Socialist and Communist Movements during Colonial Period

This article deals with ‘ Socialist and Communist Movements during Colonial Period – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

Introduction

• Socialism aims at ending exploitation of vast majority of helpless humanity by small, powerful minority & remove consequent injustices & inequalities from the society .These ideas became widespread after Russian Revolution
• In such circumstances,  some patriotic  Indian intellectuals & militants particularly those who have either lived in western countries or established contacts were drawn towards those ideas eg. Madame Cama, Shyamji Krishna Verma etc . They operated from abroad till World War 1 & were outside Congress framework & hardly made any impact on policies of Congress till end of Non Cooperation Movement (NCM) .But after that Socialist ideas began to influence INC.  Powerful left wing group developed in late 1920s & 1930s,  contributing to radicalization of national movement
• Socialist ideas acquired roots in the Indian soil & became the accepted creed of Indian youth whose urges came to be symbolized by Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose.
• Two important powerful Left Parties emerged
  1. Communist Party of India (CPI)
  2. Congress Socialist Parties(CSP)

Reasons for Growth of Leftist Movement in India

Main reasons for growth were

• Industrial development in certain places like Bombay, Calcutta & Madras  leading to large & concentrated worker’s population in those places . Gradually  they started organizing themselves to demand better working conditions leading to emergence of Trade Unions
• On 7 Nov 1917,  Bolshevik Party led by Lenin overthrew despotic Czarist regime. Lesson learnt that if the common people — the workers and peasants and the intelligentsia — could unite and overthrow the mighty Czarist Empire , then the Indian people battling against British imperialism could also do so
• Socialist ideas began to spread rapidly especially because many young persons who had participated in Non Cooperation Movement (NCM)  were unhappy with its outcome and were dissatisfied with Gandhian policies and ideas as well as the alternative Swarajist programme.
• In 1919 , Third Communist International organised by Soviet government aimed at bringing communist revolution & establishing government of Working class all over world . This gave impetus
• First WW led to  high inflation but industrialists adamant not to increase wages of workers leading to their organised mobilization
• Since Nationalist movement also became mass movement ,  nationalist leaders saw potential to draw masses towards their movement through this . Lala  Lajpat Rai was first president of All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC)

Condition of Workers

• Living condition was miserable
• They worked for 15 & even 18 hours a day
• There were no leave rule & no security of jobs
• They lived in dark,damp slums with no water supply & no sanitary arrangements
• In Coal Mines of Jharia & Giridh condition was even more miserable . They worked from 6 AM to 6 PM + woman & children worked underground + accidents leading to death was frequent & until 1923 government introduced no insurance scheme
• There was no provision of Provident fund . When they aged, were thrown out of job with no avenue of income

Attitude of mainstream National Movement towards workers

Whole process can be divided into different stages

1 . Early Nationalists

• Paid very little attention towards question of workers although truly wretched conditions prevailed
• Major reason for that was anti imperialist movement was in its infancy & nationalists didn’t wish to weaken common struggle against British rule by creating any divisions within ranks of Indian people
• Most of these leaders were from upper strata of society – western educated middle class which included categories of rentiers , professionals & entrepreneurs
• Upto World War (WW) 1, these leaders were just trying to win concessions by means of petitions , memorandums etc & hadn’t thought of raising mass movement

2. Later (towards end of 19th century)

Efforts were organised to secure better bargaining position vis a vis more powerful classes in common anti imperialist front but here two different approaches

Labour vs Indigenous Employer

– Were unwilling to take this question & denied any need of government legislation to regulate working conditions . They actively opposed Factories Act of 1881 & 1889 – But there were nationalist reasons for this because Britishers were doing this not for labour but to make Indian industries out of race by taking from them edge that they get via cheap labour of India + nationalists looked Indian Industrial growth as way to remove poverty .

Labour vs British Enterprises

– Scenario completely altered in this situation – No hesitation in giving full support to workers  because employer & employee were not part & parcel of same nation – Indian National Congress (INC) began campaign against manner in which tea plantation workers were virtually reduced to slaves – First organised strike in Indian history by signalers of Great Peninsula Railways in 1899 in which Nationalist newspapers & Tilak came in full support

Trade Unionism & Communism in India

Meaning of Trade Union

• Association of workers formed with purpose of improving the conditions under which they work in mills & factories
• These workers  were mostly illiterate &  didn’t have any idea in the beginning of forming Trade Unions and uniting themselves.
• There were a few ‘outsiders’ mostly intellectuals, who tried for years to educate and organise them in Trade Unions. Very often they became leaders of the unions.

1 . Early Attempts to improve workers conditions

• Towards the end of 19th century, Nationalist Intelligentsia began to associate itself with working class agitation but these were sporadic, spontaneous & unorganised revolts

Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee	1878 : tried unsuccessfully to introduce a Bill in the Bombay Legislative Council to limit the working hours for labour
Sasipanda Banerjea	In Bengal, Brahmo Social Reformer, set up a Workingmen’s Club in 1870 and brought out a monthly journal called Bharat Sramjeebi (Indian Labour)

• All these activities were philanthropic in nature & didn’t represent beginning of organised working class movement

2. During Swadeshi Movement Period

• Number of strikes rose rapidly & many Swadeshi leaders enthusiastically threw themselves into task of organising stable trade unions, strikes, legal aid & fund collection drives
• Most  important feature of the labour movement during the Swadeshi days was the shift from agitations and struggles on purely economic questions to wider political issues of the day.

Bengal	– 16 Oct 1905 (day of partition of Bengal) –  workers of Jute Mills & jute press factories , railway coolies & carters all struck work – Burn Company Shipyard in Howrah didn’t permit its workers to participate in Fed Hall meeting & they went on strike
Tamil Nadu	In Tuticorin, Subramania Siva campaigned for a strike in February-March 1908 in a foreign-owned cotton mill saying that strikes for higher wages would lead to the demise of foreign mills.
Punjab	Rawalpindi :  Arsenal and Railway Engineering Workers went on strike as part of the 1907 upsurge in the Punjab which had led to the deportation of Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh. Perhaps the biggest political demonstration by the working class in this period

• This Period also saw faint beginning of Socialist tinge among some of Nationalist Leaders who were exposed to Marxist & social democratic forces in Europe . Eg : Dadabhai Naoroji

3. End of 1910s & start of 20s

AITUC

• Most important happening was Formation of All India Trade Union Congress in 1920
• Tilak developed close association with Bombay workers & played important role , from Punjab Lala Lajpat Rai came & he was first President whereas  Dewan Chaman Lal first General Secretary
• Urged workers to intervene in nationalist politics
• Lala Lajpat Rai was among first in India to link capitalism with imperialism & emphasised greater role of workers in fighting this combination
• Second Session of AITUC  moved resolution in favour of SWARAJ & said swaraj would be for workers & not capitalists
• Congress in its Gaya session of 1922 welcomed formation of AITUC & formed committee to assist its work

During Non Cooperation Movement (NCM)

• Railway workers extended full support to  NCM & Khilafat movement
• Nov 1921 at time of visit of Prince of Wales workers responded to boycott nationwide & in Bombay textile factories were closed with about 1.4 lakh workers on strike

After 1922

• Again  lull in workers movement & reversion to only economic struggle
• Wait till end of 1920s when it again revived with greater vengeance

Personality : MN Roy

• Original Name was Narendranath Bhattachareya &  born in 1889 in poor Brahmin family of Bengal . He was revolutionary Terrorist in early life & got educated from National University of Aurobindo Ghosh. During  WW 1 , wanted to bring armed revolution through German Arms along with Pulin Bihari Ghosh  but failed and went to USA.
• He changed name to MN Roy, studied Marxist literature extensively & became Communist. USA entered war from Britain side & was not safe for him to stay in US . He moved to Mexico where with Russian communist Borodin formed Communist Party of Mexico
• After war , on call of Lenin he went to USSR . He helped evolve  Communist International’s policy towards colonies . Lenin held that Communists should extend support to Revolutionary Movement carried by Bourgeois Nationalists against Imperialist Governments but Roy held that Bourgeois Nationalists were reactionaries & communists should carry their struggle independently forming parties of Workers & Peasants
• In Oct 1920 , came to Tashkent &  opened Military School for training Indian Frontier Tribes + formed  CPI  affiliated to Communist International in 1921

Peshawar Conspiracy Case

• Caliph Controversy happened in 1920 .  Thousands of Muslim Mujahirs (pilgrims) came to his school for training but it was closed by then & they were trained in Communist University of Toilers in Moscow
• When they went back , were arrested & tried under Peshawar Conspiracy case .  2 given 2 year imprisonment & rest 1 year hard imprisonment

4. Mid of 1920s & start of 1930s- Rise of Communist ideology – Formation of Communist Party of India (CPI)& Workers and Peasants Party (WPP)

• Independent of this, various communist organisations were coming up in India since 1920 & in Dec 1925 , they met in Kanpur to form CPI
• Constitution of Party was also announced aimed at
  • Attainment of complete independence 
  • Reorganisation of Indian society on basis of common ownership
  • Distribution of wealth in interest of whole community
• From 1926 , British Communists started to come India for organising Indian Communist Movement. But this infant movement continued to suffer various drawbacks
  • Suffered from paucity of funds
  • Suffered from paucity of cadre
  • British government was hostile towards CPI because of its revolutionary character & affiliation to Communist International
  • Privileged upper strata of Indian society was opposed to it

Workers & Peasants Party (WPP)

• From 1927 , Communists also started to organize themselves into the Workers’ and Peasants’ Parties (WPP), under the leadership of people like S.A. Dange, Muzaffar Ahmed, P.C. Joshi and Sohan Singh Josh
• WPP were formed in Punjab & Bombay ( later found in Meerut too) & main medium of propagation of ideas was Press

Punjab WPP	Mehnatkash (Urdu weekly)
Bombay WPP	Kranti (Marathi Weekly)

• Communist influence on  trade unions was also increasing & they were playing important role in workers strikes( Kharagpur Railway factory Strike of 1928 & Bombay Textile Workers strike) . Communist Girni Kamgar Union(Bombay’s) membership reached 52,000  towards end of 1928. These strikes reached alarming proportions
• Government held Communist responsible for this . To contain & crush them government armed itself with Public Safety Ordinance for purpose of deporting subversive elements +  Trade Disputes Act for introduction of Tribunals for settlement of worker’s problems which practically banned strikes (Note: Bhagat Singh hona ne ehna acts de virodh ch bomb suteya si)

Meerut Conspiracy case

• Communists  were subjected to severe repression by government . In  March 1929 , 32 radical & political Trade Union Activists including three British Communists were arrested on the charge of conspiring against his Majesty’s government under the directions of Communist International . It was alleged that  these Communists wanted to deprive British Monarch his sovereignty over British India by means of general strike & armed uprising
• Basic aim of government was to behead the Trade Unions of leadership & to isolate Communists from National Movement . Soon it became cause celebre & defence was taken by JL Nehru, MA Ansari & Chagla . Gandhi visited them in jail to express his solidarity .  Speeches of defence in court were carried by newspapers familiarising lakhs of people about Communism . However, Britishers succeeded in one respect ie  growing working class movement was deprived of leadership
  • Later Guided by the resolutions of the Sixth Congress of the Communist International, the Communists broke their connection with the National Congress and declared it to be a class party of the Bourgeoisie. Moreover, the Congress and the bourgeoisie it supposedly represented were declared to have become supporters of imperialism.
  • Congress plans to organize a mass movement around the slogan of Poorna Swaraj were seen as sham efforts to gain influence over the masses by Bourgeois leaders who were working for a compromise with British imperialism . In   1931, the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was described as a proof of the Congress betrayal of Nationalism.

