Secularism

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Secularism

This article deals with ‘Secularism’ . This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

What is Secularism?

  • Secularism is defined as the principle of separation of state from religious institutions and religious dignitaries. 
  • But nature and extent of separation may take different forms depending upon the different values it intends to promote.

Three models of Secularism

Secularism

US Model

  • US Model is of the view that religion is a private affair of person and state passively respects all religions. 
  • In this model, ‘ARM LENGTH DISTANCE’ is maintained between state and religion.  

French Model

  • It is also known as Laicite/Militant Secularism.
  • Due to a long battle against religious influence on laws and government, Laicite was introduced in France.  
  • It is followed in France and Quebec province of Canada.
  • Laicite secularism believes in total separation between religion and state (i.e. religious activities and symbols are banned in the public sphere).
  • This model also restricts wearing hijab and the Sikh turban in the public sphere. 
  • But, French secularism has come under criticism that rather than promoting diversity, freedom of thought and multiculturalism, it is interfering with the basic right to religious self-expression. Recently, this model came into controversy due to backlash by Islamists against Charlie Hebdo’s publication of offensive cartoons of Prophet Mohammad and denial of the French government to condemn such acts. 

Indian Model

The Indian idea and practice of secularism, although inspired by western ideas yet, is rooted in India’s unique socio-historic circumstances like religious diversity and support for all religions. 

Features of Indian secularism are as follows:-

  • The Wall of Separation between state and religion is porous, i.e. state can intervene in religion to promote progressive voices within every religion. E.g., Abolition of Untouchability (among Hindus) and Abolition of Triple Talaq (among Muslims). 
  • However, religion is prohibited from interfering in state matters, disallowing the mobilization of electoral support on religious lines. 
Indian Model of Secularism

It is sometimes argued that the concept of secularism has been imported from the west. But it is clear from the above differences that strict church and state separation is the central area of focus in the West, while in India, peaceful co-existence is the main focus.

Provisions regarding Secularism in India

Provisions regarding Secularism in India
  • Articles 25 to 28: Deals with freedom of religion to all.  
    1. Article 25: guarantees freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion. 
    2. Article 26: every religious denomination has the freedom to manage its religious affairs. 
    3. Article 27: Freedom from payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion. 
    4. Article 28: Freedom to attend religious instruction or religious worship in certain educational institutions. 
  • Articles 14 (Equality before law and equal protection of law), Article 29 (Protection of distinct language, script or culture of minorities ), Article 44 (Uniform Civil Code) and 51A, by implication, prohibit the establishment of a theocratic state. 
  • Judicial pronouncements regarding secularism
    1. In the Kesavananda Bharati case, the Supreme Court had declared secularism as a part of the basic structure of the Constitution. 
    2. Rev Stanislau vs the State of MP held that forcible conversions are not included in the right to propagate religion as it may disturb public order. 
    3. In the Church of God (Full Gospel) in India vs K. K. R. Majestic Colony Welfare Association (2000), it was held that the right to religion is subject to public order, and no prayers should be performed by disturbing the peace of others. 
    4. Ismail Farooqui vs Union of India (1994): Supreme Court held that “the concept of secularism is one facet of the right to equality.”
    5. The Doctrine of Essential Practices pronounced by Supreme Court.
  • Section 123(3) of the Representation of Peoples Act 1951  prohibits political parties to ask for votes on religious lines. 

Challenges to Secularism

  • Frequent recourse to revivalist events such as Ghar Wapsi etc., breeds fear amongst the minorities.
  • Incidents of lynching, especially of Muslims, in the name of cow vigilantism. 
  • Charges of ‘Love Jihad‘ by far-right Hindutva groups in case of inter-religion marriages. BJP ruled states like UP and MP are bringing laws against so-called Love Jihad.
  • Communal Riots and Targeted Violence.
  • Religious hate speech, falsification of history and dissemination of wrong information. 
  • International events such as the rise of ISIS (Daesh), instigation by foreign agencies such as ISI etc. 

Previous year UPSC questions on Secularism

  • How do the Indian debates on secularism differ from the debates in the West?

Communalism

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Communalism

This article deals with ‘Communalism’ . This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Definition

Communalism can be defined as allegiance to one’s own ethnic/religious group rather than wider society. Although it is exclusive in outlook, a communalist considers his religion superior to other religions. 

Stages of Communalism

Communalism is manifested at three levels

Mild When people belonging to the same community believe that they have the same secular interest.
Moderate When people belonging to different communities believe that they have different secular interests.
Extreme When people believe that they not only have different interests but mutually antagonistic and hostile interests (i.e. one community can prosper only at the cost of another community).

Note: Communalism is an ideological tool often used by the upper class to mobilize people to achieve their own political goals. 

6 types of Communalism

Often there is a perception in the society that communalism is a threat to national security. But, it is not a threat to national security per se. It depends upon the type of communalism we are looking at.

According to Sociologists, there are 6 types of Communalism.

Communalism

1. Assimilationist

  • When a large religious community tries to bring into its fold small communities.  
  • E.g., Hindu organizations projecting Tribals as Hindus. 

2. Welfarist

  • When a religious community makes an effort for the welfare of the members of that community.
  • E.g., Christian organizations doing welfare work for Christians.

3. Retreatist

  • When the religious community forbid their members from participating in political affairs.
  • E.g., Bahi Community.

4. Retaliatory

  • When members of the religious communities are made to believe that their interests are mutually antagonist to the interests of other religious communities.
  • E.g., the Hindu-Muslim community.

5. Separatist

  • When people demand a separate state based on religious identities within the federal framework.
  • E.g., Punjabi Suba Movement by Punjabi Sikhs. 

6. Secessionist

  • When people demand secession based on religious identities.
  • E.g., Khalistan Movement. 

The last three threaten national integration, but the first three aren’t. Hence, we cant say communalism is always a threat to national integration.

Characteristics of Communalism

  • Communalism is an ideological concept. 
  • It is a total commitment to a set of beliefs & unwillingness to accept other beliefs.
  • It mostly rests on prejudices. 
  • It closes the self and is highly emotional.
  • It causes rivalry and violence among the masses. 
  • The higher class people and elites use it as an instrument for division and exploitation.
  • It strikes at the roots of secularism and national integration.

Evolution of Communalism in India

The genesis of communalism in India can be traced back to British rule.

  • With the emergence of secular education, a new educated middle class emerged. But the aspirations of the middle class were not getting satisfied in the absence of adequate economic opportunities. Communal Politics emerged to get the largest pie for their community.
  • In India, socio-economic classes coincided with religious distinctions. E.g.,
    • Hindu Zamindars vs Muslim peasants in Bengal, Kerala etc.
    • Hindu Banias vs Muslim (Jatt) Peasants in Punjab. 
  • Divide and Rule Policy of Britishers: To counter the growing national movement.

However, the overthrow of the colonial state was only the necessary condition to fight the menace of communalism but not sufficient condition. There were other forces at play too. Even in the post-independence period, the Government failed to control communalism. After independence, communalism persisted and has been the biggest threat to the secular fabric of our nation. As a result, the following communal violence outbreaks happened in India:-

  1. Anti-Sikh riots of 1984
  2. Mass killing and exodus of Kashmiri Pandits from the Kashmir Valley (1989) 
  3. Riots after Babri Masjid demolition (1992) 
  4. Godhra riots of 2002
  5. Assam violence between Bodos and Bengali speaking Muslims (2012)
  6. Muzzafarnagar riots (2013)
  7. Delhi riots (2020) 
Communal Riots in India

Causes of Communalism

Failing of Minorities to integrate into mainstream

  • Muslims failed to intermix in the national mainstream and insisted on sustaining a separate identity. 

Vote Bank Politics

  • Various religion base parties use communalism to consolidate their vote banks.

Communal way of history writing

  • British historians like James Mill described the ancient period as the Hindu period and the medieval period as the Muslim period.

Economic Causes

  • If a certain religious community is economically weak, it leads to the feeling of relative deprivation and leads to the rise of communalism.

Absence of Uniform Civil Code

  • In the absence of a Uniform civil code, there is a perception that all communities have divergent and contradictory interests. 

Psychological factors

  • Hindu groups consider Muslims are crusaders, fundamentalists and unpatriotic.
  • On the other hand, the Muslims believe that they are treated as inferior in India.  

Politics of Appeasement

  • Political parties try to appease communities for votes epitomized by Shah Bano Case. This promote Communalism.

Provocation of Enemy Countries

  • E.g., Pakistan fosters Communal feelings, especially in Kashmiri Muslim Youth.

Social factors

  • Issues like beef consumption, Hindi/Urdu imposition, conversion efforts by groups etc., further created a wedge between the Hindus and Muslims. 

Present issues related to Communalism

Love Jihad

  • Ultra Right Hindu outfits allege that organized conspiracy is going on under which Muslim males marry Hindu females with the sole purpose to convert them into Islam.
  • Although the term ‘love jihad’ has no legal basis, states like UP, Haryana, and Madhya Pradesh are planning to make a law against ‘love jihad’.

Problems in State Machinery to fight Communalism

  • National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) fights for communal violence-related causes. But its recommendations are advisory in nature.
  • Various commissions have given suggestions to solve the issue of communal violence. Prominent among them are SACHAR COMMITTEE and RANGANATH MISHRA COMMISSION.
    • Sachar committee (2010) : Recommended to set up Equal opportunity commission (EOC). 
    • Ranganath Misra Commission: Recommended reservation for minorities. 
  • There is no specific act to deal with communal violence and targeted violence. It was also held in the Sajjan Kumar vs NCT of Delhi Case (2018) regarding communal riots against Sikhs of 1984.
  • The role of police in communal riots is highly controversial. It is further aggravated by the large scale concentration of the dominant caste in the police.  

Impact of Communalism

1. On Politics

  • Organization of political parties on a communal basis.
  • Voting in elections also happens on a communal basis.
  • Large scale riots near elections to polarise voters.

2. On Society

  • It has created a wide rift among the people.
  • Hampers unity of the nation and creates various sub-national feelings.
  • Curbing of Progressive voices. E.g. Voices for the abolition of Triple Talaq is being opposed.  

3. On Economy

  • The vandalization of public property like burning of buses, trains etc.
  • Badly impacts the investor’s confidence.

Ways to eradicate Communalism

  1. Building solidarity and assimilation of various religious groups by fostering a secular culture, e.g. celebrating each other’s religious festivals.
  2. Swift and prompt response to radicalization by a militant group on social media through police action and psychological counselling. 
  3. Ensuring that political parties refrain from using religion in order to h votes through strict vigilance by institutional mechanisms such as the Election Commission. 
  4. The Parliament should frame stern laws against communal violence.
  5. CBI or a special investigative body should investigate communal riots within a stipulated time frame. Further, special courts should hear such cases for quick delivery of justice to victims.
  6. A pluralistic settlement where members of different communities live should be encouraged by removing existing barriers as religious segregation strengthens communal identities and reinforces negative stereotypes of other religious groups.
  7. Government should not ban minority practices in order to appease the majority group. E.g. the state should not show a preference for vegetarianism. 
  8. Uniform Civil Code should be formulated and implemented with the consensus of all religious communities so that there is uniformity in personal laws.
  9. Equal Opportunities Commission should be formed. 
  10. The state should show zero Tolerance toward riots.  
  11. Promote the Indian ideology of Vasudeva Kutumbakam, i.e. the whole world is a family.

Previous year UPSC questions on Communalism

  • Distinguish between religiousness/religiosity and communalism giving one example of how the former has got transformed into the latter in independent India.

Dowry Issue in India

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Dowry issue in India

This article deals with the ‘ Dowry issue in India .’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

  • Dowry is the payment given to the bridegroom’s family at the wedding, either in cash or in kind.
  • Dowry Death = When young women are murdered or pushed to commit suicide as a result of constant torture and abuse from spouses and in-laws in an effort to extract a larger dowry.
Dowry Issue in India

Reasons

  • Dowry as part of Indian culture: The exclusion of women from the workforce, especially those belonging to the higher caste, has resulted in the practice of dowry.
  • Increasing consumerism: People see dowry as an avenue to fulfil their impossible dreams. 
  • For some people, paying a dowry at their daughter’s marriage is an investment for fetching a high dowry through their son’s marriage. 

New Trend: Earlier, only upper castes indulged in dowry, but now lower castes are imitating higher castes. It is the process of Sanskritization at play.

Effects of Dowry System

  • Domestic Violence: Women are at the receiving end and are harassed & tortured.
  • Imbalance in sex ratio: Due to the huge burden of dowry, daughters are seen as a financial burden leading to female infanticide & foeticide.
  • It is against the Constitutional spirit of Equality and Justice as it violates the Fundamental Rights of women and their parents. 
  • It negatively impacts the child’s personality. 
  • It is detrimental to the Indian image at the global level and also goes against Convention on Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) ratified by India.

Provisions to prohibit  dowry

Provisions to tackle Dowry

1. Dowry (Prohibition) Act, 1961

  • Under the provisions of the act, demanding & giving dowry has been made punishable by 6 months or a fine.
  • The issue with the Act: “Dowry” is defined as the gift given or demanded as a condition for marriage. Gifts given without condition are not considered dowry and are not punishable. 

