

• Introduced Principle of open competition
• Haileybury college was abolished & civil servants recruited through an examination held annually in England. Examination was open to all natural born subjects of Her Majesty
• Committee headed by Macaulay, appointed by the Board of Control prescribed the age and qualifications of the civil servants as well as the curriculum to be taught to the prospective civil servants
  • Age of probation was raised from a minimum of 18 years to a maximum of 23 years.
  • Probationers were to be taught about Indian history, geography, natural resources of India and the physical and moral qualities of the different races of India, the progress of British power in India, the general principles of jurisprudence, finance, banking and taxation etc, and one of the vernacular languages.
  • This open competition was held annually in London.

In principle, it was open to all British subjects including Indians. However, indians faced enormous difficulties in joining the ranks of the coveted civil service. Still, a few English educated Indians did manage to enter it.

• Max age was 23 which was lowered to 22 in 1860 & finally till 19 years in 1878 .

Process towards Indiansiation of Civil services

7. Lord Lytton and Statutory Civil Services

• Charter Act of 1853 had declared all offices in India open to merit irrespective of nationality & colour and Charter Act of 1853 provided for holding of a competitive examination in London for recruitment to higher services . Act was passed in 1870 saying that 1/5th recruits to Covenant Service should be Indians even without competitive examination but it took for government to 10 years to frame rules
• Indians couldn’t enter ICS because difficulties facing aspirants were great. From 1862 to 75 only 40 Indians appeared for ICS & only 10 were successful.
• Lytton proposed the straightforward course of closing Covenanted Civil Service to Indians & instead create ‘a close native service’ to meet the provisions of the Act of 1870 . Home Authorities didn’t favour this because of its discriminatory nature .
• Lytton then proposed plan for Statutory Civil Services in 1878-79 (According to Act of 1870)  . According to rules of 1879 , the Govt of India could employ some Indians of good family & social standing in  SCS on recommendation of Provincial Government subject to confirmation & number of such appointments not to exceed 1/6th of total appointments . (However , SCS didn’t become popular with Indians & discarded later)
• Since SoS didn’t accept proposal to discard CCS to Indians altogether, hence he made calculated move to discourage Indians from competing by reducing max age from 21 years to 19 years .

Throughout India this was seen as a colored legislation & it was difficult for Indians to digest this humiliation

8. Lord Ripon’s suggestions

• Realized political importance of Indian Middle class & argued that their continued exclusion from administration might eventually spell danger for empire => he preferred simultaneous competitive examination in India
• But proposal met with opposition from European bureaucracy

9. Provincial Civil Services

• Statutory civil service was abolished  on the recommendation of Charles Aitchison Commission (1886). A new service now styled as the Provincial Civil Service was established. Indian could still enter into ICS but exam to be held in London only
• PCS consisted of Certain superior class of executive posts that were earlier reserved for the covenanted civil service . The recruitment to this service was made partly by promotion from the subordinated civil service and partly by direct recruitment and open competition.
• Although the men of ICS and provincial civil services discharged similar duties like, their power and social status differed vastly. However, it did create additional opportunities for  educated Indians and  weaning away from  nationalism.

10 . Government of India Act,1919

• Provided for separate(not simultaneous ) recruitment exam to ICS to be held in India
• First held in Allahabad in 1922
• As a result till 1941 , Indian Civil Servants outnumbered Europeans

Impact of Indianisation of Civil services

• Reduced its value as an apparatus of authoritarian rule for empire & paved way for transfer of power
• Made it possible for continuation of tradition into period after independence when only nomenclature changed into IAS

Famine Policy of British Raj

This article deals with ‘ Famine Policy of British Raj – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

Major Famines during Colonial Period

• Bengal Famine of 1770 => Wiped out 1/3 of population.
• In 1784, Madras was struck by a massive famine.
• In 1792, North India struck by a famine.
• In 1803, another famine in Oudh.
• In 1833, Guntoor famine which wiped out 40% of population.
• In 1837, another famine in North India.

Famine Policy

• East India Company (EIC) was totally unconcerned about it. Some sort of policy started evolving only after the transfer of power to British crown.
• In 1861, Delhi-Agra region was struck by a famine. A committee was appointed but no significant study was undertaken and situation remained largely unchanged.
• In 1866 the Odisha famine struck and 3 million died. A committee was setup to look into the causes. The committee suggested that steps should be taken to generate employment and famine relief measures should be carried out.