• 1934 – Communists renewed their militant Trade Union activities . There were strikes at Sholapur , Nagpur & Bombay . Government panicked & finding it difficult to control banned Communist Party in June 1934. But many Communist carried their activities in Congress & newly formed Congress Socialist Party

5. After 1935

• Indian economy began to improve after 1936 which earlier was suffering due to depression & in 1937, Congress Ministries formed arousing people’s aspirations
• In 1939, number of strikes went to 406( 156 in 1936)
• Important development of this period was the attempt made by the leftists and socialists to unite the trade unions and peasant organizations for a collective movement. Indeed it was the phase of the expansion of the trade union movement.

Congress Socialist Party & Socialist parties

• 1934 (same year when CPI was banned) : after end of Civil Disobedience Movement (CPM), section of Congressmen decided to enter into Legislatures to work for cause of Congress & Gandhi endorsed them. But there was other section who in response to this formed Socialist Party within Congress Organisation to prevent erosion of Revolutionary character
• Socialists believed in Marxism too but there were differences
  • Socialists owed their allegiance to Congress whereas Communists owed allegiance to Communist International
  • Congress Socialists were Nationalists whereas Communists believed in goal of International Communist Society
• Attracted by Marxism, Communism and Soviet Union, they did not find themselves in agreement with the prevalent political line of the CPI. Ultimately they came together and formed the Congress Socialist Party (CSP) at Bombay in October 1934 under the leadership of Jayaprakash Narayan, Acharya Narendra Dev and Minoo Masani with Sampurnananda as first President

Their Ideology (from Their Constitution)

1. To work for acceptance of Congress Socialist Party programme by INC
2. To organise workers & peasants for their own economic upliftment as well as for carrying on the movement for achievement of Independence & Socialism
3. Organise Youth Leagues, Woman’s Organisation & Voluntary Organistions & secure their support for CSP Programme
4. To resist any negotiations with British government on Constitutional issues

They adopted separate program for

Workers	– Freedom to form Trade Unions – Right to go on Strike – Living wages – 40 Hours of Work a week – Insurance against unemployment, sickness & accident
Peasants	– Abolition of Landlordism – Encouragement of Cooperative Farming – Exemption from rents & taxes on uneconomical farms – Reduction of land revenue – Abolition of feudal levies

Although now they were working with Bourgeois to achieve  Independence but their ultimate aim was formation of Socialist Society in India . CSP from beginning assigned itself with task of transforming Congress & strengthening it – in both ideological & organisational sense

For attainment of twin objectives of Socialism & Freedom they followed three lines of activities

• Inside the Congress,  they worked out anti-imperialist and nationalist programmes of the Congress as Congressmen
• Outside the Congress,  they mobilised the workers, peasants, students, intelligentsia and women for the cause of socialism
• They also sought to integrate the above two lines of activities.

Their Impact

• Mixed Reaction among  Congressmen

Gandhi	Rejected their idea of class war. Gandhi did not believe in the necessity of the abolition of Princely order, Zamindari and Capitalism. He wanted to bring about a change of heart in the princes, zamindars and capitalists so that instead of considering themselves the owners of the states, zamindars and factories they should behave as the trustees for their subjects, tenants and workers.
Left Congressmen	Like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose welcomed the formation of the Congress Socialist Party, although neither Nehru nor Bose joined the party.

• 1936 – three Socialists Narendra Dev , JP & Achyut Patwardhan inducted into Congress Working Committee . It was sure that Socialist agendas started to make up in Congress policies
• Politically & ideologically they were able to give congress a left leaning .  Faizpur session adopted an agrarian programme, containing such items as reduction of revenue, abolition of feudal dues and levies, introduction of cooperative farming, living wage for the agrarian labourers and formation of peasant unions
• Impact on Congress organisationally- 1/3rd votes in All India Congress Committee were of left & Nehru & Bose elected as President from 1936 to 1939 because of them
• Congress Socialists played an important role in the Kisan (peasant) movement. Through the efforts of Prof. N.G. Ranga, Indulal Yagnik, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati the All-India Kisan Sabha was organised in  1936.
• Congress Socialists changed the Congress Party’s policy from aloofness to closer involvement in the affairs of Princely states. The Congress socialist activists also took part in the democratic movements of the people in the princely states against their autocratic rulers.

Failure of these movements

Despite the fact that the Left cadres were among the most courageous, militant & sacrificing of freedom fighters, the Left failed in the basic task it had taken upon itself— to establish the hegemony of socialist ideas & parties over the national movement. It also failed to make good the promise it held out in the 1930s. This is, in fact, a major enigma for the historian & reason for this can be

• Left invariably fought the dominant Congress leadership on wrong issues. It chose to fight not on questions of ideology but on methods of struggle and on tactics.
• Left also failed to make a deep study of Indian reality. With the exception of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Left saw the dominant Congress leadership as bourgeois , its policy of negotiations as working towards a compromise with imperialism & any resort to constitutional work as a step towards the ‘abandonment of the struggle for independence’
• It saw all efforts to guide the national movement in a disciplined manner as imposing restrictions on the movement. It constantly counterposed armed struggle to non- violence as a superior form and method of struggle, rather than concentrating on the nature of mass involvement and mobilization and ideology. It was convinced that the masses were ever ready for struggles in any form if only the leaders were willing to initiate them.
• Left parties, groups and individuals failed to work unitedly except for short periods. Nehru and Bose could not work together for long and bickered publicly in 1939. Nehru and the Socialists could not coordinate their politics. Bose and Socialists drifted apart after 1939.

Brief Sketches of Socialists

1 . JayaPrakash (JP)

• Born in 1902 in Bihar
• 1921 : Discontinued his study at Patna College to participate in NCM
• After that, he went to US for receiving University Education & did physical work to finance himself . There he came in contact with Communists & became marxist
• When he came back, he saw Communists in India were taking orders from Moscow . Although he appreciated Bolshevik Revolution but didn’t like this & joined Congress
• 1930 : was made President of Congress Labour Research Department
• Main role in formation of CSP

2. Ashok Mehta

• Born in 1912 at Sholapur to Prominent Gujarati Writer
• Educated at Bombay University
• Joined CDM & jailed at Nasik
• For number of years he edited CSP journal = CONGRESS SOCIALIST

3. Dr Ram Manohar Lohia

• Born in nationalist Marwari family in 1910
• Educated at BHU, Calcutta University & Berlin Uni in Political economy
• On his return Nehru made him incharge of Foreign Affairs
• He was influenced by Social Democratic Ideas of West & Gandhian ideas & didn’t believe in Marxism or Communism
• Founded journal CONGRESS SOCIALIST

Jawahar Lal Nehru & Socialism

• JL Nehru imparted socialist vision to national movement
• Nehru propagated the ideas of socialism and declared that political freedom would become meaningful only if it led to the economic emancipation of the masses
• He used his enforced leisure in jail, during 1922- 23, to read widely on the history of the Russian and other revolutions.
• In 1927 , he  went to Switzerland for treatment of his ailing wife & came in contact with various socialist leaders . Then he was invited to attend International Congress against Colonial Oppression and Imperialism, held at Brussels, and came into contact with communists and anti-colonial fighters from all over the world . After exchange of views, he realised that how the development of European capitalism, which required raw materials for industrial production and extensive markets for the finished goods, led to imperialism, and how European capitalism had fattened on the exploitation of countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America.
• Same year he visited the Soviet Union and was deeply impressed by the new socialist society
• He came to conclusion that exploiters have their native allies in form of landlords & industrialists & even if country is freed from  Britishers those oppressors would keep on oppressing . Hence, national emancipation of colonies also included emancipation of masses
• In 1927 , whole Simon Commission episode started . When Nehru Committee report discussions were held, JL Nehru challenged attainment of Swaraj ie Dominion status  as goal  & demanded  complete independence . He was the first to move resolution in Madras session of 1927 demanding Real independence instead of mirage of  dominion status
• 1928, Jawaharlal joined hands with Subhas to organize the Independence for India League to fight for complete independence and ‘a socialist revision of the economic structure of society.’
• Lahore Session 1929 speech – “I am a socialist and a republican, and am no believer in kings and princes, or in the order which produces the modern kings of industry, who have a greater power over the lives and fortunes of men than even the kings of old, and whose methods are as predatory as those of the old feudal aristocracy.’ India, he said, would have to adopt a full ‘socialist programme’ if she was ‘to end her poverty and inequality.”
• He criticized Gandhi for refusing to recognize the conflict of classes, for preaching harmony among the exploiters and the exploited, and for putting forward the theories of trusteeship by the capitalists and landlords.
• But Nehru’s commitment to Socialism was given within a framework that recognized the primacy of the political, anti- imperialist struggle so long as India was ruled by the foreigner . Nehru, therefore, did not favour the creation of an organization independent of or separate from the Congress or making a break with Gandhi and the right-wing of the Congress. The task was to influence and transform the Congress as a whole in a socialist direction.

Women and Indian Freedom Movement

This article deals with ‘ Women and Indian Freedom Movement – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

The Women Question

• This question first aroused in the discourses as Western Observers like James Mill used  this to construct a civilizational critique of India .Hence, status of Woman became main focus of reforming agenda of modernizing Indian intellectuals in 19th Century
• They imagined a golden past where women were treated with dignity & honor & urged reforms to these traditions . Female Infanticide was banned , Sati was abolished & Widow Remarriage was legalized

Problem with this approach

• In all these cases, reforms were legitimised by referring to the shastras
• No women were ever involved in reform movement  . In Mani’s words, “women are neither subjects nor objects but, rather, the ground of the discourse on sati; women themselves are marginal to the debate”.
• It was the  middle class women and their issues that found greater focus in the process of the anti-colonial movement . The range of issues that came up in this situation was therefore demands such as women’s education, women’s representation in various bodies, property rights and so on. For an upper caste woman the matter of education and widow remarriage was significant while for the lower caste woman in the early twentieth century just the right to cover her breasts and to be able to go to the temple of worship or learning would mean a qualitative difference . But Lower Caste Woman never figured in the debates.