2. Section 304 B of IPC

  • Section 304 B deals with dowry death-related cases. 
  • It has the provision of imprisonment of 7 years to life term. 

3. Section 498 A of IPC

  • Dowry-related cases are non-bailable and non-compoundable. 

4. Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005

  • Dowry often leads to domestic violence against women. Protection of Women from Domestic Violence protects women from such violence. 

5. Conventions

  • Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) is against all types of discrimination against women, including dowry. 

Issues with Dowry related provisions of IPC

  • Section 406 of IPC doesn’t demarcate the boundary between ‘Dowry’ & ‘Streedhan’. This ambiguity has been misused in demanding dowry. (according to Justice Malimath Committee) .
  • Section 498 A of IPC is problematic
    • The husband or his family members are presumed to be guilty until they prove their innocence => this provision is misused by the women. 
    • Dowry-related cases are non-compoundable (can’t compromise while the case is going) and non-bailable. According to Justice Malimath Committee, it kills any effort of conciliation.
    • In Rajesh Sharma vs the State of UP (2017), the Supreme Court accepted that Section 498A of the IPC is misused. As a safeguard, Supreme Court ordered to set up of 3 membered ‘family welfare committees in all districts. The committee will look into every complaint within a month & no arrest can be made till that time. Supreme Court, however, has stated that these directions do not apply to cases in which the wife has suffered tangible physical injuries or Death.

How to end dowry?

  • Attitudinal Change: Government should use peer pressure to bring attitudinal change in society. 
  • Amend Sections 406 and 498A of IPC  as suggested by Malimath Committee. 
  • Government should enforce the laws strictly. 
  • Dowry-related cases should be fast-tracked in the courts.  
  • Government should promote “Adarsh Marriage” & “Mass Marriage”.

Initiatives for Women

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Table of Contents

Initiatives for Women

This article deals with ‘Initiatives for Women.’ This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here .

Initiatives for Women
Initiatives for Women

Constitutional measures

  • Right to Equality under Article 14 .
  • Article 16 : Equality of opportunities in matter of public appointments for all citizens.
  • Article 23 : Bans trafficking in human and forced labour .
  • Equal pay for equal work under Article 39(d) (DPSP) 
  • Article 42 : Maternity Leave .
  • Article 44 : state shall endeavour to secure a Uniform Civil Code for its citizens, throughout the territory of India.
  • Article 51(A)(e) : Renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women (Fundamental Duty) .
  • Article 300 (A : Right of property to women .
  • 73rd & 74th Amendment Act 1992 : Reservation of 1/3rd of seats in local bodies of panchayats and municipalities for women. 

Judgements

  • Vishakha Judgement : Supreme Court gave detailed guidelines regarding women at workplace known as Vishakha guidelines.
  • Shyara Bano case : Triple Talaq was declared unconstitutional  by the Supreme Court .
  • Laxmi vs Union of India : Supreme Court recommended following to contain incidents of Acid Attacks :-
    • Don’t sell acid to person under 18.
    • Sell acid only if they show identity proof and purpose of purchase .
    • Record the sale details and submit them to police.
    • Sell only non-harmful form of acid.

Statutory Provisions

1 . Special Marriage Act , 1954

  • It has been amended to fix the minimum age of marriage at 21 years for males & 18 years for females .

2. Hindu Succession Act 1956

  • Equal share to daughter in father’s property , while a widow has the right to inherit husband’s property.
  • An amendment in this Act in 2005 enabled daughters to have equal share in ancestral properties.

3. Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956

  • It prohibits traffic in women and girls for the purposes of prostitution.

4. Dowry Prohibition Act,1961

  • Act makes dowry demands in wedding arrangements is illegal.

5. Indecent   Representation   of   Women (Prohibition)  Act,   1987

  • Act prohibits indecent representation of women through advertisements or in publications, writings, paintings etc.

6. Sati (Prevention) Act , 1987

  • The practice of Sati which was first abolished in 1829, was revised and made illegal in 1987.
  • It provided for a more effective prevention of the commission of sati and its glorification and for matters connected therewith.

7. National Commission for Women (NCW) Act, 1990

  • The National Commission for Women was set up as statutory body in January 1992 under the National Commission for Women Act, 1990 .

8. Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005

  • It seeks to determine domestic violence in all forms against women & make it a punishable offence.

9. Sexual Harassment At Workplace Act

  • Based on Vishakha guidelines .
  • It has provision of formation of ‘Internal Complaints Committee’ (ICC) to deal with cases of Sexual Harassment at workplace .

10. Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017

  • It increased women’s maternity leave entitlements from 12 to 26 weeks .

11. Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 

12. Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (PCPNDT) Act, 2003.

13. Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 2013

  • In the backdrop of Nirbhaya gang rape, this Act was passed amending the CrPC. The new law has provisions for increased sentence for rape convicts, including life-term and death sentence, besides providing for stringent punishment for offences such as acid attacks, stalking and voyeurism.

14. Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act, 1971

  • The act provides certain grounds on which abortion is allowed including foetal abnormalities, physical and mental injury to the mother and failure of contraceptive methods.
  • But there are some issues with present act. These include
    1. Denial of Reproductive rights to Unmarried women: It does not contain provisions for unmarried women seeking abortion in case of contraceptive failure.
    2. Upper limit of 20 weeks: Under the act, termination of pregnancy beyond 20 weeks needs approval of the court. This is problematic since a number of foetal abnormalities are detected after 20 weeks .
  • Medical Termination of Pregnancy (Amendment) Bill, 2020 has been introduced to address above issues. Amendments include
    1. Enhancing the upper gestation limit from 20 to 24 weeks for termination of pregnancy.
    2. Relaxing the contraceptive-failure condition for “any woman or her partner” (including unmarried women)

Conventions

1 . Convention on Elimination  of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)

  • India ratified CEDAW in 1993.

2. Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (BPfA) (1995)

  • It was adopted on Fourth World Conference on Women which was held in Beijing.
  • It sets  objectives and actions for advancement of women and achievement of gender equality in 12 critical areas of concern like (1) Women and the environment, (2) Women in power and decision-making, (3)  girl child, (4) Women and the economy, (5) Women and poverty, (6) Violence against women, (7) Human rights of women, (8)Education and training of women, (9) Institutional mechanisms for the advancement of women, (10) Women and health, (11) Women and the media and (12)Women and armed conflict .
  • After signing the Beijing Declaration, India setup Nodal Ministry of Women and Child Development (MoWCD), National Commission for Women, passed progressive legislations etc.

Government’s Schemes  to empower Women

1 . Health related Schemes

1.1 PM Suraksheet Matritva Yojana (PM SMY) 

  • Ante – Natal (before birth) checkup for pregnant women on 9th of every month by specialist  .
  • Started in 2016 .

1.2 Janani Suraksha Yojana 

  • To promote Institutional delivery of the pregnant women .
  • Started in 2005 .

1.3 PM Matru Vandana Yojana 

  • ₹ 6,000 to be given to all mothers .
  • To be given in Instalments (6th Month pregnancy || 3 months after birth || 6 months after birth)
  • Applicable for  first  two  children .

1.4 Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY)

  • Safeguard the health of women & children by providing them with a clean cooking fuel ( LPG ) .

1.5 To Combat Diseases among Pregnant Women & infants

  • Anaemia : Anaemia is the major problem in Pregnant women.  Iron Folic Acid supplements are given to women to deal with this issue.
  • Diarrhoea : Large number of infants die because of this . ORS and Zinc Tablets are given to women to deal with this issue. 

Side Topic : Menstrual Hygiene  Schemes

  • Only 12% of menstruating women in India use sanitary napkins
  • 23% of rural girls  drop out of school when they start menstruating. Dropping out  encourages early child marriage and makes them lose the opportunity to be in  workforce.
  • To deal with this, government has started following menstrual hygiene schemes :-
Rashtriya Madhyamik Siksha Abhiyan – Started by Ministry of Human Resource and Development (MHRD).
– Under one component of the Scheme , sanitary pads are provided to girls in schools .
Suvidha – Started by Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers.
– It aims to provide 100% biodegradable sanitary napkin .
Project Stree Swabhiman Started by Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MEITY).

2. Financial Security

2.1 Stand up India

  • Loan of Rs 10 lakh to Rs 1 crore is provided woman without collateral  for setting up a new enterprise .

2.2 Swa-Shakti

  • This project aims at establishment of more than 16000 SHGs(Self Help Groups) having 15 – 20 women members each & thereby enhance women’s access to and control over resources for betterment of their lives.

2.3 Rashtriya Mahila Kosh

  • It provide funds to  poor women  .

2.4 Mahila E-Haat

  • Web based initiative which provides access to woman entrepreneurs  to global markets .

2.5 Sukanya Samridhi Yojana

  • Small savings scheme for girl child

Side Note : Some women entrepreneurs to be quoted as example

  • Kiran Mazumdar : Biocon Limited (world’s leading Biotech company)
  • Rajni Bector : Cremica & Mrs Bector (Phillaur (Punjab) based company which is the largest food confectionary company of India) 

3. Other schemes

3.1 PM Mahila Shakti Kendra

  • These will be set-up at village level in all Anganwadi Centres. 
  • It will Empower women through training and capacity building .

3.2 Sakhi- one stop centre scheme

  • It provide  support ( rescue , medical and legal, psychological support ) to women affected by  Domestic Violence .

3.3 Working Women Hostel

  • To provide safe and conveniently located accommodation for working women, with day care facility for their children, in urban, semi urban, or even rural areas where employment opportunity for women exist .

Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Yojana

  • Objectives of the scheme
    1. Prevent female foeticide &  infanticide.
    2. Ensure every girl child is educated .
  • Funding Pattern : It is 100 % funded by the Centre .
  • Salient features of Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Yojana
    • Task Force  has been setup under the District Collector .
    • It ensures strict implementation of PCPNDT Act .
    • It also ensures strict implementation of POCSO Act  (POCSO= Protection of children from sexual offences).
    • Small Saving Scheme under Beti Bachao Beti Padhao known as Sukanya Samridhi Yojana has been started.

Inspite of these schemes, position of women is not that good

  • Global Gender Gap Report  2018 (by World Economic Forum) : India  is ranked 108 .
  • As per census 2011 , sex ratio for India is 940 females per 1000 of males .
  • According to  Lancet, nearly 10 million female abortions have taken place in India in the last 20 years.
  • Female literacy levels according to the Literacy Rate 2011 census are 65.46% where the male literacy rate is over 80%.
  • Woman Labour Force Participation is low (at 27%).
  • On an average,  66% of women’s work in India is unpaid, compared to 12% of men’s.
  • Global Wage Report points toward fact that Indian Woman are paid 30% lesser than males for same job .

What more should be done ?

Reproductive Health 

  • There is need to shift focus from female sterilisation to male sterilisation.

Education

  • Mission mode approach for literacy among women  should be adopted.

Economy

  • Recognizing women’s unpaid work should be utmost priority.
  • Need to grant Rights of women to immovable property.

Governance and Decision Making

  • Number of women legislatures should be improved

Environment and Climate Change

  • Climate change will impact Women the most as
    • Higher temperatures will increase their labour in food processing & collection of potable water
    • Global warming will lead to low food => it will  affect females more than males due to unequal intra-household food allocations .

Other aspects

  • Programs should place women at centre stage.
  • Need to recognize special needs of single women including widows, separated, divorced and deserted.

Economic Survey Topic : Development as antidote to female issues

  • ‘Development  is an antidote’ to problems faced by women in India  due to Convergence Effect ( i.e. when development happens , all socio-economic indicators improve) .
  • In India , Convergence Effect is seen in all female problems except
    • Female Labour Participation
    • Son Meta Preference (Sex Ratio of Last Child)
Development as antidote to female issues

(Note : Comparison is made  when other countries were at same wealth level )

Reason for above observation : Cultural Lag

  • Whenever development happens
    • If it is impacting peripheral values ,  changes will be accepted .
    • But when it is impacting any core value, it faces backlash and is not accepted easily.
  • For changing core values, demand for change should come from within the society .
  • Hence, development is necessary for social change but it is not a sufficient condition. 

Women Organizations and Movements

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Women Organizations and Movements

This article deals with ‘ Women Organizations and Movements ’ . This is part of our series on ‘Society’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

Unlike the women’s movement in the West, the Indian women’s movement began in the shadow of colonial rule and the commitment to attain freedom from colonial rule. Thus, the Indian women’s movement transcended the limited gender framework, unlike the women’s liberation struggles in other parts of the world, especially in the West, where the principal purpose was to address the relationship between women and men in the private and public spheres. Questions of independence and freedom from colonial power were inextricably linked with the consciousness of the Indian women’s movement

Since the late 19th century, the Indian society has witnessed an active feminist movement. The early attempts at reforming the conditions under which Indian women lived were mainly carried out by western educated middle and high-class men. However, soon they were joined by the women of their families. These women and the men began organized movements fighting against oppressive social practices such as female infanticide, sati, child marriage, laws prohibiting widow remarriage, etc.