Richard Strachey Commission

• In 1876-78 another famine struck in many parts of India during times of Lytton  and 5 million died. Richard Strachey commission was appointed in 1880 which suggested
  • A famine code be formulated
  • Land Tax should be remitted for famine struck areas,
  • Data about peasantry should be collected to understand the true causes of the famine,
  • A famine relief fund should be established.

As a result of its recommendations,

• A famine relief fund with a corpus of Rs. 1 cr was setup.
• A famine code was implemented in 1886 which divided the famine prone areas into various categories, listed the precautions to be taken in normal times, listed the relief measures to be taken in a famine and the responsibilities of the officials in relief campaigns.

McDonnell commission

• In 1896-97 a major famine struck in whole India. Another commission was appointed but nothing came out
• In 1899-00, another famine broke out in India. McDonnell commission was appointed which recommended
  • Famine commission be established to coordinate relief measures
  • Famine Code should be revised
  • Transportation facilities be developed.
  • Agricultural banks should be setup.
  • Irrigation facilities should be developed.

In pursuance with recommendations a famine commission was setup, famine code revised and irrigation facilities developed.

Bengal Famine of 1943

• In 1943 Bengal famine happened. Another commission was appointed which suggested merger of departments of food and agriculture and steps be taken to increase agriculture production.

Development of Education Policy

This article deals with ‘ Development of Education Policy – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

Introduction

• During the 18th century, the Hindu & Muslim seats of learning languished . English East India Company (EIC) became ruling power in 1765 . Following the example of contemporary English Government , Court of Directors (CoD) refused to take on itself the responsibility for education of people of India & left it to Private efforts . However, Indian officers of EIC urged CoD to do something & as a result half hearted efforts were made
  • Warren Hastings himself an intellectual setup Calcutta Madrassa in 1781
  • Duncan (British Resident at Benaras) helped in opening Sanskrit College at Benaras

But these attempts for promoting Oriental Education met with little success.

• On the other hand, Christian Missionaries were advocating for teaching in Western Literature and Christianity with English as medium of instruction  . Serampore Missionary were overly enthusiastic for this.

Work of Missionaries

• Prior to 1765, the East India Company had been favourable to missionary activities. But later on it opposed all attempts at proselytisation as it wanted to consolidate its position as a political power. The differences between the East India Company and the missionaries continued to persist till 1813

• Charles Grant, William Wilberforce, Henry Thornton and Edmond Parry  were seeking permission for  missionaries to serve as “school-masters, missionaries, or otherwise”  but their attempts were discouraged by the Company. Reasons given were
  • Court of Directors of Company argued “that the Hindus had as good a system of faith and morals as most people and that it would be madness to attempt their conversion or to give them any more learning or any other description of learning than what they already possessed.
  •  Mr. Randle Jackson, a member of parliament remarked, “We have lost our colonies in America by imparting education there; we need not do so in India too.”

• Charles Grant continued with his efforts and also prepared the first formal blue-print on language and education for India in which he argued in favour of the English language, education and Christianity. He quoted the example of the Mughals who had earlier imposed their language upon their subjects. He wanted English to be introduced in India as the medium of instruction in a western system of education. Moreover, he suggested English to be adopted as the official language of the Government for easy communication between the rulers and the ruled.

Charter Act , 1813

• Charter Act of 1813 marked a point of departure regarding the educational policy of East India Company towards its Indian subjects. Under it, the Company, for the first time, accepted state responsibility in the sphere of education.  Act empowered Governor General of India “to direct a sum of not less than one lakh of rupees each year for
  • Revival & promotion of literature .
  • Encouragement of Learned natives of India .
  • Introduction & promotion of knowledge of sciences among inhabitants .

• Also Christian Missionaries were permitted to carry on their proselytising and educational activities in the manner they liked.

In spite of the parliamentary sanction, there had been a lull in the educational activity and the money remained unspent. Nothing was done up to 1823 when a General Committee of Public Instruction was appointed. The Committee re-organised the Calcutta Madrasa and the Benaras Sanskrit College. In 1823 Lord Amherst founded the Sanskrit College at Calcutta. Two more oriental colleges at Agra and Delhi were also established. The Committee undertook the task of publishing Sanskrit and Arabic texts and translation of English books containing ‘useful knowledge’ into Oriental classical languages.