And all this reformist zeal ended with virulent Hindu backlash when Age of Consent Bill in 1891 sought to push age of marriage for woman from 10 to 12 . It was seen as invading the autonomy of native masculinity

Position of Women before Colonialism

• Women status in ancient India was never static & uniform
• Manu wrote that  both Shudras & Women were debarred from Vedic ritual rites & he gave permanent dependent status for woman to be protected by their father, husband & sons at different stages
• Immediately before colonial times , women were groomed to become good wives , serve their husbands as supreme god & expected to give birth to sons . If their husband die  , they were to spend their lives in strictest discipline of celibacy cherishing memories of dead husband

Muslim Society

• Simlar restrictions on Muslim women
• Two reform movements in Muslims
  • Islamic Revivalism by Ulama
  • Modernisation campaign by Educated Middle Class

both movements constructed SHARIF culture (sharif women were to be in Purdah)

For Hindu & Muslim women, this doesn’t mean only Purdah but multitudes of complex social arrangements which maintained social & not just physical distance between the sexes . By end of 19th century , the ideal of Purdah had become universalized for both elites & commoners & both Hindus & Muslims

Education Movements for women in 19th century

Agency of spreading Education lay with three groups

British  Rulers	– Colonial government since 1850s particularly Law member Bethune & Hunter Commission  recommended for women education
Indian Male Reformers	– Radhakanta Deb started  School Book Society – MG Ranade started Prarthna Samaj – Keshub Chandra Sen in Brahmo Samaj – Swami Dayanand’s Arya Samaj
Educated Indian Women	– Sister Subbalakshmi – Madras – Begum Rokeya Hussain – Muslim Women in Bengal – Pandita Ramabhai – Western India

But improvement in education didn’t improved social position of women remarkably  & answer to this lie in motivation behind programs to educate women

• Colonial Government wanted to educate women because it wanted Civil Servants to be married to educated women so that they didn’t have to face psychological trauma of split house-hold +  thought English educated mother would give birth to sons which would be loyal to the Raj
• Educated Indian Middle class males wanted  Victorian ideal of companionate marriage

Hence, new concept of womenhood became fine blending of self sacrificing Hindu Wife & Victorian helpmate . Education far from emancipatory further confined women to idealised domestic roles as good wifes & better mothers

But there were other rebels-like

• Tarabai Shinde, a Marathi woman from Berar, published a book entitled, A Comparison Between Women and Men. In this she protested against the fact that in a new colonial society men enjoyed all the rights, opportunities and benefits of change, while women were blamed for all the evils and were still bound by the old strictures of pativrata
• Pandita Ramabai
  • She formed Arya Mahila Mandal in 1881 in Pune to promote female education especially for child widows
  • In 1889 , she started Mukti Mission to give refuge to young widows deserted by their families. Later she started ‘Sharda Sadan‘ to provide vocational training , food and shelter to child widows.
  • She  was a social rebel in true sense. She was a Brahman woman who remained unmarried for a long time; she was well versed in the ancient shastras, married a man from a Sudra caste defying the restrictions on hyper-gamy, then became a widow with an infant daughter, refused to withdraw herself from public life, went to England to study medicine, and there converted to Christianity. As she asserted her independent choice and crossed the boundaries that Indian patriarchy had set on the freedom of women, she was equally criticized by the reformers and damned by the conservatives, as both considered her to be a social threat

Women & Freedom Movement

• Started with Swadeshi Movement but within accepted gender ideology in which home was rightful arena of women . They Boycotted British goods , crushed their glass bangles etc
• WW 1 – Saw two women leaders, Annie Besant (started Home Rule League & Presided Congress in 1917) & Sarojini Naidu who was delivering speeches since 1906 at Congress Sessions & led delegation to meet Secretary of State Montagu  to demand female franchise & also moved resolution in Congress Session demanding equal voting rights

Coming Of Gandhi

• Marked major rupture in women’s participation in nationalist movement . What Gandhi did was he changed focus from MOTHERHOOD to SISTERHOOD. Women was represented as no slave to their husbands & capable of making supreme sacrifices
• He realised in SA about power of self sacrifice of women & decided to harness it in service of nation . Sita- Draupadi – Damayanti were role models & Britishers were equated with Ravana. 
• But he too accepted what he called NATURAL DIVISION OF LABOUR BETWEEN SEXES. Roles he expected for them in freedom struggle were as mothers and supporters of men and as examples of selfsacrifice and non-violence, as spinners of Khadi, picketing at foreign cloth and liquor shops and by shaming men into action. Gandhi considered women most worthy in their traditional place and avocation i.e. concerned with household tasks and upbringing of children. Thus, the vision and imagination of Gandhi was coloured with patriarchal values.
• Gandhi accepted womens biological weakness but turned that weakness into power by glorifying their strength of soul.

Non Cooperation Movement (NCM) & Women

• Gandhi initially prescribed limited role but women claimed for themselves greater role
• Nov 1921 : thousands of women greeted Prince of Wales with demonstrations
• Wife, sister & neice of CR Dass stunned nation by participating in open street demonstrations
• At Ahmedabad, Bi Amma (mother of Ali Brothers) addressed 6,000  gathering of women to join men in picketing
• In Andhra , Durgabhai collected over thousand of her compatriot Devadasis to listen to Gandhi & they gave 20,000 in donation for the nationalist cause
• Although Gandhi himself wasn’t keen but women themselves took initiatives

Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM) & Women

• Gandhi didn’t want to contain women in original core group of volunteers of Dandi March but in his way when he addressed meetings many women joined . Thousands of women got involved in manufacture of salt , picketing etc
• They joined in Parbhat Pheris & girls organised their own Manjari Senas in competition to Vanar Senas of boys.
• They carried on Gandhi’s constructive program of spinning cloth with Charkha
• In Chittagong Armoury Raid , Kalpana Dutta was prominent member of Indian Republican Army . Other women like Pritilata Waddedar also joined movement later.

Revolutionary Movement

• They were involved & many a times not only in supportive roles
• They were actually shooting pistols at magistrates & governors
• Durgavati Devi/ Durga Bhabi (wife of Bhagvati Charan Vohra) was prominent member of HSRA . She accompanied Bhagat Singh on the train journey in which he made his escape in disguise after Saunders killing.

Quit India Movement

• Significant Female activism
• All front rank male leaders were behind jails & women took charge
• Sucheta Kriplani coordinated non violent resistance & Aruna Asif Ali gave leadership to underground revolutionary activities

Communist Party and Women

• Ban was lifted from them in 1941 & back in 1920-30s various women were members which again began to attract them
• In Tebhaga movement of Bengal in 1946 under communists which demanded 2/3 produce to sharecroppers , women participated in large numbers.  Nari Bahinis or Women Brigades resisted colonial police with whatever weapon they could lay hand on & became martyrs
• Then they participated in Telangana Movement from 1946 to 51 against Nizam of Hyderabad .
• In most cases, they joined on their own , acted as secret messengers , arranged shelters & few of them took up guns . But communist leadership preferred to take only supportive & secondary role from women & couldn’t think of women outside the conventional structures of gender relations because they thought women became source of sexual immorality & indiscipline within ranks of rebels

Indian National Army (INA)

In 1943 , INA raised &  Bose decided to add Women’s Regiment under Rani of Jhansi regiment commanded by Captain Laxmi Sehgal.  They consisted of working class women of all classes & religions who were fully trained militarily for combat

Pakistan Movement & Women

• Pakistan Movement opened for Muslim women new space of political action
• In 1930s, they were participating in a united front with Hindu sisters to claim women’s rights but division appeared in 1935 when issue of reservation on communal basis came up . Some of leaders of All India Women’s conference refused to accept joint electorates when their men were not prepared to do so
• Muslim League also sought to universalize its politics & in 1938 started women’s subcommittee to involve Muslim women

End Words

• During struggle for freedom, they didn’t raise issues which affected them as women & their own goals were subordinated to those of national liberation, community honour or class struggle
• Some leading nationalists like Nehru believed that once political freedom was achieved , women’s question would resolve automatically after they became force with voting power

Some Women Associations

Women’s Indian Association	– Started in 1917 in Madras – By Margaret Cousins & Annie Besant
National Council of Women	– Started in 1925 as branch of International Council of women – Main leader – Lady Mehribai Tata
All India Women’s Conference	– To promote women’s education – Main leader : Margaret Cousins – Eventually got involved in nationalist struggle & lobbied for all sorts of women’s rights from franchise to marriage reform
Bharat Stree Mahamandal	– Started in 1910 – Opened branches all over India to promote women’s education – By Sarala Devi Chaudarani  (niece of Rabindranath Tagore)

About Some Women Leaders

1 . Aruna Asaf Ali

• Breaking the social conventions, married to a Muslim Congressman Asaf Ali.
• Went to prison during CDM and Individual Satyagraha.
• Hoisted tricolor at Gowalia tank after Maulana Azad’s arrest.
• In Quit India Movement , all her property was confiscated by the Colonial government
• Editor of  ‘Inquilab’ a monthly journal of Congress

After independence

• First Mayor of Delhi elected in 1958
• Posthumously awarded Bharat Ratna in 1997

2. Sarojini Naidu

• Graduated from London
• One of the first women to participate in Freedom struggle
• Under mentorship of G.K.Gokhale
• Later  participated in all programs of Gandhi, including Dandi March
• Served as President of Indian national congress.
• Participated in 2nd Round Table Conference
• Even her daughter Padmaja Naidu, 21, was arrested in  Quit India movement.

3. Madam Bhikaiji Cama

• Herself influenced by Dadabhai Naoroji
• She Inspired Indian youth in UK
• Ran newsletter “Bande Mataram” and organization “Free India Society”.
• Unfurled first national flag of India in Germany.

4. Sucheta Kriplani

• Born in 1908 in Ambala and educated in Lahore. Right from childhood she dreamt of free India
• In 1932 , she entered Public services and in 1939 , she joined Politics
• Impressed by her work to serve the nation, Gandhi choose her for Individual Satyagraha & was arrested for that
• In Quit India Movement , she went underground & carried on the movement. She founded Under Ground Volunteer Force for this
• Founded All India Mahilla Congress
• During riots at independence, she did work for resettlement of women who had suffered at that time

After independence

• CM of UP from 1963 to 1967 . She was first women CM of independent India

5. Kalpana Dutta

• Student of higher education from Bengal and hated English rule and language . She even wanted pledge of her school during childhood days to be changed from – To be loyal to God and King to To be loyal to God and Country
• After completing her school education, she took admission in Calcutta University where she came in contact of Revolutionaries .
• She conducted raids on government buildings but police failed to gather evidences against her
• Then she joined Surya Sen and was involved in Chittagong Armoury Raid.
• She was arrested & was released in 1943 . Then she joined Communist Party and married Communist leader PC Joshi

6. Pritilata Waddedar

• Born in 1910
• Very  intelligent student and did BA from Calcutta University
• Joined Surya Sen later . She conspired with Surya Sen to raid Night club frequently visited by English to avenge death of their comrades which police had killed in various raids. In counter attack , she was hit in her leg. She knew that she would be caught , hence she consumed packet of Potassium Cynide as per their plan.

7. Rani Gaidinliu

• Led political movement seeking to drive out the British from Manipur and the surrounding Naga areas & arrested in 1932 at the age of 16
• She was released in 1947 after India’s independence, and continued to work for the upliftment of her people.

8. Rajkumari Amrita Kaur

• Member of Royal family from Punjab
• Graduated from England, influenced by Gandhi
• Jailed for Quit India movement

9. Rehana Tyabjee

• Member of affluent family, her father was a Judge.
• influenced by Gandhi, joined Sabarmati Ashram, NCM, opposed Untouchability + child marriage
• President of Youth congress
• Jailed for QIM
• First muslim lady to sing Vandemataram in Congress session

10. Cpt. Laxmi Sahgal

• Young medical student
• Became Captain of all-woman Rani of Jhansi regiment of the Indian National Army (INA) under Subhash Chandra Bose.
• Led the troops in Burma during WW2, but caught by the British army.