After Independence, many of the bourgeois women within the liberal section advocated for representation. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, India witnessed the resurgence of the women’s movement, mainly due to the repercussion of the problems that cropped up at the national front (such as price rise) and the women’s active mobilizations on the international front. 

Pre-Independence Movements

Women’s Organizations Started by Men

1. Brahmo Samaj

  • Raja Ram Mohan Roy founded Brahmo Samaj in 1825. It attempted to abolish restrictions and prejudices against women, including sati, child marriage, polygamy, and limited rights to inherit property.
  • Raja Ram Mohan Roy played an essential role in getting Sati abolished.

2. Prarthana Samaj

  • Founded by MG Ranade & RG Bhandarkar in 1867. 
  • Its objectives were more or less similar to that of Brahmo Samaj but remained confined to western India.

3. Arya Samaj

  • Founded by Dayanand Saraswati in 1875. 
  • Unlike the above two, it was a religious revivalist movement that aimed to revitalize ancient Hindu traditions. It advocated reforms in the caste system, compulsory education for men and women, prohibition of child marriage by law, and remarriage of child widows.

While the men wanted women to be educated and take part in public activities, at the same time, they regarded the home as the primary focus for women. Gender equality was never an agenda for any of the movements mentioned above. They had a very limited perspective on changing the position of women within the family.

Women’s Organization Started by Women

By the end of the nineteenth century, a few women emerged from reformed families who formed their organizations. 

1. Swarnakumari Devi

  • She was the daughter of Devendranath Tagore, a Brahmo leader, and sister of the poet Rabindranath Tagore, who formed the Ladies Society in Calcutta in 1882 to educate and impart skills to widows and poor women to make them economically self-reliant. 
  • She edited a women’s journal named Bharati. 

2. Ramabai Saraswati

  • She formed the Arya Mahila Samaj in Pune in 1882 and Sharda Sadan in Bombay after few years.

Women in Calcutta, Bombay, Madras and other smaller cities formed associations whose members were drawn from among a small group of urban educated families. They helped bring women out of their homes, giving them an opportunity to meet other women, doing philanthropic work, encouraging them to take an interest in public affairs and thus broadening their horizons.

National Women’s Organizations

  • The early women’s organizations were confined to a particular locality or city. In 1910, Sarala Devi Chaudhurani, daughter of Swarnakumari Devi, formed the Bharat Stree Mandal to bring together “women of all castes, creeds, classes and parties based on their common interest in the moral and material progress of the women of India.” Branches were started in cities such as Lahore, Amritsar, Allahabad, Hyderabad, Delhi and Karachi. 
  • The early 20th century saw the growth of women’s organizations at a national and local level. The Women’s India Association (WIA) (1917), All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) (1926) and National Council for Women in India (NCWI) (1925) were the prominent ones.

National Freedom Movement

  • Gandhian Movement: Women had been associated with the freedom struggle before Gandhi’s arrival. They had attended sessions of the Indian National Congress and taken part in the Swadeshi movement in Bengal. But the involvement of a large number began when Gandhiji launched the Non-Cooperation Movement and gave a special role to women.
  • Revolutionary Movements: While thousands of women joined the freedom movement in response to Gandhi’s call, others could not accept his creed of nonviolence and joined revolutionary or terrorist groups. Their hatred of the British was intense, and they planned to make attempts on European lives as widely as possible.  
  • Agrarian Movements: Women participated along with men in struggles and revolts in the colonial period. The Tebhaga movement originating in tribal and rural areas in Bengal, the Telangana arms struggle from the erstwhile Nizam’s rule, and the Warli Tribal Revolt are some examples. 
  • Labour Movements: In 1917, Anasuya Sarabhai led the Ahmedabad textile workers’ strike, and in 1920 under her leadership, the Ahmedabad textile mill workers union was established. By the late 1920s, the presence of women in the workers’ movement was noticeable. There were several prominent women unionists. 

Post Independence Women’s Movements

During the freedom movement, it was felt that with the nation’s Independence, many of the disabilities would disappear, and problems of women attributed to colonial rule would end. The national government undertook to remove the legal disabilities suffered by women and initiatedmajor reforms in the form of Hindu family laws. The legal reforms in the 1950s sought to provide greater rights to Hindu women in marriage, inheritance and guardianship. However, they failed to bridge the gap between legal and social realities. Similar changes in the family laws of other communities, like Muslims, Christians, Parsis and Jews, have not yet come up due to political resistance despite the Directive Principle of State Policy clearly stating the need for uniform laws for all the communities. 

Feminist Movements

Feminist activism in India gained momentum in the late 1970s. 

  • Towards Equality Approach: United Nations declared 1975-85 as the International Decade of the Woman and organized the World Conference on Women in Mexico (1975). As a result, in India, the National Committee on the Status of Women was set up to examine the status of women in the country and investigate the extent to which the constitutional and legal provisions had impacted women’s status. The Committee came out with its findings in the form of a report popularly known as the Towards Equality Report (1974). The beginnings of the women’s movement in India have often been traced back to this report. It showed that women were far behind men in enjoying the equal rights conferred on them by the constitution. This report led to a change in ideology to ‘Women in Development’ rather than ‘Women and Development’.
  • New organizations such as the Self-Employment Women’s Association (Gujarat), Working Women’s Forum (Tamil Nadu), Shramik Mahila Sangathan (Maharashtra) etc., concerned themselves with the plight of women workers in the unorganized sector. These organizations organized women’s labour and took up the issues of their wages, working conditions, exploitation and health hazards. 
  • Mathura Rape Case: This case brought women’s groups together for the first time. The reason was the acquittal of policemen accused of raping a young girl in a police station leading to country-wide protests in 1979-1980, which forced the Government to create a new offence of custodial rape.
  • Alcoholism (Anti-Arak Movement): Alcoholism leads to violence against women. Women groups launched anti-liquor campaigns in Andhra, Himachal, Haryana, Odisha, MP etc. 
  • Anti-Dowry Movement: In the 1980s, several women’s and other progressive organizations formed a joint front in Delhi called “Dahej Virodhi Chetna Manch” and campaigned through protest, demonstrations, discussions, street theatre, posters etc. After much deliberation, the Dowry Prohibition (Amendment) Act 1984 was passed.
  • Deforestation and Ecological Movement: Women have direct contact with natural resources like fuel, food and fodder, forest, water and land, especially in rural areas. Economic hardships faced by women in the Himalayan region due to the cutting down of forests resulted in the spontaneous mobilization of women. They hugged the trees to prevent the contractors from felling them. It is popularly known as the Chipko movement. It was just the beginning, followed by several other movements, such as the Green Belt movement in 1977 (planting trees), the Appiko movement (hugging the trees), Narmada Bachao Andolan etc., which saw significant participation of women at all levels. 
  • Triple Talaq: Started in the Shah Bano Case & culminated with the Shyara Bano case in the Supreme Court, which has effectively banned the practice of Triple Talaq in Muslims. 
  • Bhanwari Devi Gangrape Case (1992): Bhanwari Devi was a Saathin in Rajasthan with the job of raising consciousness in her village about child marriage, dowry etc. Men of the dominant caste resented her efforts wrt Child Marriage, and she was brutally gang-raped. NGO named Vishakha filed a Case in Supreme Court culminating in Vishakha Guidelines.

Self Help Groups (SHGs)

  • SHGs were key instruments in women’s empowerment. 
  • 10-20 rural women from the same village, mostly poor, come together to contribute fortnightly or monthly dues as savings and provide group loans to the members.

Literary Movements

Journals devoted to promoting women’s equality in various languages started to raise women’s issues. These include

Feminist Network English Bombay
Ahalya Bengali Calcutta
Women’s Voice English Bangalore
Stree Sangarash Hindi Patna
Manushi Hindi Delhi

Present Movements

  • ‘Pinjra Tod’: fighting against the discriminatory rules in colleges and university hostels against girls.
  • Temple Entry Movement: Women leaders like Tirupati Desai (of Bhumata Brigade) raised their voices for entry of women inside the sanctum sanctorum of Temples like Shani Shignapur and Sabarimala etc. 
  • #MeToo Movement: MeToo Movement was started in the US and came to India, where women named powerful men who have sexually assaulted their colleagues in the workplace. The movement showed that the Balance of Power in the workplace is skewed in favour of perpetrators of sexual harassment. 
Women Organizations and Movements

Caste System

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Caste System

This article deals with the ‘Caste System’. This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

What is Caste System?

Caste is a system of social stratification which trace its origin from the Varna system. In this, a person’s special privileges and ineligibilities are decided by birth and can’t be transformed in a person’s lifetime.

Caste System

Origin of Caste System

The meaning of the word VARNA means colour. There are differences among social thinkers about the origin of castes, though three theories about castes’ origins are quite famous.

  1. Racial theory 
  2. Occupational theory of caste system
  3. The political theory of the caste system

1. Racial theory 

  • It is supported by Herbert Risley and G.S.Ghurye.
  • In his book, The Peoples of India, Risley stated that castes’ origin is linked to Racialism. According to him, 
    • Aryans came from Middle Asia & were divided into 3 Varnas (Brahman, Kshatriya and Vaishya). 
    • They defeated natives with their better warfare capabilities and merged them in the Varna system giving them Shudra status. The new system was called Chaturvarna. 
    • Additionally, they invented endogamy rules to maintain their racial purity.  
  • Ghurye also supported Risley and accepted that the caste system in India is a product of Aryans that originated in Ganga Yamuna Doab and then spread to other parts.

2. Occupational theory 

  • Nesfield is the proponent of this theory.
  • He believed that occupation is the basis of the origin of caste.
  • According to him, occupation and only occupation is the basis of the origin of the caste system. All castes are products of division of labour which by time became hereditary. Additionally, they started to marry within the occupational group to support vocational efficiency, which consolidated the caste system.
  • Critics of this theory believe that occupational groups are present in various societies, then why caste system didn’t originate there.

3. Political theory

  • Abbé Dubois is a supporter of this theory.
  • He believed that the caste system was the product of the Brahmanical mind. According to him, to maintain their supremacy for an extended period, they invented the caste system. 
  • But critics don’t support this theory. According to critics, Brahmans were neither the leader of the army nor the class that dealt in wealth, so how did they establish this system.

The most accepted theory for the caste system is MULTIFACTORIAL THEORY which believes that the origin of the caste system is due to many factors.

Salient features of Caste System

The caste system in India is mainly associated with Hinduism and has governed Hindu society for thousands of years. Salient features of the caste system include

  • Ascribed status 
  • Endogamy
  • Heredity of occupations
  • Commensal restrictions 
  • Jati panchayat
  • Jajmani system

Ascribed status 

  • In the caste system, a person’s status is decided on his birth only, which he can’t change in his lifetime.

Endogamy

  • A caste is an endogamous group where each caste member is expected to marry within their caste group.

Heredity of occupation

  • Members of a particular caste can adopt the occupation associated with that caste.

Purity Pollution basis

  • The caste hierarchy is decided according to the degree of purity and pollution. Pure caste is ranked at the top, and impure is ranked at the bottom.

Commensal restrictions

  • A person belonging to a lower caste are not allowed to dine with people belonging to a higher caste.

Jati panchayat

  • Every caste has its own Jati panchayat, which enforces marriage, occupational and dietary rules via provisions like a social boycott.

Jajmani system

  • The economic aspect of the caste system is called Jajmani System.  
  • Jajmani system denotes the exchange of services and objects among different caste groups. 
  • Those castes which take services from other castes are called JAJMANS, and those which give services are called Praja or Kamin. 
  • Western thinker William Wisser studied the caste system with a functional perspective and believed that the Jajmani system ensures egalitarianism by the dependence of different caste on each other.
  • However, French thinker Louis Dumont believed it to be an oppressive system. According to him,
    • Many castes take services only but do not give services.
    • Many castes give services only but do not take services.
    • Many times the value of exchanged services or objects are not equivalent.

Above mentioned caste system remained in force till British arrival. With and after British arrival, many changes were seen in the Caste system due to the following reasons:-

  • The advent of industrialization.
  • Urbanization: With increasing migration, city life is becoming anonymous where caste identities of co-habitants are seldom known. 
  • Rise of new occupations
  • Exoteric Education System.
  • Impact of the rule of law and constitution
  • Dalit consciousness due to the efforts of stalwarts like BR Ambedkar. 
  • Herbert Risley’s attempt to assign rank in the social hierarchy to castes: The colonialists conducted methodical and intensive surveys and reports on the ‘customs and manners’ of various tribes and castes all over the country to govern them effectively. The 1901 Census sought to collect information on the social hierarchy of caste. This direct attempt to count caste and officially record caste status changed the institution itself. Before this, caste identities had been much more fluid and less rigid. 
  • British Administration took a keen interest in the welfare of the downtrodden like the Government of India Act of 1935, which gave legal recognition to Scheduled Castes marked out for special treatment.
  • Breakdown of Jajmani system: The Jajmani system involves exchanging goods and services, with each Jati contributing its share based on occupational speciality. However, it is dissipating due to the traditional breakdown of occupation and industrialization.  