Growing Popularity of Western Learning and Raja Ram Mohan Roy

• Main factor which tipped in favour of English Language & Western Literature was Economic  ie Indians wanted a system of education which could help them to earn their livelihood . Progressive Indians also favoured this
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy (RRMR) protested against govt’s proposal to strengthen Calcutta Madrassa & Benaras Sanskrit College & establishment of more Oriental Colleges in Bengal.   He also wrote to Governor General Lord Amherst against this in 1823
• He advocated Modern Scientific learning and wrote , ” The Sanskrit System of Education would be best calculated to keep the country in darkness , if such had been the policy of British government. But as the improvement of the native population is the object of the Government , it will consequently promote a more liberal & enlightened system of Instruction embracing  Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, Chemistry , Anatomy with other useful sciences. 
• His protests didn’t go unheed and Government agreed to
  • Encourage English as well as Oriental Languages
  • Grant was sanctioned for Calcutta Hindu College which imparted education in English language
  • Government setup translation of European scientific works into Oriental Languages.

Oriental Anglicist Controversy

General Committee of Instruction consisted of 10 members & within Committee there were two Groups

• Anglicists advocated the spread of Western knowledge through the medium of English. This school included the missionaries and the younger civilians & was also supported by Indians like Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
• Orientalists led by Princep : Advocated Orientalist education. Orientalists while agreeing to the programme of the dissemination of western sciences and knowledge among the Indians, staunchly advocated the encouragement of Sanskrit and Arabic literature. The adherents of this school were further split into two groups over the question of the medium of instruction.
  1. One group (consisted of the older officials of the Company in Bengal) suggested that western science and knowledge should be spread in India through the medium of classical languages such as Sanskrit and Arabic. This group was especially strong in Bengal and was influenced by the views of Warren Hastings and Minto.
  2. The other group (led by Munro and Elplinstone and influential in Bombay) believed that western education could reach the mass of the people only of it was imparted in vernaculars or modem Indian languages.

Equal division of votes in Committee made it almost impossible to function effectively.  Ultimately both the parties submitted their dispute to Governor General in Council in 1835.

• Macaulay was the Law Member at that time& he wrote his famous Minute on Education& placed it before the Council
  • Favoured view point of the Anglicist Party
  • Showed great contempt for the Indian Customs & Literature and said , ” a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature in India & Arabia.”
  • Regarding the utility of English language he wrote, ” Whoever knows English has  access to all the vast intellectual wealth which all the wisest nations of the earth have created & handed over in course of 90 generations.”
  • Possibly Macaulay aimed to create a class of persons who should be “Indian in blood & colour but English in tastes, in opinion , in morals & in intellect. ” He sought the production of Englishmen to fill lower cadres of EIC’s administration.
• The Government of William Bentinck accepted the viewpoint of Macaulay that object of the EIC’s Government should be promotion of European literature & sciences through the medium of English language & in future all funds were to be spent for this purpose

• Also during this time ,  Court of Directors in England came under the influence of James Mill who advocated  western education.  So CoD also favoured Anglicist point of view

Macaulayian System

• It was systematic effort on the part of the British government to educate upper classes through  medium of English language
• Education of masses wasn’t the aim of Macaulay & he himself admitted that it was impossible for them with limited means that were available.
• He put implicit faith on INFILTRATION THEORY ie he believed that English educated persons would act as CLASS OF INTERPRETERS & in turn enrich the Vernacular Languages & Literature . In this way, knowledge of Western Sciences & literary would reach to the masses. Thus a natural corollary of Macaulay’s theory was the development of Vernacular languages as ancillary to the teachings of English. Thus according to the ‘filtration theory’, “education was to permeate down to the masses from above. Drop by drop from the Himalayas of Indian life useful information was to trickle downwards, forming in time a broad and stately stream to irrigate the thirsty plains.”

• This theory was also supported by the missionaries who were of the opinion that if Hindus of the higher castes were converted to Christianity through education, other lower caste people would follow suit automatically

• This theory had to be abandoned later because it did not work out for two reasons
  • Persons who had acquired English education were able to get government jobs easily hence they did not make any effort for educating their countrymen.
  • New education had “created a separate caste of English scholars, who no longer had sympathy, or had very little sympathy, with their countrymen.”