Caste Movement during Colonial Period

This article deals with ‘ Caste Movement during Colonial Period – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

British Colonialism  and  Caste

• There is a debate on  transformation of Indian society under the impact of colonialism and its administrative mechanisms.  Part of this debate is whether there was continuity of caste system and other pre-colonial social-structures including caste OR it was mere product of British imagination.
  • Louis Dumont ( French scholar and writer of a famous book on caste, Homo Hierarchicus) based on study of certain texts presented image of caste based on purity and pollution & hierarchy . These values, according to Dumont, separate Indians culturally from Western civilization, making India a land of static, unchangeable, ‘oriental’ Brahmanical values.
  • Nicholas Dirks and others have challenged this notion of caste. They opined that Brahmans and their texts were not so central to the social fabric of Indian life. Brahmans were merely ritual specialists, often subordinate to powerful ruling families. The caste-based Brahmanical model of traditional India was an invention of the British Orientalists and ethnographers, according to this view

Was it a British construct?

• Starting from the Vedas and the Great Epics, from Manu and other dharamsastras, from puranas texts, from ritual practices, the penal system of Peshwa rulers who punished culprits according to caste-principles, to the denunciations of anti-Brahmanical ‘reformers’ of all ages; everything points towards the legacy of pre-colonial times. But at the same time , it is also true that there were many non-caste affiliations and identities too which determined position of any group . It was the colonial state and its administrators who made caste as a measure of all things and the most important emblem of traditions.
• William Jones translated and published Manu Dharma Sastras or The Laws of Manu (1794).  It became the main authority in imagining of Indian tradition as based on varnasrama- dharma (social and religious code of conduct according to caste and stage of life). Scholars have questioned the attempt to codify Indian social relations according to this single, orthodox Brahmanical text.
• The basic objective of the colonial state was to procure data about Indian social life so as to tax and police its subjects. From the early nineteenth century, the company officials turned increasingly to literate Brahmans or to scribal and commercial populations to obtain such information. Brahmans had an incentive to argue that India was a land of age-old Brahmanical values. They insisted that effective social-control and cohesion could be achieved only if hierarchical jati and varna principles were retained.
• Hence, Caste was not a fabrication of British rulers designed to demean and subjugate Indians but at the same time it wasn’t the only characteristic to define Indian society, point which britishers missed .
• However, this interpretation did serve the colonial interests as by condemning the ‘Brahmanical tyranny’ colonial administration could easily justify their codes to ‘civilize’ and ‘improve’ the ‘fallen people’.

Phase  1 of Caste Movement

• The moderate leadership was elitist, middle class. They definitely couldn’t take up the cause of untouchables. The extremist leadership was lower middle class and rested heavily on the support of caste people. So they too couldn’t alienate them by taking up cause of untouchables.
• The winds of change however couldn’t leave them isolated and in 1917, Indian National Congress (INC) passed a resolution condemning untouchability. But nothing concrete was done in this phase.

Factors Behind Mobilization of Lower Caste

• New Sources of Status under British Empire : There was a growing realization of the significance of the new sources of status i.e. education, government jobs, political participation and an awareness that these new sources of status too had been monopolized by the brahmans. In this the British policies and Christian missionaries helped a lot. In fact for some time it was believed that one way of protest against the caste disabilities was to convert into christianity but it failed for obvious reasons. But as a result organized caste movements began to grow in many parts of the country –
  • Ezhavas and Pulayas in Kerala,
  • Chamars in Punjab, UP and Chattisgarh,
  • Nadars in TN,
  • Namasudras in Bengal.

• Bhakti : Another important factor behind their mobilization was the spread of the message of bhakti. Thus following movements began to preach the message of Equality
  • Sri Narayan Dharma Paripalna Yogam (SNDPY) worked among the Ezhavas
  • Matua among the Namasudras
  • Adi Hindu movement among the chamars in UP.

• Sanskritization : There ensued a process of Sanskritization among the lower classes where those with social mobility ambitions chose to follow the customs of higher caste hindus like sati, child marriage, women seclusion etc.

• British Census :  Risley in 1901 Census  adopted a procedure to organize castes on basis of ‘social precedence’ . To the Indian public this appeared to be an official attempt to freeze the hierarchy, which had been constantly, though imperceptibly, changing over time. As a result of this, a number of caste associations emerged to contest their assigned position in the official hierarchy, each demanding a higher position and organizing their fellow caste members in the colonial public space.

• Reaction to Hindu Revivalism : At the same time the increasing hindu revivalist tendencies also alarmed them because if for the Brahman Hindus, the ancient age was a golden age and the present was a dark age, for untouchables it was the opposite.

1 . Brahmo Samaj & Raja Rammohan Roy

• Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833) & Brahmo Samaj indirectly challenged the legitimacy of caste.
• Brahmo Samaj (1828) saw itself as an advocate of a new, universal, casteless religion. Paradoxically, however, Brahmos themselves became an exclusive endogamous community within Hinduism.

2. MG Ranade & National Social Conference

• M.G. Ranade founded a reformist organization, National Social Conference in 1887, aimed to persuade Indians to modernize their values & behavior. One of the chief aims of this was to campaign against the ‘evils’ of caste.
• But they did not regard every aspect of caste as an ‘evil’, to be annihilated. Nevertheless, Conference adherents were expected to endorse so called upliftment for the untouchables 

3. Jyotirao Phule and Satyashodak Samaj in Maharastra

• He wrote against Brahman privileges and domination in 1850s.
• He directly attacked Brahmanism &  represented Brahmans as Aryan invaders who conquered local indigenous people by force and concealed their act of usurpation by inventing ‘caste system’.
• In 1873, Phule established the Satyashodhak Samaj, an organization for challenging Brahmanic supremacy.
• He turned the Orientalist theory of Aryanisation of India upside down.” The Brahmans, he argued, were the progeny of the alien Aryans, who had subjugated the natives of the land and therefore the balance now needed to be redressed and for achieving that social revolution, he sought to unite both the non-Brahman peasant castes as well as dalit groups in a common movement
• But in the 1880s and 1890s, there were certain subtle shifts in the non-Brahman ideology, as Phule  focused more on mobilizing the Kunbi peasantry. There was now more emphasis on the unity of those who laboured on the land  and a contestation of the claim by the Brahman-dominated Poona Sarvajanik Sabha that they represented the peasantry. He appropriated Maratha identity to all the labourers of land and claimed that  Kshatriyas, who were the ancestors of the Marathas, lived harmoniously with sudras and asserted them in resisting Aryan assaults. But this emphasis on Kshtriyas led to diminution  of Interest in the mobilization of dalits.
• While kshatriya identity was constructed to contest Brahmanical discourse that ascribed  to them inferior status, it also inculcated an exclusivist ethos that separated them from  Dalit Groups who were treated once a brother in arms.Ironically such indigenous construction of identity also impacted colonial stereotyping as dalit mahars and mangs were no longer treated as Martial races and disbanded from colonial service in 1892.
• Satyasodhaks failed to evolve a unified and homogeneous sense of identity over a longer period. After 1919 Reforms,  there was a schism in the movement with the upper caste (but non brahman) elements breaking off to fight elections. In 1930s, it came close to Gandhian movement and merged into it and in this merger Kesavrao Jedhe played an important role.

4. Hindu Nationalists and Defense of Caste

• Hindu nationalists  resisted modernization of Indian social order. Although they sometimes deplored certain features of caste such as untouchability, they insisted that caste in its true form was essential to spirit of Hinduism. It represented a legacy of higher moral values from the national past.
• Vivekananda condemned the oppressive treatment of untouchables and other subordinate castes. Yet, he defended caste and varna hierarchy as a natural order and matter of national pride.

Phase 2 (1919- 1934)

• It ignored the question till 1917  and then took it up only when dalit leaders had organised themselves and were about to steal the initia­tive  from the Congress. Brahman domination of the early Congress, were much to blame for this inaction.
• By this phase, the character of Indian National Movement (INM) had changed. Masses were the key. Gandhi was a champion of lower classes as well. So he drew them in through constructive work. He also gave them the name Harijan and began to support the temple entry movements.

• Lower Caste Groups in order to assert themselves tried to appropriate collectively some visible symbols like temple entry, sacred thread, rituals, community pujas etc hitherto reserved for the higher castes.

Temple Entry

– Such movements were particularly strong in Kerala ,the most important being Vaikkom Satyagraha in 1924-25 and the Guruvayur Satyagraha in 1931-33. – There was Mushiganj Kali Temple Satyagraha in Bengal in 1929 – Kalaram satyagraha in Nasik in 1930-35.   Local and national Congress leaders actively participated in a few and organized satyagrahas and eventually won them temple entries. These temple entry movements created the widest possible unity. People from highest castes to the lowest outcastes broke social customs and fought together. People and leaders from all over the country flocked in and fought. All the methods of Indian National Movement were used.

Social Rights

– Apart from the religious rights, the lower castes also demanded social rights and when denied organized themselves.   – In state of Travancore,  Nadars were also not allowed to wear shoes, golden ornaments and carry umbrellas. Their women were not allowed to cover the upper parts of their bodies.  Under influence of Christian Missionaries, there was attempt by Nadar women  to cover their breasts like the higher caste women and this was violently resisted in 1859. This issue flared up again in 1905 between the Ezhavas and the Nairs in Quilon in 1905.   – In Bengal when the high caste Kayasthas refused to attend the funeral ceremony of Namasudras, they resorted to a boycott of working in their fields.   – In 1927  in Mahad, Ambedkar organized a satyagraha to demand water from the public tank.

• Then came the political mobilization and this was led by Ambedkar.
  • In 1927 , he publicly burnt a Manu Smriti.
  • He voiced his views against performances of traditional labour services and ‘village duties’ by the mahars.
  • Initially , He also advocated forced temple-entry . He took lead in the Kalaram temple-entry campaign (1930) at Nasik and in the satyagraha for drawing of water by untouchables from the Mahad tank in Maharashtra.   But In 1934 , he wrote to the Temple Satyagrahis emphasizing the futility of temple movements and instead urging them to focus on political representation and education. If political gates are opened, temple gates would automatically open.
  • He believed that Dalit grievances could be redressed only by a complete overhaul of Hindu Society and not just by a reformist approach.
  • In 1936 he founded Independent Labor Party to mobilize the poor and the untouchables and in 1942 All India SC Conference at Nagpur with  claim that Dalits to be separate from Hindus.

1 . Gandhi vs Ambedkar on Caste

• Gandhi distinguished between issue of untouchability and endogamy & dining restrictions. He wanted INM to focus on untouchability but not on endogamy &  dining restrictions because these were not disabilities imposed on Dalits and were practiced among Dalits and among caste people as well.
• Ambedkar asserted that untouchability was an outcome of caste system, so caste system should be abolished (Annihilation of Caste ). Gandhi believed untouchability was a product of thinking of ‘high and low’ and had nothing to do with caste system so caste system needn’t be abolished.
• Goal of Harijan Sevak Sangh (1932), established by Gandhi and his close associates, was to instill habits of cleaniness and social propriety in their untouchable beneficiaries and to wean them away from toddy-drinking, meateating and unseemly sexual indulgences. 