Whereas the causes mentioned above weakened the caste system, on the other hand, there are 3 main reasons which provided a lifeline to the caste system

  1. Democracy 
  2. Caste-based reservation 
  3. Caste organizations 

There is a saying that after independence, though caste is diminishing, Casteism is increasing. Andre Beitelle believes that democracy and reservation will provide a lifeline to the caste system for the next 100 years. Recent times show a paradoxical situation- as on the one hand, the caste system has weakened; on the other, caste-based identities have strengthened due to political mobilization.

Manifestations of Caste System

The caste system is manifested at many levels and in many forms.

  • Endogamy: To sustain itself, the caste system relies on endogamy, i.e. marriage within the same caste. Those who dare to go against this norm have to suffer honour killings.
  • Social boycott of those who dare to go against the set norms of caste.
  • Resource deprivation as one goes down the caste hierarchy. E.g., Dalits have to suffer land alienation, bonded labour and indebtedness. 
  • Dalits are forced to take up jobs that are regarded as polluted and unhygienic.
  • SCs and STs have to face various atrocities.

Ill effects  of Caste System on Indian Society

  • Hindered national unity by dividing people based on caste. 
  • It resulted in the creation of a class of idlers.
  • Stood against democracy as democracy works in equality. 
  • It has led to the lower status of women in society. 
  • Resulted in religious conversion: Shudras converted to Islam and Christianity to get out of the exploitative system.
  • It led to the introduction of untouchability.
  • Caste System acts against meritocracy.

Some Benefits

  • The caste system started as a natural division of labour and was useful in its original form. 
  • It helped accommodate multiple communities, including invading tribes in the Indian society. 
  • It has helped pass knowledge and skills from one generation to the next. 
  • Through subsystems like the Jajmani system, the caste system kept our villages self-sufficient and made the village community, in the words of Charles Metcalfe, ‘Little Republics‘. 

Ways to eradicate Caste

  • Improve Education and ensure good quality education to all.
  • Promote inter-caste marriage.
  • Economic stability and a job-producing economy will help resolve the need for a caste-based reservation.
  • Eradicate Timeless Reservation: According to sociologists like Andre Beittle, reservation has provided 100 years lease period to the caste system.
  • Strengthen Section 123 of Representation of People Act (RoPA), 1951: To prevent parties from invoking votes solely on caste grounds. 

India has been a signatory to the Convention for Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1969), which places the country in an “anti-racism” camp. 

Side Topic: Caste Mobility

Mobility in the caste system can be seen at two levels

Inter Caste Mobility

  • Sanskritization: The process whereby people emulate the ritual practices and customs of upper caste people.

Intra Caste Mobility

  • Elite sub-stratum: Sub Stratum of elites has formed within the lower castes. E.g., Meenas in STs.
  • Westernization 

Sanskritization

  • M.N. Srinivas gave the concept of Sanskritization after studying village Rampura (Mysore)  in his book Caste and Religion among the Coorgs of South India.
  • It denotes the process by which caste or tribes placed lower in the caste hierarchy seek upward mobility by emulating the rituals and practices of the upper or dominant castes.
  • The lower castes tend to do the following things to get upward mobility and social prestige.
    • Renunciation of polluted vocations.
    • Renunciation of non-vegetarianism and acceptance of vegetarianism.
    • Renunciation of alcoholism.
  • According to Srinivas, Sanskritization doesn’t lead to any structural change in caste hierarchy but only positional change. 

Issues with Sanskritization

  • It doesn’t lead to structural change but only positional change of some individuals. 
  • It exaggerates the scope of ‘lower castes’ to move up the social ladder. In a highly unequal society such as India, there were and still are obstacles to taking over the customs of the higher castes by the lower.   
  • It leads to practices of secluding girls and women adopting dowry practices.   

De-Sanskritization

  • Due to the policy of positive discrimination (reservation in jobs and admission) adopted by the Indian government, an increasing number of groups now lay claim to backward status in state matters and a forward status in society. This trend is exactly opposite to Sanskritization, thus termed as De-Sanskritization. 
  • The agitation of Gujjars in Rajasthan to claim the status of Scheduled Tribe and by Jats in north-western India to include them in backward caste list exemplifies this trend. 

Side Topic: Dominant Castes

  • The concept given by M.N Srinivas holds that a caste is dominant when it is numerically higher than the other castes. 
  • It can be seen as an anomaly to Caste System. 
  • Dominant caste may not be ritually highest but enjoy high status because of wealth, political power and numerical strength.
  • Examples include Jats in Haryana, Sikh Jatts in Punjab, Yadavs in UP & Bihar, Reddys in Andhra Pradesh & Telangana etc. (mainly agrarian communities). 
  • The power of the dominant caste is supported by a norm discouraging village from seeking justice from court or police.  
  • After the Mandalisation of politics, the power of the dominant caste has increased very much.

Modern avatar of Caste

  • According to M.N. Srinivas, after the Mandalization of politics, the vertical hierarchical nature of caste has been replaced by a horizontal arrangement of competing caste groups free from any stigma of purity & pollution & this has been termed as the modern avatar of caste. 
Modern avatar of Caste
  • Elite substratum: Within backward caste, a class has been created which has taken advantage of affirmative action and is now monopolizing all new opportunities. 
Elite substratum
  • The caste system has become ‘invisible’ for the upper caste, urban middle and upper classes. The opposite has happened for the so-called scheduled castes and tribes and the backward castes. For them, their caste has tended to eclipse the other dimensions of their identities.   
  • The secular pattern of living has been emerging because of urbanization. 
  • Trends for intercaste marriage: Due to economic and social necessities, inter-caste marriages on western lines are being performed at increased frequency.
  • New food habits: Due to the frequent mixing of the people at meetings, conferences, seminars etc., food habits have changed. People have started to eat at the same table, accept food prepared by low caste people etc.

Role of Caste in Politics (based on Rajni Kothari’s study)

Various phases in Dalit Movement in India are as follows:-

1. Pre-Independence

These can be divided into two parts.

  • Reformative: They never questioned the Caste System. All they wanted was discriminatory aspects of the Caste System should be reformed. E.g., the Harijan Movement of Gandhi. 
  • Alternative: Create an alternative socio-cultural system where there was no caste system. E.g., Religious Conversions etc. 

2. Post Independence

2.1 1950-60s

  • Congress was manipulating Dalits as a vote bank, but they were not given any leadership role. To challenge it, 
    • The Republican Party of India was formed.
    • There was a mass conversion of Dalits to Buddhism.
  • But Republican Party wasn’t able to sustain itself due to Marxist vs Ambedkarite ideology. Ambedkarites favoured gaining political power and using it for the social upliftment of their community. But Marxists wanted to annihilate socio-political structure and create a completely classless society. 

2.2 1970s

Dalit Panther Movement 

  • It was inspired by the ‘Black Panthers Movement of USA’.  
  • It was aimed at generating awareness among people regarding the plight of the Dalits.
  • Educated students carried it out, and the methodology included public debates, pamphlets, plays etc. Students of other sections of society apart from Dalits also participated in this. 
  • They defined dalits in a holistic way consisting of “all those who are exploited politically, economically and in the name of religion.”

2.3. 1980s

Rise of Bahujan Samaj Party

  • They were of the ideology that, ‘In a democracy, the majority should rule. 
  • They wanted to take power out of the hands of elites, especially Brahmins, Rajputs and Baniyas. 

Caste Census

  • Caste Census is the caste-wise tabulation of the population in the census exercise. 
  • Caste was included as a category in the Census in 1931 for the last time. From 1951, although the population of SCs and STs is counted, caste is not included. 

Timeline of Caste Census

1872 The first population Census of India was conducted.
1881 The first synchronous census of India was conducted.
1931 The last census that counted the different castes of India.
1951 In the first census post-independence, the government decided to include SC and ST data but didn’t include data on other castes.
1979 Mandal Commission estimated that the OBC population in India is approximately 52%.
2011 Socio-Economic Caste Census (SECC) was conducted, which studied the socioeconomic status of rural and urban households and ranking of households based on predefined parameters like the structure of the house (Kuccha or Pucca), ownership status, the main source of income etc.   

But the data of SECC was never made public.
2021 There were demands of including Caste Data in the Census-2021. But PM has replied in the Lok Sabha that Caste data will not be enumerated in Census-2021.

Arguments against Caste Census

  • It will subvert India’s anti-caste struggle and make the castes more rigid by reinforcing caste identities. 
  • Identity Politics: Caste Census will strengthen the caste boundaries and force political parties to indulge in caste politics instead of focusing on development issues. 
  • Rise in demand for reservations: Caste census would lead to a clamour for higher quota in government jobs and admissions to educational institutions.
  • Estimates of caste are already available in surveys conducted by the NSSO and National Family and Health Survey (NFHS). 

Arguments favouring Caste Census

  • The collection of caste data will help better policymaking and understanding the effects of affirmative action and redistributive justice. It will help in rationalising reservation policy as per the needs of specific caste.
  • Further, Indra Sawhney’s judgment of the Supreme Court has also demanded that such evidence be collected every 10 years to bar privileged castes from cornering all the affirmative actions.
  • For OBC sub-categorization, the need of a new caste census is sine quo none.

Salient features of Indian Society

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Salient features of Indian Society

This article deals with ‘Salient features of Indian Society ’. This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

What is Society?

  • Society can be defined as the network of social relationships due to interaction between its members. 
  • There are 4 attributes of any society 
    • Definite territory: there should be definite geographical territory.
    • Progeny: Source of membership through reproduction.
    • Composite Culture.
    • Independence: It can’t be a sub-entity of a larger entity.
  • India is a state with multiple societies/nations in it. Indian society is an amalgamation of many societies 
    • India is one state with multiple nations.
    • Sri Lanka is one state with two nations.
    • Japan is a single state with a single nation.
    • Korea is two states with one nation.
Indian Society and Nation
  • Change in society can be studied wrt following 
    • Endogenous Changes: From within the system like Buddhism, Jainism, Bhakti etc.
    • Exogenous Changes: From outside the system like Islam, Christianity, British rule, globalization etc. 

Characteristics of Indian Society

  1. Multiethnic society: Indian society is multiethnic due to the co-existence of many racial groups. 
  2. Multilingual Society: Across the country, more than 1600 languages are spoken.
  3. Multi-class society: Indian society is segmented into multiple classes. This division can be based on birth as well as financial and social achievements. 
  4. Patriarchal society: Indian society is primarily a patriarchal society where men enjoy greater status than women. However, some tribal societies are matriarchal as well.
  5. Unity in diversity: Various diversities exist in India. But beneath this diversity, there is fundamental unity.
  6. Co-existence of traditionalism and modernity: Traditionalism is upholding core values. In contrast, modernity refers to questioning the tradition and moving towards rational thinking social and technological progress. Due to the spread of education, modern thinking among Indians has increased. However, family life is still bound by traditional values and belief systems.
  7. The balance between individualism and collectivism: Individualism is an outlook that stresses human independence, self-reliance and liberty. In contrast, collectivism is giving a group priority over each individual in it.  
  8. Blood and kinship ties: Blood relations and kinship ties enjoy a stronghold over other social relationships.  
  9. Caste System is an intrinsic part of Indian society. 
  10. Joint Family: Since time immemorial, Indians have preferred to live in Joint families. 
  11. Marriage: Mostly, monogamy is practised, but polygamy is also practised at some places. 

Salient Features of Indian Society

Salient features of Indian Society

1. Caste System

Refer separate Chapter – CLICK HERE.

2. Joint Family

A family in which 

  • People live together with all family members up to 2nd generation, 
  • Members have no individual identity, 
  • Decision-making power lies exclusively with the eldest male member of the family. 

is called a joint family.

  • The Indians have understood the importance of the Joint family since time immemorial.
  • What constitutes jointness in the family?
    • Common residence 
    • Commensality (inter dining)
    • Common ownership of property
    • Rights and obligations 
    • Ritual bonds: Periodic Propitiation of dead ancestors 
    • Blood relations (filial (father-son) and fraternal (between siblings)) are more important than marriage (conjugal) relations.

Advantage of Joint Families

  • It provides social insurance to the members.
  • Division of work: Workload, either domestic or business, is divided between the members.
  • Sharing resources with the cousins minimize the expenses on children.
  • It leads to the development of a feeling of camaraderie between cousins.
  • Social Security: Weaker family members – such as the elders or children – are taken care of by other members. 
  • Joint Families are more disciplined because the head of the big family becomes virtually its patriarch.
  • Women members can work too as grandparents, and other members are there to look after children. 
  • Agency of social control: Members doesn’t indulge in antisocial activities. 

Disadvantages of Joint Family

  • It creates parasites who love to feed on others’ income. 
  • The low status of women as blood relations are more important than conjugal relations.
  • Prostitution of personality: Children are forced not to show their real personality but behave according to the expectations of others.
  • Joint families are an ‘arena of contradiction and conflict.’
  • Agent of cultural reproduction: In Joint families, obsolete values like patriarchy don’t change. 
  • Joint families have a high fertility rate as an extra child doesn’t become a financial liability.
  • It leads to encroachment on privacy as a joint family has no privacy. 