Thomsanian system

• In NW Provinces (UP) , James Thomson (LT Gov) from 1843 to 53 made efforts to develop
  • Comprehensive scheme of village education through the medium of Vernacular Languages.
  • Small English Schools were abolished and English Education was confined to Colleges .
  • In Village schools useful subjects like Mensuration, Agricultural Science etc were taught in medium of vernaculars .
  • Department of Education was organised for the development of indigenous schools.
• This was seen as alternate to Macaulian Education System.

Sir Charles Wood’s Dispatch on Education , 1854

• He was President of BoC & was firm believer in the superiority of English Race & institutions . He  believed that these institutions could serve as a useful model for the world
• In 1854 , he prepared his comprehensive despatch on the scheme of future education in India & it is considered as Magna Carta of English Education in India
• It declared following
  • Aim of Govt’s Educational Policy was teaching of Western education .
  • Medium of Instruction – For higher education English language was the perfect medium but at the same time recognised the importance of Vernacular language because only through Vernacular languages , European knowledge could infilter to the masses
  • He gave following system

Primary Schools	Vernacular Language
High Schools	Anglo-Vernacular Language
College	To be present in each distt & in English language

• Despatch also rejected the Downward Filtration Theory, as it was considered a retrograde policy. It was stated in the Despatch that the government should assume direct responsibilities for the education of the masses and women.
• This policy proposed that while a relatively small group of highly edu­cated Indians would be needed to man the subordinate positions in the administration, the wider population should also have “useful  and  practical knowledge” in order to become good workers, capable of developing the vast resources of the empire, and also become good consumers valuing the superior quality of British goods re­quiring a market.
• It was thought that as government could never have the funds to provide for all the educational needs of the country, the bulk of its educational institutions would have to be organised by private bodies – whether missionary or Indian. Hence, Despatch recommended Grant in Aid to encourage private enterprise in field of Education. Grants was conditional on employing qualified teachers and maintenance of proper standards of teaching
• For a systematic supervision of education system, Department of Public Instruction in each Province to be made
• Universities on the model of London University were proposed at Calcutta, Bombay &. Madras
• Emphasised on the importance of Vocational instruction& need for establishing technical schools and colleges
• Women education was favoured
• Almost all the proposals of Dispatch were Implemented.

Hunter Education Commission

• In 1882, Govt appointed Commission under WW Hunter to
  • review the progress of education in India
  • Enquire the state of elementary education and means by which it can be extended and improved
• Another reason was propaganda by Missionaries in England that Education policy in India wasn’t in accordance with Wood’s Dispatch
• Main Recommendations were

Primary education	– Special care for extension and improvement of Primary education & recommended transfer of Primary education to newly set District and Municipal Boards. – Primary education should be through Vernacular
Secondary Education	There should be two divisions for this 1. Literary education leading upto Entrance Examination to Universities 2. Education of practical character preparing students for commercial & vocational careers
Private Enterprise	– Recommended that an all out effort should be made to encourage private enterprise in field of education. For this liberal Grant in Aid system & recognition of aided schools as equal to Govt institutions was done.
Female Education	– Recognized inadequate facilities for female education outside Presidency Towns and recommended for its spread

Twenty years following the report saw an unprecedented growth and expansion of secondary and collegiate education.

Indian Universities Act , 1904

• 1901 : Curzon summoned highest educational officers of the Govt & Representatives of Universities to Shimla & passed 150 Resolutions touching each and every conceivable branch of Education.
• This was followed by appointment of Commission under Presidency of Sir Thomas Raleigh in 1902 to inquire into conditions and prospects of Universities in India . As a result of these recommendations, Indian Universities Act was passed in 1904 . Main changes were
  • Universities were desired to make provisions for study & research
  • Act laid down that no of fellows of a University shall not be less than 50 nor more than 100 and a Fellow should normally hold office for period of 6 years instead for life
  • The Governor’s Control over the Universities was further increased by vesting the Govt with powers to Veto the regulations passed by the Senate of a University. The Govt could also make additions or alterations in the regulations framed by the Senate & even frame regulations itself  over and above the head of the Senate
  • Increased University Control over the Private Colleges by laying down stricter conditions of affiliation and periodical inspection by Syndicate . The Private Colleges were required to keep proper standard of efficiency
  • GG in Council was empowered to define the territorial limits of a University or decide the affiliation of colleges to University.
• Nationalist Opinion opposed this & called it a Retrograde step and believed that Curzon sought to reduce the Universities to position of department of the State . Even Sadler Commission commented that Act of 1904 made Indian universities most Govt controlled Universities in the world