	Gandhi	Ambedkar
What to do with Caste System	Reform	Annihilate
Reasons	Reasons given in favour were that – 1. It leads to Division of Labour 2. Decentralisation 3. Job security	Reasons given to annihilate were – 1. It actually has led to Caste system became rigid 2. All the power usurped by Brahmins 3. For lower castes, only low grade jobs were available
Process	Change of heart of Upper Caste by educating them (through papers like Harijan) and temple entry	– Make law to punish those who practice it – Educate the lower castes – Also started magazines like Bahishkrit Bharat

• Campaign of Gandhi significantly undermined the moral  and religious basis of untouchability, but, as Bhikhu Parekh has argued,  it dignified the untouchables, but failed to empower them.

2. Communal Award of 1932

• When the Communal Award, 1932 gave separate electorates to Dalits, Gandhi opposed the communal electorates for Dalits and demanded that increased number of seats be reserved for them but they should be elected by everyone. He undertook 2 major fasts to press for his demand on this issue. Ambedkar on the other hand supported the Award while MC Rajah opposed it since he favored a joint electorate.
• After the Poona Pact ,there was a cooperation between Gandhi and Ambedkar for some time and it led to founding the Harijan Sevak Sangh but it failed to last for long.

But unlike Muslim breakaway politics, Dalit Self Assertion did not go very far and their politics was soon appropriated in the INM in 1940s

• Ambedkar found in 1942 All India SC Conference at Nagpur with  claim that dalits are  separate from hindus. But still it couldn’t break away Dalits from INM fold.
• One reason is that not many Dalits believed in his separatist politics and Gandhi had acquired immense popularity even among them. His constructive work programme naturally played a big role in allaying their concerns. This lack of mass support made his movement weak and he couldn’t play another Jinnah.
• In 1946 elections , his party won only 2 out of 151 reserved seats and on this basis Cabinet Mission could safely conclude that Congress was a genuine representative of the Dalits. Even now a furious Ambedkar tried to prove his base by trying to initiate a mass satyagraha but failed to get much support. Then Congress absorbed him into the Constituent Assembly by offering nomination to Ambedkar for a seat in the Constituent Assembly and then by choosing him for the chairmanship of the constitution drafting committee.
• Soon Ambedkar realised the futility of his association with the Congress, as its stalwarts refused to support him on the Hindu Code Bill. He resigned from the cabinet in 1951 and then on 15 October 1956, barely a month and a half before his death, he converted to Buddhism, along with three hundred and eighty thousand of his followers. This event is often celebrated as an ultimate public act of dissent against a Hinduism that was beyond reform

3. Madras Presidency Movements – Justice Party, MC Rajah and Periyar

• Here it was associated with creating a distinct Dravidian Identity as well. By the late 19th century, Brahmans consisted of less than 3% of the population but monopolized over 45% of the government jobs. They showed a public disdain for Tamil and the Dravidian culture and ethnicity. This motivated the Velalas to mobilize to uphold the Dravidian entity and in this they were aided by the Christian Missionaries who emphasized on the antiquity of Tamil and the Dravidian Culture. They also argued that the status of shudra was an imposed one by the Northern Brahmans  and caste system too was not indigenous to Tamil land

• In 1916, Justice Party was formed as a formal political party of non-Brahmans to demand for separate political representation of the non-Brahmans and it defied the NCM and participated in the elections of 1920. Naturally it won a big victory. But soon it became clear that it represented only the richer classes and thus its social base narrowed as the untouchables moved away under the leadership of MC Rajah. MC Rajah drew closer to Congress and even participated in CDM making it a resounding success in TN.

• Soon another movement, the Self Respect movement by EV Ramaswamy Naicker Periyar developed which was very radical and championed the Dravidian entity and Tamil language. He had left Congress in 1925 accusing it to be a Brahman organization and then worked to mobilize the Dalits. He believed that self respect was needed before self rule. Associating Sanskrit and North India with Brahmans, he launched scathing attacks on both.
• Periyar advocated outright atheism as the only true rational worldview. Periodically, the movement organized dramatic assaults on religions and priestly symbols like beating of priest and idols with shoes, and burned ‘sacred’ texts like Manusmriti. He turned Ramayna upside down and portrayed Ravana as the ideal South Indian king. He organized many programmes of temple entry .
• Unlike other caste movements, non-Brahmin movements in Madras showed signs of REGIONAL SEPARATISM. This became evident when in 1937 C Rajgopalachari proposed the introduction of Hindi as compulsory language in Madras. There were huge demonstrations against this and Tamil language movement spread from elites to the masses . This political campaign slowly propelled into a demand for separate ‘Dravida Nad’ .  
• In 1944, Justice Party of which Periyar was president changed it’s name to Dravida Kazhagam (DK) with it’s primary objective being separate non-Brahmin or Dravida Land

Foreign Policy under British Raj

This article deals with ‘ Foreign Policy under British Raj – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

Frontier & Foreign Policy

• Policy adopted by the British to consolidate their rule in India included securing it’s boundaries  
• To certain degree India influenced the foreign policy of whole Britain .  Being jewel in crown  & large size of Indian subcontinent,  defense of India was important part of British foreign policy

Reasons influencing

1 . Communication & Transport

• Industrial revolution led to invention of Railway, Roads & engines
• Men & material can be rapidly transported
• These facilities were not only for Britishers but other powers too like Russia . There was threat that they can come & attack via land too

2. Political & Administration

• Controlling the frontiers
• Securing the trade routes

International Situations affecting Foreign Policy

• In the 19th century – situation was favorable to British
• Have already defeated Dutch, French & Portuguese  to became undisputed naval power
• Hence, only land frontiers with Russia & China figured in Foreign policy of British India

1 . Threats of French Attack

• 1807 after French naval defeats – Napoleon planned to attack India via land route – there were apprehensions of joint French , Persian & Russian attack 
• Compelled Lord Minto, immediately to send 4  diplomatic missions as a counter move to avert the impending threat.
  • Malcolm was sent to  Tehran
  • Elphinstone to Kabul
  • Seton to Sindh
  • Charles Metcalfe to Lahore.
• As a result of the efforts of these diplomatic missions, friendly treaties were concluded with the respective governments with a view to meeting the challenge of the French . This was first ever step taken by British in foreign policy
• Although French threat disappeared with defeat of Napoleon in Battle of Waterloo but threat of Russians remained which dominated British Indian foreign policy for decades

2. Decline of China

• India never apprehended attack from China because frontier was naturally guarded by lofty Himalayas
• In history , China extended its sovereignty over Tibet but in 18th & 19th century her power declined

3. Threat from Russia

• Idea of Russian Peril – propagated by Lord Palmerston (British Foreign Secretary) 
• British checked Russian in Mediterranean sea.  They advanced towards north western frontier of Afghanistan => Alliance with Sikhs strengthened

4. Afghanistan

• British were anxious to protect Afghanistan because it was the emporium of their trade & only entrance to Central Asia from their side
• But it was British vs Russia in Afghanistan

Afghan Policy of British Raj

Afghan Policy was mainly led by British fears of Russian Attack ie RUSSOPHOBIA.

Two Anglo Afghan Wars were fought

• First Anglo Afghan War 1838 (Sikhs under Ranjit Singh were also party)
• Second Anglo Afghan War (under Lord Lytton)

First Anglo Afghan War (1838-43)

• Disastrous for British & led to  recall of Auckland
• 1838 : Tripartite Treaty signed between British, Sikhs and Shah Shuja (deposed ruler of Afghanistan in Sikh protection)
• 1839: British and Sikhs replaced Dost Mohammad by Shah Shuja (puppet)  as ruler of Afghanistan after defeating him
• But people didn’t accept Shah & there was rebellion in 1841
• Had to restore Dost Mohammad Khan on throne in 1843

• After that some significant changes happened . Punjab & Sind both fell to Britain & they reached natural Indian Boundaries
• Dost Mohammad Khan always remained neutral. Be it Crimean wars of 1854-56 with Russia or Revolt of 1857

Second Anglo – Afghan War (1878- 80)

• 1874 : liberals lost & Conservatives under Disraeli came to power who were believers of forward policy . They send Lytton as Viceroy and he led government to go for 2nd Anglo Afghan war
• 1878 : Sher Ali (Afghan Ruler) refused British envoy although he accepted Russian envoy in the Afghan Court. This leads to the second Anglo Afghan War with Britishers emerging victorious
• 2nd Anglo Afghan War => Afghans lost => Abdur Rahman (grandson of Dost Mohammad ) was placed as pupet on Throne in return of surrender of all political control to British

After World War I & Russian Revolution – Situation changed

• Afghanistan demanded full independence
• 1919 : Habibullah (Amir & Son of Abdur) was murdered . He was succeeded by Amanullah who declared war against British India
• 1921 Treaty – Afghanistan was declared independent  with control on foreign affairs

North West Frontier Policy

• Annexation of Sindh and Punjab brought the British into direct contact with the hill tribes. These hill tribes were practically free owing only nominal allegience to Amir of Kabul
• Inhabiting dry and difficult terrain, living on meagre resources but endowed with courage, endurance and military skill, these people frequently indulged in mass raids and plundering of the British Indian border
• Two distinct methods of administering the frontiers & conducting relations with tribes developed because they share border with two different provinces

Bombay	– Valleys were broader and less torturous than Punjab – Closed Frontier system was adopted – Under this, frontier was patrolled & no tribal man beyond the border was allowed to enter  British territory without pass
Punjab	– Open frontier – For its protection, forts and garrisons were built to guard the narrow passes. To encourage tribesmen to forsake their old habits of plunder the government allowed them to trade in the British Indian territory.

Lord Dalhousie’s policy

• Policy of Fines, Blockades & Expeditions
  • Fines were imposed as a punishment for plunder and murder
  • blockades for keeping crisis within certain limits
  • expeditions were led against the tribes which resorted to mass plunder and rampage.
• In view of the high rate of casualties, the British officers were discouraged from visiting the tribal region.
• It created employment opportunities and encouraged the tribals to enlist themselves in military and para-military forces.
• It strengthened its hold on the region by constructing roads and railway lines

Till 1890 – British policy in Sindh was more effective than in Punjab

Reasons were

• Physical difference – Already mentioned
• Jigra ie  tribal council of the pathans  in Baluchistan consisted of few leaders & was easy to deal with them but in Punjab there were large number of leaders . Consensus was reached with dificulty & even if reached , very less chances that all will abide

Durand Line  1896

• Establishment of peace on NWF was a complex problem as usually Amir of Kabul intrigued with frontier tribes  . Lord Lansdowne wanted to settle it forever .  Sir Mortimer Durand was appointed to negotiate a boundary agreement

Amir Of Kabul	To retain Wakhan, Asmar, Kafiristan, Mohmand and a portion of Wazirstan;
Britishers	Swat, Bajaur, Darwaz Kurrum Valley, Chalgeh and New Chaman+tribal areas of Gomal Pass

• It gave legal right to britishers to enforce subordination upon tribes like Waziris, Afridis & Bajauris . There were numerous revolts because of agreement because these tribes didn’t accept British Subordination

Lord Curzon

• Having intimate and personal knowledge of the area and the people, Lord Curzon –(1899-1905)–proposed the withdrawal of British Indian regular troops and replacing them with bodies of tribal levies.
• Besides gaining confidence of the frontier and creating local responsibility for maintaining law and order the proposed change had the additional advantage of being less costly.