From Joint Families to Nuclear Families

But despite its many advantages, silent changes have been taking place as old joint family systems have been disintegrating and nuclear families are coming up.

Reasons

  • Migration: Post-LPG Reforms, people are migrating towards cosmopolitans for jobs.
  • Spread of female education: educated girls can’t reconcile with husbands’ mothers & are forced to set up independent establishments. 
  • Disparity in the income of brothers:  Brothers with decent income usually separate.
  • Influence of urbanization: Various sociologists have revealed that city life is more favourable to small nuclear families than big joint families.  
  • Western value system: Individualistic values have been inculcated.

We are moving towards Functional Joint Family

  • Many Sociologists are of the view that we are not moving towards nuclear family but Functional Joint Family. 
  • According to sociologist IP Desai, a Functional Joint family is a family where although the members of a family are living separately, the individual gives importance to the fulfilment of obligation towards kin, especially parents.   
  • Although a person lives in the city, he keeps sending money to his parents.

Side Topic: Female-Headed Households

Generally, in Indian Society, households are Male headed. But there are some situations when Females head the household

  1. Migration of males to the urban areas.
  2. Widowhood  
  3. Divorce

3. Marriage Systems

Marriage is a relationship that is socially approved and sanctioned by custom and law. It is also a set of cultural mechanisms that ensure the family’s continuation.

Marriage has a large variety of forms

1. Polygamy vs Monogamy

1.1 Monogamy

Monogamy restricts the individual to one spouse at a time. 

  • Man can have only one wife.
  • Woman can have only one husband.

1.2 Polygamy

  • Polygamy denotes marriage to more than one mate at one time. 
  • It takes various forms
    1. Polygyny: One husband with two or more wives.
    2. Polyandry: One wife with two or more husbands. Usually, where economic conditions are harsh, polyandry may be one response of society, as a single male cannot support a wife and children.
  • Even where polygamy is permitted, monogamy is more widely prevalent in actual practice.

2. Patrilocal vs Matrilocal vs Neolocal

2.1 Patrilocal

After marriage, the wife comes to reside in the family of her husband is known as the patrilocal marriage.

2.2 Matrilocal

The family in which after marriage husband comes to reside in the family of her wife is known as matrilocal family.

2.3 Neolocal

After marriage newly married couple establish a new family independent of their parents and settled in a new place.

3. Endogamy vs Exogamy

3.1 Endogamy

  • Endogamy requires an individual to marry within a culturally defined group. E.g., caste, religion etc. 

3.2 Exogamy

  • Exogamy requires the individual to marry outside of their group.

In India, village exogamy is practised in most north India so that daughters are married in distant places to ensure that they can’t interfere in the matters of her parents’ home and settle in her affinal home without interference.

Side Topic: Live-In Relationships

The trend of Live-In Relationships is increasing in India.

Reasons for increasing Live-In relationships in India

  • Penetration of modern education and ideas emanating from it like freedom, equality, autonomy, individualism etc.
  • Patriarchy associated with institutionalized marriages (like patrilocal residency, gender inequality, unequal division of labour between sexes, lack of agency over reproduction, etc.) makes some educated women choose Live-In relationships instead of marriage.
  • Legal and financial complications associated with marriages in case of splitting or divorces.
  • Increased labour force participation has made women economically independent to take decisions affecting their lives.
  • Career oriented and highly aspirational youngsters view legal institutionalized marriages and children as impediments to their career growth.
  • Impact of globalisation and westernization.
  • Inter-caste and interreligious marriages are still not accepted by society, forcing youth to prefer live-in relations.

The legality of Live-In Relationships

  • S. Khushboo v. Kanniammal: Supreme court has accepted live-in relationships under Article 21.
  • Justice Malimath Committee has recommended that live-in partners should be included in the definition of a wife.

4. Patriarchy

  • Patriarchy is a social system in which woman is suppressed.
  • It is not a constant concept since the nature of the subjugation of women varies. 
  • Brahmanical Patriarchy, Tribal Patriarchy and Dalit Patriarchy are different from each other. 

Structures of Patriarchy

  • Family: First lessons of Patriarchy are learned in a family.
  • Patriarchal construction of the Knowledge System (media, education institution etc.)
  • Symbolism
  • Religion: Patriarchy is legitimized by religion. E.g., Manu Smriti.
  • Caste System: Caste purity needs to control the sexuality of the woman. 

Question UPSC: How is patriarchy impacting the position of middle-class working woman?

  • Dual Burden /Second Shift: Due to patriarchy, working women face double exploitation because they are forced to do household chores even after their jobs. 
  • Glass Ceiling Effect: Due to this, women are not promoted to higher positions.
  • Workplace Violence, including sexual violence.
  • Wage Gap: Women including paid lesser for the same work.

5. Cultural Lag

Famous sociologist W.F. Ogburn coined the term Cultural Lag. 

Every group has two types of values 

  • Core Value 
  • Peripheral Values 

According to the concept of Cultural Lag

  • Whenever change comes at peripheral values, it is accepted by the group. 
  • But when change comes at Core Values, it is not easily accepted.
  • This phenomenon creates anxiety because the group is neither traditional nor fully modern in such a situation. 
  • E.g., People have accepted educating the girl child, but they have not given up Patriarchal Mindset. 

Changes in Indian Society

  • From Joint family to Nuclear and Functional Joint families: Already discussed above. 
  • Change in the marriage system
    1. Legislative measures like the child marriage Restraint Act, 1929 and the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 have increased the minimum age of marriage.
    2. Freedom in mate selection which was earlier selected by the family.
    3. To fulfil career and individual ambitions, distance marriages” and “delayed marriages” have become common features. 
    4. Cases of divorce and desertion have also increased. 
  • The status of women in the family has improved as they have become more educated and started working, thus along with other male members in the family, they also now have a say in family issues. 
  • Women are given the right to ancestral property and a legal right to share the property with male members after the Hindu Succession Act of 1956 was amended in 2005.

NCERT Topic: Impact of colonisation  on Indian Society

History is full of examples of annexation. But, there is a difference between empires of pre-capitalist and capitalist times.

  • Change in land ownership: It impacted the old agrarian ties. E.g., In Permanent Settlement, Zamindars were made sole proprietors with no rights even to Khudkashts.
  • Forest Laws & Tribals: Tribals were exploited, and their rights on minor produce were taken away 
  • Criminalization of Tribes via Criminal Tribes Act.
  • The policy of Divide and Rule: Colonialists divided Indian society based on religion.  
  • Forced Movement of Population on a large scale: Eg : 
    • Workers from Bihar & Jharkhand moved to Assam to work on tea plantations. 
    • Indentured labourers send to Africa and the Americas.
    • Deindustrialization & ruralization led to the movement of artisans to agriculture.
  • Exoteric secular knowledge: Brahmin monopoly over education ended, and Dalits also got access to knowledge
  • English replaced Persian as the official language: Muslims suffered, and Hindus who adapted to change rapidly increased their government jobs.  

Previous Year UPSC GS Mains Questions

  1. The life cycle of a joint family depends on economic factors rather than social values. Discuss.
  2. Describe any four cultural elements of diversity in India and rate their relative significance in building a national identity.
  3. In the context of the diversity of India, can it be said that the regions form cultural units rather than the States? Give reasons with examples for your view point. 
  4. The spirit of tolerance and love is not only an interesting feature of Indian society from very early times, but it is also playing an important part at the present. Elaborate.

Security challenges and their management in border areas

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Security challenges and their management in border areas

This article deals with ‘Security challenges and their management in border areas.’ This is part of our series on ‘Internal Security’ which is an important pillar of the GS-2 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

  • Borders are the visible symbols of a country’s sovereignty, unity and integrity. 
  • There are three distinct sets of borders at the international level i.e. 
    • Land borders 
    • Maritime boundaries 
    • Airspace 
  • Border security in the present world order is a complex proposition. The transgressor is always on the lookout for soft gaps on land, along the coast and, if need be, from the air. Therefore, adopting a holistic approach to border security is necessary.
  • In this chapter, we will read about Border Management, a broader term than Border Security. While Border Security Approach deals only with defending the borders, Border management is a broader term which involves defending the borders and protecting the country’s interests in aligning borders.
  • India has a huge land border of 15,106 km and a coastline of 7,516.6 km, including island territories.  
  • India has specialized forces to guard the borders apart from the Indian Army. Assam Rifle, Border Security Force, Indo-Tibetan Border Police and Shashatra Seema Bal are India’s Border Guarding Forces.

Borders and Issues

Security challenges and their management in border areas

Some general issues faced in the management of Indian borders include

  1. No proper demarcation of maritime and land borders in many places, which leads to conflicts
  2. Artificial boundaries which are not based on natural borders are difficult to guard. E.g., In Punjab, an artificial line was created dividing united Punjab, and there is no river or mountain dividing the two countries. 
  3. Multiplicity of forces on the same borders leads to problems of coordination, command and control. 
  4. India has a separate force to manage different borders, which leads to a silos approach to border management. In other countries (as shown below), there is a single specialized and dedicated force for managing all the borders.
Border Guarding Forces of Other Countries
  1. Cross-border terrorism targeted to destabilize India.
  2. Border Guarding Forces like Border Security Force lack infrastructure, including the latest guns, night vision glasses etc.
  3. Hostile elements have access to the latest technology and advanced weapons.
  4. Illegal migration in the north-eastern region causing demographic changes and social backlashes between the migrants and indigenous people
  5. Due to the porous nature of the border, smuggling of arms, narcotics and counterfeit currency happens rampantly.

Task Force on border management under the Chairmanship of Madhav Godbole has also concluded that the country’s borders could not be effectively managed because of inherent problems such as their disputed status, artificiality and porosity.

General Recommendations regarding better Border Management

  1. Use of advanced technology for surveillance, particularly satellite and aerial imagery.
  2. The Border Security Force (BSF) should be responsible for the security of all settled borders, while the responsibility for unsettled and disputed borders should be that of the Indian Army.
  3. For effective accountability, the principle of ‘single point control’ or ‘one-force-one-border’ must be followed.
  4. Infrastructure along the border should be developed at an accelerated pace, especially to wean the border population from illegal activities.
  5. Upgradation of the intelligence network along the border should be the utmost priority.
  6. Raising the issues of infiltration across the border during various meetings with the counterparts.
  7. Establishment of more Integrated Check Posts (ICP) at the land borders, which house all regulatory activities such as immigration, security and customs under one roof. It has to be noted that a Statutory Authority called ‘Land Ports Authority of India’ (LPAI) has been set up to oversee and regulate the construction, management and maintenance of the ICPs.

Bangladesh

Issues at Indo-Bangladesh Border

General Information

Bordering states West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram
Guarding force Border Security Force (BSF)

Problems

  1. Illegal migration to West Bengal and Assam has changed the demographic profile of the region.  
  2. Inadequate border fencing due to issues such as the riverine nature of the border, pending land acquisition cases and protests by the border population. Hence, there is a high degree of porosity.
  3. Smuggling of goods like jamdani sarees, rice salt and livestock (especially cattle) etc. According to a CBI investigation (2021), BSF officials take a bribe of ₹2000 per cattle to allow the smuggling of Indian cattle to Bangladesh.  
  4. North-East Insurgents take refuge in Bangladesh due to the porous border.
  5. India and Bangladesh share 54 transboundary rivers. As a result, there are various water disputes, such as sharing of the waters of the Teesta river and the construction of a dam on the Barak river by India. 
  6. Radical groups like Harkat-al-Jihad-al-Islami (HUJI) and Jamaat-e-Islami fuel Anti-India sentiments in Bangladesh. Their propaganda could spill across the border. 
  7. The border area is densely populated, and people on both sides live in close proximity to the border.

Recent Initiatives

  1. The government has announced the establishment of a Border Protection Grid (BPG) consisting of BSF, State Police, Army etc.
  2. Installation of border surveillance devices such as closed-circuit cameras, searchlights, thermal imaging devices and drones to keep a tight vigil on the border. 
  3. Parliament has passed the 100th Constitutional Amendment to solve the issue of Adverse Possessions and landlocked enclaves amidst other’s territory. 
  4. Border Haats, i.e. traditional markets of local produce that can be accessed by people from across the border, have been established at the Indo-Bangladesh border. Trade can be carried here using Indian Rupee or Bangladeshi Taka.
  5. Project BOLD-QIT (Border Electronically Dominated QRT Interception Technique) has been started to install different kinds of sensors in the unfenced riverine area of the Brahmaputra and its tributaries.
  6. Road construction: 3,585.53 km of border patrol roads have been constructed on Indo-Bangladesh Border.
  7. Integrated Check Posts (ICPs) have been established at places like Sutarkandi in Assam and Ghojadanga in West Bengal along the Bangladesh border.
  8. Border forces of the two countries also undertake joint exercises such as ‘Sundarbans Moitry’ (Sundarbans Alliance) for better coordination in border management.

China

Issues at Indo-China Border

General Information

Bordering states UT of Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh
Length 3,488 km
Guarding Force Indo-Tibetan Border Police Force (ITBP) together with the Indian Army.