Sadler’s Commission , 1917-19

• In 1917, Govt appointed this  to study and report problems of Calcutta University under Sadler (VC of University of Leeds) .
• Earlier, Hunter Commission looked into elementary education and Rayleigh Commission into University Education. But this commission looked into whole Education system from Primary to University level.
• Main theme was – effective synthesis between colleges and universities & foundation of sound university organisation.
• Its main Recommendations were
  • 12 years school course was recommended . After assessing at Intermediate Exam rather than Matriculation , the students were to enter University . The Govt created new type of institutions for this called Intermediate Colleges. These Colleges could either be independent or attached to high schools
  • Duration of degree course after Intermediate State should be limited to 3 years .
  • Less rigidity in framing regulations for the University .
  • Old type of Indian University with large no of affiliated & widely scattered colleges should be replaced by centralized unitary residential autonomous bodies. Unitary University was recommended for Dacca to lessen pressure on Calcutta University.   
  • Necessity of providing substantial facilities for training of teachers was emphasized
  • Provide courses in applied science and vocational training
  • Facilities for female education & establishment of Special Board for Women Education in University of Calcutta.

Hartog Committee , 1929

• Quantitative increase in Education led to deterioration of Quality & lowering of Standards . Hence Indian Statutory Commission (Simon Commission) appointed an Committee for development of Education.
• Main recommendations were
  • Emphasized on importance of Primary Education but condemned the hasty expansion & compulsion in education
  • Secondary education to be diversified leading to industrial courses & commercial careers.
  • Pointed out weaknesses of University education & criticized the policy of indiscriminate admissions leading to lowering of standards . Recommended all efforts should be laid in improving university work & giving good education to students who were fit to receive it .

Wardha Scheme

• Government of India Act , 1935 introduced Provincial Autonomy .
• Congress Party came to power in 7 provinces and worked to evolve national scheme of Education for the Country. Gandhi wrote articles in his paper Harijan & made suggestions regarding scheme of education called Basic Education.
• Zakir Hussain committee worked out details of scheme & prepared detailed syllabus for no of crafts & made suggestions concerning productive work. It centered around
  • Manual productive work which might cover the remuneration of teachers
  • Envisaged 7 years course through mother tongue of the students
• But nothing much done later because Congress Ministries resigned in 1939

Sergeant Plan of Education

• In 1944, Central Advisory Board of Education drew up a national scheme of Education called Sergant Plan
  • Establishment of Elementary Schools and High School
  • Introduction of Universal free and Compulsory Education between 6 & 11 years
  • School course of 6 years to be provided between 11 to 17
  • High Schools to provide 2 types of Education ie Academic and Technical

Strengthening of Ethical and Moral Values in Governance

This article deals with ‘Strengthening of Ethical and Moral Values in Governance.’ This is part of our series on ‘Ethics’  . For more articles , you can click here

Problems of Governance in India

This whole scene has to be seen in the context of

1. Corruption , Nepotism , favoritism , Crony Capitalism
2. Misuse of power in  personal interest
3. Red tapism : Undue delay in public service delivery because of complex procedures 
4. Lack of Transparency
5. Weak Accountability
6. Lack of public participation in decision making
7. Bureaucratic apathy particularly towards  weaker sections of society
8. Status quoist and elitist orientation of bureaucracy
9. Politicisation of Bureaucracy
10. Criminalisation of politics

How to Strengthen Ethical Governance

For this, we need to take various steps in various fields

1 . Political Structure

• Enforce expenditure limits on elections strictly
• Bring Political Parties under RTI
• Remove excessive protection given to tainted politicians

2. Statutory Structure

For this 2nd ARC has given various recommendations

• Amend Prevention of Corruption Act
• Enactment of Serious Economic Offences Act 
• Integrity Pacts – When Government Organisation signs any contract with Private organisation, sign integrity pacts stating that if Private Organisation is found involved in any wrongdoing, contract will cancel automatically .

3. Institutional Structure

• Strengthen and give more teeth to CVC , Lokpal , CBI etc

4. Social Infrastructure

Take help of society in reducing corruption and increasing Ethical Governance

• Give Civic education in Schools. 
• False Claims Act (USA) – If you think that there is wrongdoing in some organisation, gather evidences & produce it before court. If fine is imposed on that organisation , some portion of money from that fine will be given to litigant .
• Social Audit : Social Audit can help in this regard.