Tibet Policy of British Raj

• Tibet is a landlocked country encircled by chains of mountains with average height of 10,000 feet above sea level  with meagre resources . People loved isolation . China had nominal suzerainty over Tibet but in practice in 19th century with decline of Manchu dynasty Chinese influence  over Tibet was almost non existent
• With no threat , in the beginning British interest in Tibet was purely commercial . Warren Hastings send two missions in 1770s for commercial purposes
• But eventually British interest increased . Reasons can be
  • In view of the declining power of China, and scramble among the foreign powers to divide it into spheres of influence, Tibet assumed great strategic importance particularly for the British and the Russians.
  • After the extension of British influence over Nepal, Bhutan and Sikkim, the boundaries of British India and Tibet came very close to the each other.
  • When Russian advance reached Pamirs,it posed  a threat to security of India from the northern side.
  • During the 19 th century , British interest in teak and shawl wool increased considerably. There was a tremendous pressure of the traders on the government to develop regular traffic with Tibet through Bhutan.
  • There were rumours that Mongol of Russian nationality , Agwar Dordshi had gained confidence of Dalai Lama & was shutting between Lhasa & Petersburg

The lure of the closed land was too strong to resist, the fear of Russia was too great to be ignored and the desire for trade was too powerful to overcome for  Curzon . England was reluctant to sanction any interference but Curzan was able to extract permission to send Col Younghusband to Tibet . 700 Tibetans slaughtered & Treaty was signed & Tibet was reduced to protectorate of Britain.  Russia accepted this showing bogy of Russian danger was superfluous

• Chinese revolution in 1912 – New government wanted to make Tibet a Chinese part but Dalai Lama declared independence.  Representatives of China & Tibet invited to Shimla in 1912 to settle the issue . 2 treaties were signed
  • British accepted China’s suzerainty over eastern zone or the inner zone. The outer zone or the western zone was declared autonomous.
  • By another treaty it was decided to draw a boundary between Tibet and British India which is named after the British delegate Henry McMahon.

Nepal Policy of British Raj

• Nepal was Hindu Gorkha kingdom.  After securing the control of the valley of Kathmandu in 1768,the Gorkhas steadily encroached upon both east and west, and occupied Kumaon, Garhwal , Sikkim and the Shimla hills. These areas were conceded to the British after the Gorkhas were defeated by the Treaty of Sagauli in 1816.
• After the treaty the British used a great deal of tact and skill in their dealings with the rulers of Nepal. They treated Nepalese ruler as sovereign and addressed him as ‘Your Majesty’.
• To them, the kingdom of Nepal was a stable and secure buffer between India and Tibet or China. To great satisfaction of the British, Nepal displayed no signs of entertaining any sentiments against the British. Relations between them were of peaceful co-existence & confidence. They were based  on the assumption that there existed an alliance between the two sides.
• The Nepalese on their part maintained perfect neutrality during the revolt of 1857, whereas  British enlisted a large number of Gorkhas as mercenaries in their army.
• Without any formal alliance treaty ,Nepalese government molded their foreign policy in accordance with British interests

Sikkim Policy of British Raj

• Small Principality between Bhutan & Nepal
• Strategically important because through it, Tibet can be reached through its two passes i) Kalimpong & Jelep La pass leading to Chumbi valley ii) Along Tista river to Sihaste
• Civilised by Tibetan Monks & ruled by Aristocratic family , Sikkim was an independent country
• Closing decades of 18th century , Gurkhas temporarily vested  their control over it . British however restored its independence & in 1861 declared it to be protectorate .

Bhutan Policy  of British Raj

• Adjacent to Sikkim. Being poor, Bhutanese frequently raided plains for looting & in one of the raids they kidnapped Raja of Cooch Behar who was a British protectorate
• To rescue him , Warren Hastings attacked Bhutan . They were defeated & small strip of land from Bhutan annexed to British territories
• Even after that they continued to raid when Britishers were busy elsewhere + mistreated British Delegates
• To settle this , Young husband Expedition in 1904-06 .
• Finally Treaty of friendship  was signed at Punakha & they recognized Bhutanese ruler as sovereign in all matters except foreign affairs

Burma Policy of British Policy

Here British policy was decided by Timber resources and threat from French Empire of South East Asia.

1st Anglo – Burmese War

• 1824 to 1826
• In SE Asia, French were moving ahead during that time
• Earlier Burma had small principalities each sovereign in its own respect . It was united by ruler Alaungpaya near about 1760
• Bodawpaya extended by conquering Arakan , Manipur .Hence, they started to share border with British
• 1822 : Burma annexed Assam too . Britishers declared war on Burma in 1824
• Burma lost &  Treaty of Yandabo signed with them
  • British conquered Assam, Cachar, Manipur, Jaintia  & Arakan
  • Compensation to British 
  • Burmese were forced to enter into commercial treaty with Britishers giving them rights of forests , natural areas
  • British Resident to be placed at Ava

2nd Anglo Burmese War

• Fought in 1852
• Now Britishers were occupying all coastal area except coastal province of Pegu
• This they did by 2nd Anglo-Burmese  war & renamed it Lower Burma

3rd Anglo Burmese War

• Fought in 1885
• French were moving upwards & Burma signed Treaty with France for Trade ( mainly Timber of North Burma in which Britishers were interested too)
• Opportunity to attack  and finally they attacked
• Guerrilla warfare by Burmese army.  Huge British army was used (40,000) & huge losses to Britishers
• Finally whole of Burma was annexed

In 1935, Burma separated from India due to growing ties between Burmese and Indian nationalists .

In 1948, Burma got independence from British Empire .

Civil Services under British Raj

This article deals with ‘ Civil Services under British Raj – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

Civilian bureaucracy was meant only to implement policies framed in Britain  . Distance between London & India , the difficulty of communication & their command over information from the field gave them a considerable amount of  discretion & initiative . IN THEIR HEYDAYS THEY WERE MOST POWERFUL OFFICIALS IN EMPIRE IF NOT THE WORLD .

Evolution of Indian Civil Services

1 . Initial Times

• Establishment of  bureaucracy of civil servants under the British rule was a gradual process.
• East India Company employed in its regular service apprentices, writers and factors nominated by the Directors. They had no regular scale of pay and they were partly compensated by private trade.
• Administrative responsibility of the Company increased as it assumed territorial control over large tracts of India.

2. Developments under Warren Hastings

• Regulating Act of 1773 banned private trade for all the civil servants who were employed in the collection of revenue or the administration of justice.
• Warren Hastings felt the need to reorganize the district level administration.
• Administrative functions were taken away from the private agencies 

3. Developments under Cornwallis

Separation of Powers and De-Indianisation of Civil Services

• Lord Cornwallis reorganized the civil-bureaucracy by specifying administrative responsibilities.
• He separated the work of revenue collection from administration of justice.
• He eliminated  Indians from the administration of justice and revenue-collection.
  • Muslim judges were replaced by the European covenanted servants as Circuit Judges
  • Work of settlement, registry and accounts was transferred to the Board of Revenue managed by the covenanted English civil servants.

4. Developments under Wellesley

• Wellesley believed in a strong and professionally trained bureaucracy.
• He did not adopt the policy of separation of judiciary and executive and combined the power of justice, revenue-collection and policing.
• He established the College of Fort William (1800) to train civil servants and to acquaint them with the language and history of India. It was a short-lived experiment that was given up in 1802 by the orders of the Court of Directors. Haileybury College was founded in 1806 and it was given statutory status by the Charter Act of 1813. This institution provided training to the civil servants to be employed in the Company’s service in India.

5. Charter of 1833

• Competition for recruitment
• But it was limited competition among candidates nominated by the directors => couldn’t improved situation

6. Charter of 1853

• Introduced Principle of open competition
• Haileybury college was abolished & civil servants recruited through an examination held annually in England. Examination was open to all natural born subjects of Her Majesty
• Committee headed by Macaulay, appointed by the Board of Control prescribed the age and qualifications of the civil servants as well as the curriculum to be taught to the prospective civil servants
  • Age of probation was raised from a minimum of 18 years to a maximum of 23 years.
  • Probationers were to be taught about Indian history, geography, natural resources of India and the physical and moral qualities of the different races of India, the progress of British power in India, the general principles of jurisprudence, finance, banking and taxation etc, and one of the vernacular languages.
  • This open competition was held annually in London.

In principle, it was open to all British subjects including Indians. However, indians faced enormous difficulties in joining the ranks of the coveted civil service. Still, a few English educated Indians did manage to enter it.

• Max age was 23 which was lowered to 22 in 1860 & finally till 19 years in 1878 .

Process towards Indiansiation of Civil services

7. Lord Lytton and Statutory Civil Services

• Charter Act of 1853 had declared all offices in India open to merit irrespective of nationality & colour and Charter Act of 1853 provided for holding of a competitive examination in London for recruitment to higher services . Act was passed in 1870 saying that 1/5th recruits to Covenant Service should be Indians even without competitive examination but it took for government to 10 years to frame rules
• Indians couldn’t enter ICS because difficulties facing aspirants were great. From 1862 to 75 only 40 Indians appeared for ICS & only 10 were successful.
• Lytton proposed the straightforward course of closing Covenanted Civil Service to Indians & instead create ‘a close native service’ to meet the provisions of the Act of 1870 . Home Authorities didn’t favour this because of its discriminatory nature .
• Lytton then proposed plan for Statutory Civil Services in 1878-79 (According to Act of 1870)  . According to rules of 1879 , the Govt of India could employ some Indians of good family & social standing in  SCS on recommendation of Provincial Government subject to confirmation & number of such appointments not to exceed 1/6th of total appointments . (However , SCS didn’t become popular with Indians & discarded later)
• Since SoS didn’t accept proposal to discard CCS to Indians altogether, hence he made calculated move to discourage Indians from competing by reducing max age from 21 years to 19 years .

Throughout India this was seen as a colored legislation & it was difficult for Indians to digest this humiliation

8. Lord Ripon’s suggestions

• Realized political importance of Indian Middle class & argued that their continued exclusion from administration might eventually spell danger for empire => he preferred simultaneous competitive examination in India
• But proposal met with opposition from European bureaucracy

9. Provincial Civil Services

• Statutory civil service was abolished  on the recommendation of Charles Aitchison Commission (1886). A new service now styled as the Provincial Civil Service was established. Indian could still enter into ICS but exam to be held in London only
• PCS consisted of Certain superior class of executive posts that were earlier reserved for the covenanted civil service . The recruitment to this service was made partly by promotion from the subordinated civil service and partly by direct recruitment and open competition.
• Although the men of ICS and provincial civil services discharged similar duties like, their power and social status differed vastly. However, it did create additional opportunities for  educated Indians and  weaning away from  nationalism.

10 . Government of India Act,1919

• Provided for separate(not simultaneous ) recruitment exam to ICS to be held in India
• First held in Allahabad in 1922
• As a result till 1941 , Indian Civil Servants outnumbered Europeans

Impact of Indianisation of Civil services

• Reduced its value as an apparatus of authoritarian rule for empire & paved way for transfer of power
• Made it possible for continuation of tradition into period after independence when only nomenclature changed into IAS

Famine Policy of British Raj

This article deals with ‘ Famine Policy of British Raj – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

Major Famines during Colonial Period

• Bengal Famine of 1770 => Wiped out 1/3 of population.
• In 1784, Madras was struck by a massive famine.
• In 1792, North India struck by a famine.
• In 1803, another famine in Oudh.
• In 1833, Guntoor famine which wiped out 40% of population.
• In 1837, another famine in North India.