Issues

  1. Border dispute at Aksai Chin in Ladakh and Arunachal Pradesh with sporadic aggression by the Chinese Army (PLA). 
  2. Large-scale smuggling of Chinese electronics and consumer goods occurs on the Sino-India border. 
  3. Inadequate infrastructure due to high altitude and thick habitation. However, China has undertaken a large-scale upgradation to air, road and rail infrastructure.
  4. Multiple forces along the Indian border (ITBP, Assam Rifles and Special Frontier Force) as opposed to a single commander on the Chinese side. 
  5. China’s CPEC passes through parts of Jammu & Kashmir illegally occupied by Pakistan. China can use CPEC to mobilize troops in case of conflict.
  6. China is building a series of dams on the Brahmaputra river, which is the lifeline of North-Eastern states as well as Bangladesh. Given the Chinese track record on the Mekong river, where China virtually stopped the river flow in South-East Asian countries, this development is worrisome.

Recent Initiatives

  1. Creating infrastructure: India is constructing critical infrastructure, such as the Dhola-Sadiya bridge, to cut down time for troop movement.
  2. India is collaborating with Japan to develop infrastructure projects in the North-East to contain China.
  3. Army infrastructure projects within 100 km of LAC have been exempted from forest clearance. 
  4. The Ministry of Defence has delegated administrative and financial powers to the Border Roads Organisation (BRO) to expedite the border road construction. 

Pakistan

Issues at Indo-Pakistan Border

General Information

Bordering states J&K, Punjab ,Rajasthan and Gujarat
(Boundary between India and Pakistan is known as Radcliffe Line)
Length 3323 km
Guarding Force Border Security Force (BSF)

Problems

  1. Border dispute at Sir Creek and Kashmir.
  2. Cross-border terrorism, especially in Kashmir, to destabilize India. 
  3. Ceasefire violations and frequent shelling.
  4. Diverse terrain, which includes desert, sea, snow-capped mountains, and plains, makes border guarding difficult.
  5. Illegal activities like smuggling, drugs and arms trafficking due to porous border. 

Recent Initiatives

  • After the Pathankot terrorist attack, the Ministry of Home Affairs sanctioned and installed Comprehensive Integrated Border Management System (CIBMS) to safeguard and control the incidents of border infiltration.
  • Fencing: By 2011, almost all of the border– along Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat – has been double-row fenced. 
  • Outposts: About 700 border outposts and one Integrated Check post at Attari (Amritsar) have been functional.

Nepal

Issues at Indo-Nepal Border

General Information

Bordering States Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim
Length 1751 Km
Guarding Force Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB)

It must be noted that Nepal’s border is an open border and was virtually unattended until very recently.

Problems

  1. The highly porous nature of the Indo-Nepal border leads to cross-border crimes. Due to open borders, insurgents and hard-core criminals in both countries crossover to another country.
  2. Smuggling of essential items, fake Indian currency, gun-running, and drugs and human trafficking happens via the Indo-Nepal border.
  3. Pakistan uses open borders to carry out anti-India activities, including pushing terrorists and fake Indian currency.
  4. Fear of the spread of Maoist insurgency due to links of Nepali Maoists in India. 

New Initiatives

  1. Establishment of a new intelligence section in Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB).
  2. A total of 25 battalions of Sashastra Seema Bal have been deployed on Indo-Nepal Border.
  3. Border District Coordination Committee at the district level of two countries has been established. 
  4. The government of India has approved the construction of 1377 km of road along the Nepal border.
  5. India is giving development aid to Nepal. 

Myanmar

Issues at Indo-Myanmar Border

General Information

Bordering States Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram and Nagaland
Length 1,643 km
Guarding Force Assam Rifles

Problems

  1. Assam Rifle is mandated to preserve peace in the North East and guard Indo-Myanmar Border. Consequently, they are unable to do both works professionally. The government should correct this anomaly by either giving it the single mandate of guarding the Indo-Myanmar border or deploying some border guarding force like BSF to guard the Indo-Myanmar border. In 2017, Parliamentary Committee on Home Affairs, in its report, suggested the transfer of Indo-Myanmar Border Management to Border Guard Forces (BGF) instead of Assam riffles for better management. 
  2. The highly porous border with Free Movement Regime up to 16 km (explained below)
  3. About 170 km of the border is not properly demarcated.
  4. A porous border due to the absence of a physical barrier is exploited by Indian insurgent groups, which use Myanmar as a safe haven (Naga insurgents, especially NSCN-K, use this).
  5. Drug trafficking due to proximity to the golden triangle. Majority of heroin enters India through the border town of Moreh in Manipur.
  6. China’s interest in Myanmar is also a threat to India as it is building Kyaukpyu port in Myanmar as part of the ‘String of Pearls’ strategy to encircle India.
  7. During the 2021 coup d’etat by Myanmar Military, a large number of people crossed over to India in fear of political persecution. It created a large rift between the Union Government, which wanted to stop the refugees from entering India and the Mizos, who share ethnic ties with Chins and who wanted to give them safe havens.

Free Movement Regime (FMR) Issue

Tribal Naga and Mizo communities claim that the boundary between India and Myanmar is inconsistent with the traditional limits of the region they inhabited. They continue to have trans-border linkages with their kiths and kin. FMR is thus an arrangement to alleviate the insecurity of tribals living along the India and Myanmar border. It permits tribes residing along the border to travel 16 km across the boundary without visa restrictions.

Issues with FMR

While the FMR has helped the tribes maintain their age-old ties with their kin on the other side of the border, it has become a cause of concern for the security establishment.

  1. Militants and criminals misuse FMR for infiltration, smuggling weapons, narcotics, trafficking of women and children etc. 
  2. Militants groups such as the NSCN-K, NSCN-IM, ULFA etc., exploit this to get safe havens in Myanmar.
  3. The exodus of Rohingyas: Rohingyas also entered India using this route.

Note: In 2015, India carried out surgical strikes against NSCN-K in Myanmar by crossing the border in response to the insurgents’ killing of a troop contingent. But this raises the issue of Sovereignty versus National Security and the question of whether the national security of one country can be given precedence over the sovereignty of the other country.

Bhutan

General Information

Guarding Forces Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB)
Bordering States Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim and West Bengal

Problems

  1. The border between Bhutan and China is not demarcated at the tri-junction of India, Bhutan and China. There is a border dispute over Doklam, which is dangerously close to Chicken’s neck and can jeopardize the security of the entire Northeast.
  2. Insurgent groups such as Bodos, ULFA etc., sneak into Bhutan for sanctuary.
  3. Smuggling of goods such as Bhutanese cannabis, liquor and forest products from Bhutan to India and livestock, grocery items and fruits from India to Bhutan
  4. Free movement of people and vehicles
  5. Migration trigger fear of change in demography in Bhutan. Migrants are also accused of deforestation, poaching, and wildlife smuggling. 

New Initiatives

  1. Cooperation with the Bhutanese army to prevent sanctuary to insurgents on their soil. Operation All Clear was undertaken by Bhutan and Indian forces in this regard.
  2. The government of India has approved the construction of a 313 km road in Assam along the Indo-Bhutan border.
  3. The union environment ministry has given “general approval” for the diversion of forest land for major border infrastructure projects along the eastern border with Bhutan, Myanmar and Nepal.
  4. India has established new border posts in Sikkim along the Bhutan frontier near Doklam.
  5. India has established a new intelligence section in SSB.

Sri-Lanka

General Information

  • Sri Lanka shares a maritime border with India. 
  • Tamil Nadu is situated across the Palk Strait and is the most crucial determinant in Indo-Sri Lankan relations. 

Problems

  1. Katchatheevu Island Issue: India ceded the uninhabited island to its southern neighbour in 1974 under a conditional accord. However, Tamil Nadu and the fisherman community still argue it is their traditional fishing area.
  2. Trespassing by Indian fishermen in Sri Lankan waters takes place regularly. Here, the issue is not of an unsettled maritime boundary but the refusal of Indian fishermen to recognize the maritime boundary between India and Sri Lanka, especially in Palk Bay.
  3. Although LTTE and Tamil insurgency in Sri Lanka has been completely eliminated, supporters of the Tamil cause in Sri Lanka are still active in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. 

New Initiatives

  1. All big trawlers (20 meters and above) are being installed with AIS transponders.
  2. Distress Alert Transmitters (DATs) are being provided to fishermen to alert the ICG if they are distressed at sea.

Techniques of effective Land Border Management

Techniques of effective Land Border Management

Following are the techniques of effective land border management

  1. Building fences and erecting floodlights.
  2. Creating effective Border Out Posts (BOPs). 
  3. Set up border infrastructure like roads for effective mobilization during the time of need. 
  4. Effective patrolling and building of observation post towers. 
  5. Building of nakas and checkposts.
  6. Equipping the security forces with night vision technologies. 
  7. Installation of CCTV & thermal imaging equipment on the border.

Issues faced by Border Guarding Forces (BGF)

Issues faced by Border Guarding Forces

BSF, SSB, ITBP etc., are the Border Guarding Forces. These forces face various issues, as mentioned below.

  1. Jawans are overworked and hence fatigued during patrolling duty. 
  2. Deployment of BGF Battalions to duties other than guarding the borders, like conducting elections 
  3. Deficiency of surveillance equipment, like hand-held Thermal Imagers, which are essential for surveillance during night
  4. Inadequate medical facilities, and they are transferred to Frontier Headquarters for even basic treatment.
  5. Disparity in wages compared to the army.

Government response/Steps taken by the government 

1. Comprehensive Integrated Border Management System (CIBMS)

Madhukar Gupta Committee was constituted against the backdrop of the Pathankot attack. In this attack, terrorists attacked the army installation after infiltrating Indo-Pakistan Border. It recommended the installation of CIBMS to avoid such misadventures of Pakistan-based terrorists. Presently, the system is operational at important points. 

Details of CIBMS

Comprehensive Integrated Border Management System (CIBMS)
  • It is a five-layer elaborate plan to stop infiltration on the western border with Pakistan completely. 
  • Five layers include 
    1. CCTV cameras. 
    2. Thermal image and night-vision devices 
    1. Battlefield surveillance radar. 
    1. Underground monitoring sensors. 
    2. Laser barriers. 
  • The integrated setup will ensure that if one device doesn’t work, another will alert the control room in case of a transgression. It will work as a ‘Smart Fence‘. 
  • Its cost is estimated to be Rs. 1 crore per km.

Side Topic: Use of Technology in Border Management

  • Effective border surveillance can be done using CCTV, thermal & radar imagery. 
  • Drones are used by border guarding forces for aerial surveillance.
  • Satellite Monitoring is also used for this. E.g., India is using GSAT-7A & Cartosat for this purpose. 
  • IRNSS/NAVIC (Indian GPS) provides location services in rugged terrain in the Himalayan borders with Pakistan, China, Nepal and Myanmar.

2. Department of Border Management Division

  • Department of Border Management works under Home Ministry.
  • It was set up in Jan 2004 on the recommendation of the Godbole Report (formed in the backdrop of the Kargil war to strengthen border management). 
  • It specifically looks at border management and implementation of the Border Area Development Program (BADP).

3. Development of Integrated Check Posts (ICPs)

  • Integrated Check Posts have been set up at places along the border from where the movement of people and goods takes place. 
  • ICPs house all regulatory agencies like immigration, customs, border security etc. 
  • They have facilities like warehouses, hotels, parking, banking etc.

4. Border Area Development Programme(BADP)

  • It was started in 7th five-year plan.
  • It is a 100% centrally funded program. Along with that, all the allocated funds are fully non-lapsable.
  • The Department of Border Management under the Home Ministry is the nodal agency.
  • It covers 111 border districts in 17 States. 
  • BADP covers all the villages within 0-10 Km of the International Border.

Objectives

  • To create infrastructure 
  • To provide economic opportunities to the border people
  • To instil a sense of security among them. 

Main programs

  • Construction of roads.
  • Ensure water supply, education and sports facilities.
  • Organization of early childhood care etc.

5. Border Out Posts (BOPs)

  • Border Out Posts (BOPs) are designated entry and exit points on the country’s international border through which cross-border movement of persons and goods occurs.
  • BOPs are also meant to provide an appropriate show of force to deter trans-border criminals, infiltrators and hostile elements from indulging in the activities of encroachment and border violations. 
  • Each BOP is provided with the necessary infrastructure for accommodation, logistic support and combat functions. It also facilitates trade & commerce.

6. Land Port Authority of India

  • It is a statutory authority set up to oversee and regulate the construction, management and maintenance of the ICPs. 
  • LPAI has been envisaged as a lean oversight body aimed at providing better administration and cohesive management of the cross-border movement of people and goods. 
  • It would be vested with powers along the lines of similar bodies like the Airports Authority of India.

Further Recommendation

1. Clear Chain of Command

  • Presently, different agencies are responsible for the management of the same border. E.g., on Punjab Border, BSF, Indian Army and Punjab Police are involved in this. But this results in a lack of accountability. In case of an accident, every agency starts to blame others.  
  • Hence, there should be one nodal agency and a clear chain of command.

2. Resolving Governance Problems

  • The Ministry of Home Affairs should be the nodal ministry for all borders. Presently, the resolution of border disputes is the responsibility of the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA). Low staffing levels and limited leverage of MEA with state governments restrict its ability to resolve border disputes effectively.   

3. Restructuring of border forces

  • Assam Rifles: Presently, Assam Riffles perform two functions, i.e. guarding Myanmar Border and maintaining security and peace in North East. There should be a separate Border Guarding Force for the Indo-Myanmar border. 
  • BSF: BSF guards the Indo-Bangladesh and Indo-Pakistan border. It is recommended that the BSF be constituted into two wings, East and West, for better management due to the different nuances of each border.
  • The battalions deployed on border guarding duties should have a significant proportion of local youth in its ranks to exploit their knowledge of the terrain, language etc.

4. Involvement of the Stakeholders

Stakeholders in border areas are

  1. People living in border areas
  2. State administration
  3. Border guarding forces
  4. Central agencies involved in border development.

5. Modernisation

  • At present, border guarding work is excessively manpower intensive. There should be a greater infusion of technology into border guarding functions.
  • Madhukar Committee Report has also recommended this, and the installation of CIBMS is a step in that direction. Going further, drones and satellite data should also be used for guarding the borders.

6. Upgrading infrastructure

  • Areas, especially along the Chinese region, needs proper infrastructure, especially in Ladakh, Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim.

Linkages of Organized Crime with Terrorism

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Linkages of Organized Crime with Terrorism

This article deals with ‘Linkages of Organized Crime with Terrorism.’ This is part of our series on ‘Internal Security’, an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

Like terrorism, there is no single uniformly accepted definition of organized crime. Even UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime does not define organized crime.

According to Interpol, an Organized Crime Group can be defined as ‘any group having a corporate structure & whose primary objective is to obtain money through illegal activities, often surviving on fear and corruption.’ 

Characteristics of Organized Crime Groups

1. Continuity

  • These groups are structured to survive leadership changes. Due to their structured nature, they operate beyond an individual’s lifetime.

2. Structure

  • These groups are highly structured with a properly defined hierarchy. The ranks are based on power and authority.

3. Membership

  • Their membership is restricted and based on common traits like ethnicity, background, common interest or proximity with the leader. Scrutiny and probation are crucial parts of member recruitment. 

4. Criminality

  • Such groups rely on criminal activities to generate income. Therefore, these groups are engaged in criminal activities like smuggling, murder, intimidation, drug trafficking, human trafficking etc.

5. Violence

  • These groups use violence against opposition groups to protect their commercial interests.

6. Intimidation

  • To get their job done, criminal gangs indulge in intimidation against people or public officials.

7. Corruption

  • Crime thrives in a corrupt atmosphere. Organized Crime Groups buy off law enforcement officers to carry out their illegal activities without resistance. 

8. Power & Profit Motives

  • All the actions of the Organized Crime Group aim to maximize the group’s power and profits. For this, the group bribes the officials and leaders and even indulge in intimidation and violence.

9. Protectors

  • These groups have protectors in the form of public officials, attorneys and businessmen who collectively protect the criminal group.

10. Specialist support

  • These groups are assisted by specialists on an ad-hoc basis, including chemists (in the drug business), shooters (for murder), pilots (in smuggling) etc., who are nonetheless considered part of the group.

The degree of these characteristics may vary from group to group. However, the quintessential element of organized crime is continuing illegal activities to generate illegal proceeds.

Famous Organized Crime Groups of the World

Country Organized GroupImportant Points
Japan Yakuza – Transnational Crime Syndicate with more than 28,000 members and a turnover of around $50 billion. It further has three more clans, i.e. Yamaguchi Gumi,  Sumiyoshi-kai and  Inagawa-kai.
Italy Ndrangheta group – It has an annual turnover of €53 billion.
– It is engaged in wide-ranging activities like murder, extortion, drug trafficking and money laundering. They control the supply of cocaine in the whole of Europe.
– Membership relies on blood ties in the Calabria region of South Italy.
USA CRIPS African-American Organized Criminal Group in USA with a turnover of $8 billion 
India D Company – D Company is named after its leader Dawood Ibrahim.
– It is the most powerful gang in Mumbai with abroad networks.
– It is involved in extortion, narcotics, drugs, smuggling and contract killing.
Russian  Mafia  
Hong Kong Triads  
Linkages of Organized Crime with Terrorism

Main activities carried by Organized Crime

1. Drug Trade

  • It is the biggest revenue source for most organized crime groups.  
  • It is quite widespread in India due to India’s geographical location between the golden triangle and golden crescent, the world’s leading producers of narcotics. 
  • Apart from that, opium is legally cultivated in India under medicinal licensing. Organized Criminal Groups siphon off this opium to be sold in the illicit market.
Golden Triangle and Golden Crescent

Side Topic: Narco-Terrorism

  • According to the US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), narco-terrorism is “a subset of terrorism,” where groups or individuals participate directly or indirectly in the cultivation, manufacture, transportation or distribution of controlled substances and the money derived from these activities”.

2. Smuggling

  • Goods are smuggled in and out of the country by Organized Crime Groups without paying the required taxes and dodging customs.
  • The nature of smuggled goods depends on the fiscal policies adopted by the government. E.g., Textile items and electronic items were smuggled in the 1970s. Presently, gold is the primary item that is smuggled into India.

3. Cyber Crimes

  • With increased dependence on computers, cyber crimes have emerged as the main activity of Organized Crime Groups. They indulge in hacking, copyright piracy, software piracy, credit card fraud etc. 

4. Environmental Crime

  • There is a large-scale poaching of animals due to organized crime. 50% of world species are facing the fastest man-made mass extinction because of animal poaching.
  • Timber poaching is also a multi-billion dollar avenue and organized crime groups. 

5. Trafficking cultural property

  • Trafficking of cultural property is a crucial avenue for money laundering. Ancient Artefacts are stolen, and organized crime groups destroy sites to erase the trails of theft.

6. Piracy

  • Piracy is widespread across the Horn of Africa, Malacca and Sundarbans.
  • Organized crime groups indulge in attacking merchant ships to take the crew hostage and demand money to release the hostages. They earn millions of dollars through this route. 

7. Prostitution

  • Trading in sex and girl-running is a very profitable business. Underworld is closely connected to brothels and call girl rackets. According to the WHO,  Bombay & Kolkata has 1 million, and Pune & Delhi have 40,000 prostitutes.
  • It has to be noted that prostitution per se is not an offence in India. However, running brothels, inducing girls for the sake of prostitution, detaining girls in brothels, or running brothels in the vicinity of public places is a criminal offence.

8. Contract Killing

  • Organized Crime Groups like D-Company and Yamaguchi Gumi are also involved in contract killing. They are ready to kill anybody in return for specific fees. It is also the preferred mode of killing, as the conviction rate in contract killing is negligible.
  • Under the contract, the part amount is paid in advance, called ‘supari’. The rest of the payment is made after the commission of the crime.

9. Money Laundering

  • Money laundering means the conversion of illegal and ill-gotten money into legal money. Organized Crime Groups provide services via placement, layering and integration of black money in return for fees. 

10. Kidnapping

  • It is a highly organized crime. Crime groups kidnap children or adults and demand huge sums in return for releasing them.
  • This activity is mainly carried out in urban areas.

11. Organ trafficking

  • An organ transplant can save a life, but there is a heavy demand-supply mismatch. Due to the desperate situation of the recipient, they are ready to pay a hefty amount. Organized Crime groups exploit this situation by indulging in organ trafficking. 
  • Unlike other crimes, professionals like doctors, nurses etc., are also involved in this.

12. Light Arms Proliferation

  • Light arms proliferation is a global phenomenon. It has taken a heavy toll on entire regions’ lives and socio-economic development.
  • Organized Crime Groups are the main suppliers of illegal light arms like pistols, guns etc. 

13. Intellectual Property Crime

  • Intellectual Property Crime (IPC) includes the manufacturing, storage and sale of counterfeit or pirated goods where the consent of the rights holder has not been obtained.
  • Some scholars argue that it constitutes the largest black-market economy, surpassing the global narcotics trade.

Organized Crime and Terrorism

The intersection between terrorism and organized crime can be divided into three categories

1. Co-existence

  • It refers to the situation when both (Organized Crime Gangs & Terrorist Organisations) operate in the same theatre but remain separate entities.
Co-existence in Organized Crime and Terror

2. Cooperation

  • Generally, Organized Crime Groups and Terrorist organizations don’t cooperate as their motives differ. While Terrorists want a change in the political status quo, Organized Crime Groups want a change in the status quo only when it threatens them. 
  • But when the benefit outweighs the risk, they cooperate, including specific operational supports which can be acquired cost-effectively from each other. E.g.: 
    1. In Columbia, Medellin Drug Cartel hired ELN to implant car bombs because they didn’t have the expertise in bombs.
    2. Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan allied with the Afghan drug mafia so that movement of drugs could occur safely to the Soviet Union.
    3. Terrorist Organizations frequently use Organized Crime Groups’ help to create fake passports, smuggling terrorists into countries. Terrorist groups / Insurgents active in the North-Eastern States take the services of crime syndicates active in Cox Bazaar for such activities.
Cooperation in Organized Crime and Terror

3. Confluence

When a single entity does both activities

Organized CrimeWhen Organized Crime Group uses terror tactics to safeguard their business interest. E.g., D-Company’s terrorist activities.
Terrorist GroupWhen Terrorist Group uses organized crime to gather funds, E.g., Al Qaeda uses drug trafficking, and ISIS uses women trafficking to fund their activities.
Confluence in Organized Crime and Terror

It is also known as ‘Black Hole Syndrome‘, where terrorist groups and transnational organized crime groups converge entirely into each other. The black hole syndrome is thus described as the natural progression of these two criminal groups gaining economic and political control over the territory (Tamara Makarenko, 2005, p.129)

Black Hole Syndrome

Indian examples of Black Hole Syndrome

  • In the Northeast, extortion, drug trafficking and gun running are the fundamental basis for funding terrorism.
  • D Company of Mumbai (as discussed above).

Similarities between Terrorism and Organized Crime

Linkages of Organized Crime with Terrorism
  • There is a similarity in personality traits of members belonging to terrorist organizations and Organized Crime Groups. Members of both organizations are
    • From the marginal social groups exposed to and burdened by social or political frustrations
    • They are the persons attracted by excitement and thrill.
    • They have risk-taking ability.
  • Terrorist Organizations and Organized Crime Groups have similarities in their modus operandi, which involves 
    • Secrecy and confidentiality.
    • Use of violence to accomplish certain goals or interests.
    • Detailed planning and preparation
    • Respect for strict discipline.
    • Intimidating the surroundings.
  • Activities carried out by both, i.e. Terrorists and Organized Crime Groups are punishable by law.

Differences between Terrorism and Organized Crime

Differences between Terrorism and Organized Crime
Terrorist Organisations Organized Crime Groups
They want to overthrow the existing government by changing the present order. They don’t want to overthrow the state => Only want to form a parallel government.
They use violent means. These groups generally remain non-violent. Violence is used as a last resort.
Terrorists are driven by political objectives. Organized Crime Groups are driven by economic objectives, devoid of any political dimension.
Terrorist organizations claim responsibility for terrorist attacks. Organized Crime Groups never claim responsibility for their criminal acts.
They try to seek media attention. They don’t seek media attention and remain low profile.
They attack government and law enforcement agencies. They generally don’t indulge in such activities.
They want to influence public opinion. They aren’t concerned with public opinion.

UN Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime

  • It was adopted in 2000 and came to force in 2003.
  • The Convention is supplemented by three supplementary protocols i.e. 
    1. Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children
    2. Protocol Against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air
    3. Protocol against the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms and Ammunition
  • As a signatory, the country is committed for 
    1. Creation of domestic criminal offences for participation in an organized criminal group.
    2. Adoption of frameworks for extradition, mutual legal assistance and law-enforcement cooperation. 
    3. Promotion of training and technical assistance for building or upgrading the necessary capacity of national authorities.

Legal position in India on organized crime

  • There is no national law explicitly dealing with Organized Crime in India. Various provisions of IPC deal with it. But the Government of India is planning to make the Organized Crime Control Act.
  • Various states have enacted special legislation to tackle Organized Crime, like Maharashtra (first to pass in 1999), Delhi, UP, Gujarat, Karnataka & Haryana (2019). 

1 . Provisions of IPC

Criminal Conspiracy

  • It is defined by Section 120A of IPC.
  • Criminal Conspiracy is – when two or more persons agree to do or cause to be done an illegal act or an act which is not illegal by illegal means.

Dacoity

  • Section 391 of IPC deals with it. 
  • If 5 or more persons commit a robbery, it is termed as dacoity.
  • It is a punishable offence with imprisonment for life or rigorous imprisonment of up to 10 years.