Famine Policy

• East India Company (EIC) was totally unconcerned about it. Some sort of policy started evolving only after the transfer of power to British crown.
• In 1861, Delhi-Agra region was struck by a famine. A committee was appointed but no significant study was undertaken and situation remained largely unchanged.
• In 1866 the Odisha famine struck and 3 million died. A committee was setup to look into the causes. The committee suggested that steps should be taken to generate employment and famine relief measures should be carried out.

Richard Strachey Commission

• In 1876-78 another famine struck in many parts of India during times of Lytton  and 5 million died. Richard Strachey commission was appointed in 1880 which suggested
  • A famine code be formulated
  • Land Tax should be remitted for famine struck areas,
  • Data about peasantry should be collected to understand the true causes of the famine,
  • A famine relief fund should be established.

As a result of its recommendations,

• A famine relief fund with a corpus of Rs. 1 cr was setup.
• A famine code was implemented in 1886 which divided the famine prone areas into various categories, listed the precautions to be taken in normal times, listed the relief measures to be taken in a famine and the responsibilities of the officials in relief campaigns.

McDonnell commission

• In 1896-97 a major famine struck in whole India. Another commission was appointed but nothing came out
• In 1899-00, another famine broke out in India. McDonnell commission was appointed which recommended
  • Famine commission be established to coordinate relief measures
  • Famine Code should be revised
  • Transportation facilities be developed.
  • Agricultural banks should be setup.
  • Irrigation facilities should be developed.

In pursuance with recommendations a famine commission was setup, famine code revised and irrigation facilities developed.

Bengal Famine of 1943

• In 1943 Bengal famine happened. Another commission was appointed which suggested merger of departments of food and agriculture and steps be taken to increase agriculture production.

Development of Education Policy

This article deals with ‘ Development of Education Policy – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

Introduction

• During the 18th century, the Hindu & Muslim seats of learning languished . English East India Company (EIC) became ruling power in 1765 . Following the example of contemporary English Government , Court of Directors (CoD) refused to take on itself the responsibility for education of people of India & left it to Private efforts . However, Indian officers of EIC urged CoD to do something & as a result half hearted efforts were made
  • Warren Hastings himself an intellectual setup Calcutta Madrassa in 1781
  • Duncan (British Resident at Benaras) helped in opening Sanskrit College at Benaras

But these attempts for promoting Oriental Education met with little success.

• On the other hand, Christian Missionaries were advocating for teaching in Western Literature and Christianity with English as medium of instruction  . Serampore Missionary were overly enthusiastic for this.

Work of Missionaries

• Prior to 1765, the East India Company had been favourable to missionary activities. But later on it opposed all attempts at proselytisation as it wanted to consolidate its position as a political power. The differences between the East India Company and the missionaries continued to persist till 1813

• Charles Grant, William Wilberforce, Henry Thornton and Edmond Parry  were seeking permission for  missionaries to serve as “school-masters, missionaries, or otherwise”  but their attempts were discouraged by the Company. Reasons given were
  • Court of Directors of Company argued “that the Hindus had as good a system of faith and morals as most people and that it would be madness to attempt their conversion or to give them any more learning or any other description of learning than what they already possessed.
  •  Mr. Randle Jackson, a member of parliament remarked, “We have lost our colonies in America by imparting education there; we need not do so in India too.”

• Charles Grant continued with his efforts and also prepared the first formal blue-print on language and education for India in which he argued in favour of the English language, education and Christianity. He quoted the example of the Mughals who had earlier imposed their language upon their subjects. He wanted English to be introduced in India as the medium of instruction in a western system of education. Moreover, he suggested English to be adopted as the official language of the Government for easy communication between the rulers and the ruled.

Charter Act , 1813

• Charter Act of 1813 marked a point of departure regarding the educational policy of East India Company towards its Indian subjects. Under it, the Company, for the first time, accepted state responsibility in the sphere of education.  Act empowered Governor General of India “to direct a sum of not less than one lakh of rupees each year for
  • Revival & promotion of literature .
  • Encouragement of Learned natives of India .
  • Introduction & promotion of knowledge of sciences among inhabitants .

• Also Christian Missionaries were permitted to carry on their proselytising and educational activities in the manner they liked.

In spite of the parliamentary sanction, there had been a lull in the educational activity and the money remained unspent. Nothing was done up to 1823 when a General Committee of Public Instruction was appointed. The Committee re-organised the Calcutta Madrasa and the Benaras Sanskrit College. In 1823 Lord Amherst founded the Sanskrit College at Calcutta. Two more oriental colleges at Agra and Delhi were also established. The Committee undertook the task of publishing Sanskrit and Arabic texts and translation of English books containing ‘useful knowledge’ into Oriental classical languages.

Growing Popularity of Western Learning and Raja Ram Mohan Roy

• Main factor which tipped in favour of English Language & Western Literature was Economic  ie Indians wanted a system of education which could help them to earn their livelihood . Progressive Indians also favoured this
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy (RRMR) protested against govt’s proposal to strengthen Calcutta Madrassa & Benaras Sanskrit College & establishment of more Oriental Colleges in Bengal.   He also wrote to Governor General Lord Amherst against this in 1823
• He advocated Modern Scientific learning and wrote , ” The Sanskrit System of Education would be best calculated to keep the country in darkness , if such had been the policy of British government. But as the improvement of the native population is the object of the Government , it will consequently promote a more liberal & enlightened system of Instruction embracing  Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, Chemistry , Anatomy with other useful sciences. 
• His protests didn’t go unheed and Government agreed to
  • Encourage English as well as Oriental Languages
  • Grant was sanctioned for Calcutta Hindu College which imparted education in English language
  • Government setup translation of European scientific works into Oriental Languages.

Oriental Anglicist Controversy

General Committee of Instruction consisted of 10 members & within Committee there were two Groups

• Anglicists advocated the spread of Western knowledge through the medium of English. This school included the missionaries and the younger civilians & was also supported by Indians like Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
• Orientalists led by Princep : Advocated Orientalist education. Orientalists while agreeing to the programme of the dissemination of western sciences and knowledge among the Indians, staunchly advocated the encouragement of Sanskrit and Arabic literature. The adherents of this school were further split into two groups over the question of the medium of instruction.
  1. One group (consisted of the older officials of the Company in Bengal) suggested that western science and knowledge should be spread in India through the medium of classical languages such as Sanskrit and Arabic. This group was especially strong in Bengal and was influenced by the views of Warren Hastings and Minto.
  2. The other group (led by Munro and Elplinstone and influential in Bombay) believed that western education could reach the mass of the people only of it was imparted in vernaculars or modem Indian languages.

Equal division of votes in Committee made it almost impossible to function effectively.  Ultimately both the parties submitted their dispute to Governor General in Council in 1835.

• Macaulay was the Law Member at that time& he wrote his famous Minute on Education& placed it before the Council
  • Favoured view point of the Anglicist Party
  • Showed great contempt for the Indian Customs & Literature and said , ” a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature in India & Arabia.”
  • Regarding the utility of English language he wrote, ” Whoever knows English has  access to all the vast intellectual wealth which all the wisest nations of the earth have created & handed over in course of 90 generations.”
  • Possibly Macaulay aimed to create a class of persons who should be “Indian in blood & colour but English in tastes, in opinion , in morals & in intellect. ” He sought the production of Englishmen to fill lower cadres of EIC’s administration.
• The Government of William Bentinck accepted the viewpoint of Macaulay that object of the EIC’s Government should be promotion of European literature & sciences through the medium of English language & in future all funds were to be spent for this purpose

• Also during this time ,  Court of Directors in England came under the influence of James Mill who advocated  western education.  So CoD also favoured Anglicist point of view

Macaulayian System

• It was systematic effort on the part of the British government to educate upper classes through  medium of English language
• Education of masses wasn’t the aim of Macaulay & he himself admitted that it was impossible for them with limited means that were available.
• He put implicit faith on INFILTRATION THEORY ie he believed that English educated persons would act as CLASS OF INTERPRETERS & in turn enrich the Vernacular Languages & Literature . In this way, knowledge of Western Sciences & literary would reach to the masses. Thus a natural corollary of Macaulay’s theory was the development of Vernacular languages as ancillary to the teachings of English. Thus according to the ‘filtration theory’, “education was to permeate down to the masses from above. Drop by drop from the Himalayas of Indian life useful information was to trickle downwards, forming in time a broad and stately stream to irrigate the thirsty plains.”

• This theory was also supported by the missionaries who were of the opinion that if Hindus of the higher castes were converted to Christianity through education, other lower caste people would follow suit automatically

• This theory had to be abandoned later because it did not work out for two reasons
  • Persons who had acquired English education were able to get government jobs easily hence they did not make any effort for educating their countrymen.
  • New education had “created a separate caste of English scholars, who no longer had sympathy, or had very little sympathy, with their countrymen.”

Thomsanian system

• In NW Provinces (UP) , James Thomson (LT Gov) from 1843 to 53 made efforts to develop
  • Comprehensive scheme of village education through the medium of Vernacular Languages.
  • Small English Schools were abolished and English Education was confined to Colleges .
  • In Village schools useful subjects like Mensuration, Agricultural Science etc were taught in medium of vernaculars .
  • Department of Education was organised for the development of indigenous schools.
• This was seen as alternate to Macaulian Education System.

Sir Charles Wood’s Dispatch on Education , 1854

• He was President of BoC & was firm believer in the superiority of English Race & institutions . He  believed that these institutions could serve as a useful model for the world
• In 1854 , he prepared his comprehensive despatch on the scheme of future education in India & it is considered as Magna Carta of English Education in India
• It declared following
  • Aim of Govt’s Educational Policy was teaching of Western education .
  • Medium of Instruction – For higher education English language was the perfect medium but at the same time recognised the importance of Vernacular language because only through Vernacular languages , European knowledge could infilter to the masses
  • He gave following system

Primary Schools	Vernacular Language
High Schools	Anglo-Vernacular Language
College	To be present in each distt & in English language

• Despatch also rejected the Downward Filtration Theory, as it was considered a retrograde policy. It was stated in the Despatch that the government should assume direct responsibilities for the education of the masses and women.
• This policy proposed that while a relatively small group of highly edu­cated Indians would be needed to man the subordinate positions in the administration, the wider population should also have “useful  and  practical knowledge” in order to become good workers, capable of developing the vast resources of the empire, and also become good consumers valuing the superior quality of British goods re­quiring a market.
• It was thought that as government could never have the funds to provide for all the educational needs of the country, the bulk of its educational institutions would have to be organised by private bodies – whether missionary or Indian. Hence, Despatch recommended Grant in Aid to encourage private enterprise in field of Education. Grants was conditional on employing qualified teachers and maintenance of proper standards of teaching
• For a systematic supervision of education system, Department of Public Instruction in each Province to be made
• Universities on the model of London University were proposed at Calcutta, Bombay &. Madras
• Emphasised on the importance of Vocational instruction& need for establishing technical schools and colleges
• Women education was favoured
• Almost all the proposals of Dispatch were Implemented.