2. Provisions to tackle Human Trafficking (by Organized Crime Groups)

  • Anti-Trafficking Nodal Cell has been set up by the Ministry of Home Affairs to act as a focal point for tackling Human Trafficking in the country. 
  • The government of India has also signed agreements with Bangladesh, Nepal, Bahrain etc., to curb Human Trafficking.  

3. Provisions to tackle Drug Trafficking (by Organized Crime Groups)

  • Acts: India has enacted the Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985 (NDPS Act) and the Prevention of Illicit Trafficking of Narcotics Drug and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1988.
  • International Conventions: India is a signatory to all three UN Conventions, namely 
    1. Convention on Narcotics Drugs, 1962
    2. UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances, 1971
    3. UN Convention against Illicit Trafficking of Narcotics Drug and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1988 

4. State Acts

  • Various states have passed State laws to control organized crime, notorious gangsters and crime syndicates in the state. Most notable among them is the Maharashtra Control of Organized Crime Act (MCOCA), 1999. 

5. Suggestions of the Supreme Court

  • Supreme Court has recently directed the Centre to set up Organized Crime Investigating Agency (OCIA). It can be a positive step in combating organized crime.

Problems in controlling Organized Crime in India

  • Inadequate Legal Structure: India needs a special law to control/suppress organized crime. The existing law is insufficient as it targets individuals and not criminal groups or criminal enterprises.
  • Difficulties in Obtaining Proof: Organized Criminal groups are structured hierarchically, and the higher echelons of leadership are insulated as there is hardly any documentary evidence against them.
  • Dual Criminality: Certain crimes, particularly drug trafficking, are planned in one part of the world and executed in another. Different nations have different legal structures, and the extradition of criminals from one country to other is very difficult. 
  • Criminal, Political & Bureaucratic Nexus: Due to this, the investigating and prosecuting agencies find it difficult to deal effectively with them.
  • Lack of Resources & Training: Police come under the State’s subject. Most States face a resource crunch, and there are hardly any training facilities for investigating organized crime.
  • The police force in India is not trained to deal with organized crime. Their training involves dealing with conventional crime, and organized crime is neglected. 
  • The technological sophistication of organized crimes due to new technologies like cryptocurrencies has opened up many possibilities for criminals to carry out traditional crimes without leaving a trail. 
  • Weakness of the financial system due to the prevalence of the cash economy, parallel transactions through hawala, money laundering etc., makes it harder for law enforcement agencies to control them.

Role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges to internal security

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Role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges to internal security

This article deals with ‘Security challenges and their management in border areas.’ This is part of our series on ‘Internal Security’, which is an important pillar of the GS-2 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Definition: State Actors vs Non-State Actors

State Actors (SA)

  • State Actors are based on the premise of sovereignty, recognition of statehood and control of territory & population. 
  • E.g., India, the US, and Micronesia (irrespective of size).

Non-State Actors (NSA)

  • In the Post-Cold War Era and with the advent of Globalisation, the concept of the Nation-State has experienced erosion, and Non-State Actors have become the force to reckon with. 
  • Non-State Actors are not always sympathetic to national interests, but their loyalty lies with group, corporation or community interests.
  • The traditional hierarchy, which used to exist earlier with the military dominating economic & social interests, doesn’t exist anymore because of the rise of Non-State Actors. 
  • Examples of NSAs include 
International Government Organisation NATO, UNO etc.
NGO Amnesty International, Greenpeace etc.
Multi-national Corporations Operating in multiple sovereign states eg Shell(oil)
International Media BBC, Al-Jazira, CNN etc.
Violent Non-State Actors Al-Qaeda , Drug Cartels
Religious Groups Roman Catholic Church
Transnational Diasporic Communities Indian Diaspora affects policies back home

Challenges to India’s Internal Security from NSAs 

Challenges to India's Internal Security from NSAs

1 . Terrorism

  • Non-State Actors, mainly terrorist groups, are involved in the execution of terror attacks. Notably, in the case of India, these terrorist groups are either secessionists or Islamic fundamentalists. 
  • These Terrorist Organizations have been banned under the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act of 1967.
  • Examples of Terrorist Non-State Actors  include
Lashkar e Taiba Jaish e Mohammad
Harkat ul Mujahideen Hizb ul Mujahideen
United Libration Front Of Assam National Demo Front of Bodoland
LTTE CPI (Maoist)
Babbar Khalsa International Khalistan Commando Force

2. Naxalism

  • Naxalism was started as a movement for land reforms. Later, it took a violent & dangerous turn aiming at overpowering the democratic structure of India via violent armed struggle.
  • Naxalists get financial, ideological and technological support from external Non-State Actors (especially foreign leftist organizations from the Philippines, Turkey and China.).

3. Insurgency

  • Many insurgent groups are active in North-East with demands ranging from separate states to regional autonomy to complete independence.
  • It is difficult to handle these insurgents because of the rugged terrain, porous border & external support of adjoining states.
  • There is massive unemployment in the North-East region. Hence, unemployed youth provide an easy target for recruiters. 
  • Interlinkages between outfits ensure a smooth transfer of military hardware & technology. Even the weakest outfit has access to sophisticated technology ranging from satellite communication to automatic guns.
  • State and Non-State Actors help the insurgents in various ways. The examples mentioned below will help in understanding this.

3.1 Naga Insurgents

  • Naga insurgents receive patronage from the Chinese regime.
  • They enjoy safe havens in Bhutan, Bangladesh & Myanmar. 
  • Naga outfits like NSCN (IM) have close links with NDFB, Naxalists etc. They even have links with Burmese groups like United Wa Army and Kaichin Independence Army (KIA).

3.2 ULFA

  • ULFA waged an international struggle by attending meetings of the Unrepresented Nations Peoples Organisation. 

4. Cyber Attacks

  • Cyber attacks are carried out by cyber criminals, cyber terrorists and other foreign states.
  • While cybercriminals indulge in such activities for monetary gains, cyber terrorists want to further their political objectives. 
  • India’s exponential growth in the IT sector and various e-governance measures make it extra vulnerable to such attacks. E.g., the 2010 Commonwealth Games hosted by India witnessed Cyber attacks from Pakistan & China to damage information systems. 
  • It has been noticed that most cyber attacks on India originate from the US, China, Russia, East Europe & Iran.

5. Counterfeit Currency / Economic 

  • It is tough to distinguish between fake & real currency nowadays because the fake currency is printed with state-of-the-art technology using security paper supplied by state actors.
  • It is a sub-conventional warfare strategy pursued by Pakistan against India. 
  • Fake currency is mainly brought to India through the porous borders of Nepal & Bangladesh. 
  • Terrorist organizations like Hizb ul Mujahideen use the fake currency to fund their programs.  
  • To tackle this, the government has taken various measures like
    1. Demonetisation of Indian currency notes.
    1. New notes have more security features. Hence, they are difficult to counterfeit.
    2. A special cell under NIA has been formed to counter terror funding and fake currency.

6. Communalism

  • Various reports highlight that domestic extremist organizations get financial & ideological support from external religious organizations (Non-State Actors) and Foreign States (Pakistan, China etc.).
  • E.g.: 
    • Pakistan (state actor) funds Kashmiri Terrorists.
    • Islamic terrorists are getting ideological support from ISIS. 
    • Saudi Arabia is promoting and funding radical Wahhabism in the world.
    • Zakir Naik’s Islamic Research Foundation and Peace TV are radicalizing Muslim Youth in India and Bangladesh. 

7. Drug  Trafficking

  • Due to its location, India has become a transit hub & destination for drugs originating from GOLDEN TRIANGLE (Myanmar, Thailand and Laos) & GOLDEN CRESCENT (Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran).
  • There is nexus between drug traffickers, organized criminal networks & terrorists, which is powerful enough to destabilize even the whole nation. Money generated by this trade is also used to fund insurgents & terrorists.
Golden Crescent and Golden Triangle

8. Human Trafficking

  • Human trafficking, in major part, involves the abduction, buying and selling of women and children for prostitution, forced marriages and bonded labour.
  • India has been both the source and destination of human trafficking.
    1. Women and children are trafficked from Nepal and Bangladesh to be sold inside the country for prostitution. 
    2. Women are trafficked from India to the Middle East and other European countries, where they are employed as low-skilled labourers, domestic workers and sexual exploitation.

9. Piracy

  • Piracy is a serious threat to India because the Indian economy heavily depends on the export and import of goods. Securing the Sea Lane of Commerce is vital for India.
  • In the Indian Ocean, Somalian pirates are active around the Horn of Africa, which poses a great threat to India’s energy security as oil tankers also pass through this region. To tackle this, the Indian government has taken various measures, including escort vessels in the Gulf of Aden.

10. Security threats posed by Indian Diaspora

  • Indian (Muslim) diaspora in Gulf nations is indoctrinated during their stay and used for carrying out terrorist activities and propaganda on their return to India.
  • A large number of Sri Lankan Tamils were forced to take refuge in Tamil Nadu during the Civil War in Sri Lanka between Sri Lankan Army and LTTE. They, along with the people of Tamil Nadu, exert pressure on Tamil Nadu and the Indian government to take a stand against Sri Lankan government, causing strain in Indo-Lanka relations. 
  • Indian (Sikh) diaspora in countries like the UK, Canada, USA, Australia etc., support the Khalistan issue.

11. Threats posed by Multi-National Corporations (MNCs)

  • In today’s globalized world, MNCs are influencing the global economy, and some MNCs (like Facebook, Coke etc.) have become more powerful than nation-states.
  • Actions of powerful mining MNCs like Vedanta and POSCO and subsequent encroachment of the lands of Adivasis resulted in the emergence of Naxal / Maoist movements in these areas.
  • Powerful seed companies like Monsanto and Bayer can pose a great threat to the nation’s food security by patenting the technology used to manufacture GM and HYV seeds.
  • MNCs shatter the faith of the common public in the government. Government loses legitimacy, and people tend to believe that it is working for these MNCs and big corporates. 

12. Threats posed by NGOs

  • NGOs have a soft glove and apologist attitude towards Naxalites, Insurgents & Terrorists.
  • NGOs like Amnesty International force governments to repeal acts like AFSPA, which can prove dangerous in some situations.
  • Intelligence Bureau (2014) also brought to the forefront the obstructionist role played by Foreign Funded NGOs and the loss of GDP to the tune of 2% happening due to their protests.

To counter this, Parliament passed Foreign Contributions Regulation Act (FCRA) in 2010 to regulate the flow of foreign funds to NGOs.

Part 2: Role of External State Actors in creating threats to Internal Security of India

2.1 Internal Security threats posed by China

  • India and China have a long-standing border dispute which leads to frequent Chinese intrusions into Indian territories. Recently, China has been following an assertive policy, as evident from the Galwan clashes (2020).
  • China is supporting the insurgents in the North-East States, corroborated by the fact that counter-insurgency operations in the North East have resulted in the recovery of dozens of made-in-China rifles, pistols, grenades and other ammunition. NIA has found evidence that the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN-IM) and the National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB) are buying weapons from Norinco (a state-owned weapon manufacturer in China).
  • China also provides shelter to North Eastern ethnic separatist militants (Eg, NSCN, ULFA etc.).
  • Since the beginning, the Maoist/ Naxalism movement has received philosophical, moral, financial, and intellectual support from China. 
  • China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), which connects Xinxiang with Gwadar port, passes through Pakistani Occupied Kashmir and undermines Indian sovereignty over the region.

CPEC
  • China is building a large number of naval bases in the Indian Ocean to encircle India through its String of Pearl strategy.
String of Pearls
  • Cheap Chinese mobiles sold in the Indian market manufactured by companies like Xiaomi pose a threat of surveillance and data leakage by the Chinese state. The Indian military has barred its employees from using Chinese mobiles.

2.2 Internal Security threats posed by Pakistan

Internal Security threats posed by Pakistan
  • Terrorism in the UT of Jammu and Kashmir is the direct manifestation of Pakistan’s policy of bleeding India through a thousand cuts.
  • ISI of Pakistan also supports Naxal groups to foment disturbance and law and order problems in India.
  • In the North-East, Pakistan’s ISI has trained and financially supported insurgent groups such as ULFA.
  • Pakistan is encouraging non-state actors like the Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) with active funding and logistical and military support to foment unrest in India. 
  • Pakistan is trying to flood India with fake currency so as it impact the Indian economy and weaken the trust of the public in the Indian currency.
  • Pakistan is flooding the border states with drugs to destroy India’s youth and produce unrest in the country. 
  • Pakistan indulges in complex cyber attacks on Indian companies, government websites and databases.

2.3 Internal Security threats posed by Bangladesh

Terrorism Cattle Smuggling Iluman Trafficking Illegal Migration civilspedia.com
  • Bangladesh acts as a safehouse for terrorists. During Khalida Zia’s regime, DGFI (Bangladesh’s intelligence agency) also used to support insurgent groups in the North-East.
  • Illegal migration from Bangladesh to North-Eastern states has been the source of communal and ethnic tension in India, resulting in large-scale demographic changes in the North-East region.
  • Due to the porous nature of the border, there is a rampant drug, human and cattle trafficking. While there is no evidence of direct state involvement in this case, it is its inactivity to resolve the issue that is concerning.