Hunter Education Commission

• In 1882, Govt appointed Commission under WW Hunter to
  • review the progress of education in India
  • Enquire the state of elementary education and means by which it can be extended and improved
• Another reason was propaganda by Missionaries in England that Education policy in India wasn’t in accordance with Wood’s Dispatch
• Main Recommendations were

Primary education	– Special care for extension and improvement of Primary education & recommended transfer of Primary education to newly set District and Municipal Boards. – Primary education should be through Vernacular
Secondary Education	There should be two divisions for this 1. Literary education leading upto Entrance Examination to Universities 2. Education of practical character preparing students for commercial & vocational careers
Private Enterprise	– Recommended that an all out effort should be made to encourage private enterprise in field of education. For this liberal Grant in Aid system & recognition of aided schools as equal to Govt institutions was done.
Female Education	– Recognized inadequate facilities for female education outside Presidency Towns and recommended for its spread

Twenty years following the report saw an unprecedented growth and expansion of secondary and collegiate education.

Indian Universities Act , 1904

• 1901 : Curzon summoned highest educational officers of the Govt & Representatives of Universities to Shimla & passed 150 Resolutions touching each and every conceivable branch of Education.
• This was followed by appointment of Commission under Presidency of Sir Thomas Raleigh in 1902 to inquire into conditions and prospects of Universities in India . As a result of these recommendations, Indian Universities Act was passed in 1904 . Main changes were
  • Universities were desired to make provisions for study & research
  • Act laid down that no of fellows of a University shall not be less than 50 nor more than 100 and a Fellow should normally hold office for period of 6 years instead for life
  • The Governor’s Control over the Universities was further increased by vesting the Govt with powers to Veto the regulations passed by the Senate of a University. The Govt could also make additions or alterations in the regulations framed by the Senate & even frame regulations itself  over and above the head of the Senate
  • Increased University Control over the Private Colleges by laying down stricter conditions of affiliation and periodical inspection by Syndicate . The Private Colleges were required to keep proper standard of efficiency
  • GG in Council was empowered to define the territorial limits of a University or decide the affiliation of colleges to University.
• Nationalist Opinion opposed this & called it a Retrograde step and believed that Curzon sought to reduce the Universities to position of department of the State . Even Sadler Commission commented that Act of 1904 made Indian universities most Govt controlled Universities in the world

Sadler’s Commission , 1917-19

• In 1917, Govt appointed this  to study and report problems of Calcutta University under Sadler (VC of University of Leeds) .
• Earlier, Hunter Commission looked into elementary education and Rayleigh Commission into University Education. But this commission looked into whole Education system from Primary to University level.
• Main theme was – effective synthesis between colleges and universities & foundation of sound university organisation.
• Its main Recommendations were
  • 12 years school course was recommended . After assessing at Intermediate Exam rather than Matriculation , the students were to enter University . The Govt created new type of institutions for this called Intermediate Colleges. These Colleges could either be independent or attached to high schools
  • Duration of degree course after Intermediate State should be limited to 3 years .
  • Less rigidity in framing regulations for the University .
  • Old type of Indian University with large no of affiliated & widely scattered colleges should be replaced by centralized unitary residential autonomous bodies. Unitary University was recommended for Dacca to lessen pressure on Calcutta University.   
  • Necessity of providing substantial facilities for training of teachers was emphasized
  • Provide courses in applied science and vocational training
  • Facilities for female education & establishment of Special Board for Women Education in University of Calcutta.

Hartog Committee , 1929

• Quantitative increase in Education led to deterioration of Quality & lowering of Standards . Hence Indian Statutory Commission (Simon Commission) appointed an Committee for development of Education.
• Main recommendations were
  • Emphasized on importance of Primary Education but condemned the hasty expansion & compulsion in education
  • Secondary education to be diversified leading to industrial courses & commercial careers.
  • Pointed out weaknesses of University education & criticized the policy of indiscriminate admissions leading to lowering of standards . Recommended all efforts should be laid in improving university work & giving good education to students who were fit to receive it .

Wardha Scheme

• Government of India Act , 1935 introduced Provincial Autonomy .
• Congress Party came to power in 7 provinces and worked to evolve national scheme of Education for the Country. Gandhi wrote articles in his paper Harijan & made suggestions regarding scheme of education called Basic Education.
• Zakir Hussain committee worked out details of scheme & prepared detailed syllabus for no of crafts & made suggestions concerning productive work. It centered around
  • Manual productive work which might cover the remuneration of teachers
  • Envisaged 7 years course through mother tongue of the students
• But nothing much done later because Congress Ministries resigned in 1939

Sergeant Plan of Education

• In 1944, Central Advisory Board of Education drew up a national scheme of Education called Sergant Plan
  • Establishment of Elementary Schools and High School
  • Introduction of Universal free and Compulsory Education between 6 & 11 years
  • School course of 6 years to be provided between 11 to 17
  • High Schools to provide 2 types of Education ie Academic and Technical

Strengthening of Ethical and Moral Values in Governance

This article deals with ‘Strengthening of Ethical and Moral Values in Governance.’ This is part of our series on ‘Ethics’  . For more articles , you can click here

Problems of Governance in India

This whole scene has to be seen in the context of

1. Corruption , Nepotism , favoritism , Crony Capitalism
2. Misuse of power in  personal interest
3. Red tapism : Undue delay in public service delivery because of complex procedures 
4. Lack of Transparency
5. Weak Accountability
6. Lack of public participation in decision making
7. Bureaucratic apathy particularly towards  weaker sections of society
8. Status quoist and elitist orientation of bureaucracy
9. Politicisation of Bureaucracy
10. Criminalisation of politics

How to Strengthen Ethical Governance

For this, we need to take various steps in various fields

1 . Political Structure

• Enforce expenditure limits on elections strictly
• Bring Political Parties under RTI
• Remove excessive protection given to tainted politicians

2. Statutory Structure

For this 2nd ARC has given various recommendations

• Amend Prevention of Corruption Act
• Enactment of Serious Economic Offences Act 
• Integrity Pacts – When Government Organisation signs any contract with Private organisation, sign integrity pacts stating that if Private Organisation is found involved in any wrongdoing, contract will cancel automatically .

3. Institutional Structure

• Strengthen and give more teeth to CVC , Lokpal , CBI etc

4. Social Infrastructure

Take help of society in reducing corruption and increasing Ethical Governance

• Give Civic education in Schools. 
• False Claims Act (USA) – If you think that there is wrongdoing in some organisation, gather evidences & produce it before court. If fine is imposed on that organisation , some portion of money from that fine will be given to litigant .
• Social Audit : Social Audit can help in this regard.

Lessons from the lives of administrators and leaders

This article deals with ‘Lessons from the lives of administrators and leaders.’ This is part of our series on ‘Ethics’  . For more articles , you can click here

1 . S.R. Sankaran

1 . Administrators generally don’t project themselves and a good administrator always work unnoticed .

Sankaran was Andhra cadre IAS officer who entered into service at a time when Civil Services were considered just a routine exercise. In-fact , Sankaran is that brand of civil servant who literally changed the dynamics of the civil services from a legal- rational bureaucracy to moral-legal-rational bureaucracy.

2. Legal-Rational Bureaucracy : It is based on Weberian model of bureaucracy . In this, Decision making process is strictly  based on laws & decision should be always rational

He brought other element of morality in the decision making. What he really meant was that administrators must not always go by the letter of the law but also by spirit of law

3. His notable performance was in the Anti Poverty programs . He brought significant changes in the life of millions of poor . He had uncompromising approach towards implementation of land reforms.

He was of the view that tribals should be helped because they need help . Hence, he took land reforms measures on war footing. The problem was that tribals don’t maintain the land records and hence , they place themselves in awkward situation. Sankaran with his hard work was able to explain tribals that since you are living on a forest land for well over generations and generations, hence they have developed a right . It was also on revenue rules that if somebody is living on a land for more than 12 years then he becomes entitled to land. He told the tribals that if revenue officer ever comes and ask you to show the records, you can say that it is the collector who has asked them to occupy this land and do cultivation. Gradually , revenue officers stopped tribals evicting from forest land.

4. He also played important role in the temple entry of Harijans

They were not permitted to enter temples which resulted in some sort of difficulties for them . Hence, he personally saw the situation and made sure that these things shouldn’t happen.

5. Due to above incident, tribals and harijans started to term him as POOR MAN’S COLLECTOR. People named their colonies & children after him.

• When he went to central deputation , he was instrumental in getting coal mines nationalised because he was really moved by the plight & exploitation of coal miners
• His residence was always open for people to come , put their grievances before them.

2. E Sreedharan

• Had deep respect for the humanity especially for common man. He built most ideal railway network of the country (Konkan Railways) . After retirement, he was again taken by govt to make excellent Mass Transit System in Delhi .

• He was awarded Padamshree in 2001 , Padamvibushan in 2008 . He is the President of Foundation for Restoration of National Values.

• Accoring to Sreedharan, many factors have developed creating the corrupt environment but most instrumental factors in increasing corruption are
  • Legacy of the British Raj : Officers cant be questioned and they are mai-baap
  • Non Accountability : Most of the officers are not accountable to anybody and take decisions on their whims and fancies
  • Cost of delay : To avoid time over run due to bureaucratic hurdles, people and contractors have no choice but to bribe officials.
  • No Direct Responsibility

• Sreedharan experimented in a beautiful way in Delhi Metro Project and many of his projects were ahead of time with no project overrunning time. How Sreedharan was able to achieve this ?
  • This was because of his commitment, honesty and integrity .
  • He was a creative & wise  person
  • He was free from greed

3. DR Kartikeyan

• He was former member of IPS & chief investigation officer in case of Rajiv Gandhi Assassination case, Director General of CRPF
• He brought many things in his working
  • Honesty and Integrity : It was he who emphasized that honesty and integrity should never be compromised especially in the working of Police .
  • Fairness and Tolerance : The law enforcement agency has to be very fair and has to be in favor of oppressed . Also it has to develop immense tolerance & always remember that use of arms and ammunition should always be last resort.
  • Use of force and authority :
  • Performance of duty
  • Lawful order : Only lawful orders have to be carried . He was even against any order issued by superior which was illegal
  • Confidentiality : Officers have sensitive information about security and integrity of nation. They should never make any compromise on that.

4. Armstrong Pame

Armstrong Pame, an IAS officer in Manipur helped to build 100 km  road now called  “ People ’ s Road ” by roping in local people and online donations. His empathy towards peoples challenges and ability to actualize potential proved him to be an effective leader in this project

5. Sukmar Sen

• First Election Commissioner of India.
• Conducted biggest election in the world in a country with huge illiteracy.
• Showed qualities like Leadership, Creativity, Planning etc. Eg : during first election post independence, he introduced things like
  • Party Symbols – So that illiterate can vote too.
  • Made 2,24,000 Polling stations so that people can vote even in the remotest parts of India.

6. Tarlok Singh

• Member of ICS
• Deviced plan for rehabilitation of Refugees from Pakistan => used his creativity and intelligence to solve the complex issue of allocation of lands to the farmers from Pakistani Punjab in India.

7. Amit Gupta

• Member of IAS
• Noted for his work against Manual Scavenging (working for Social Justice)
• Although declared illegal but Manual Scavenging was still continuing in Budaun district . He started initiative to eliminate it
  • collect baskets and brooms in the village and burn them in the presence of everyone.
  • Rehabilitation package was developed which included loan schemes , pension schemes, special scholarships for children, rural housing schemes etc.
  • All dry toilets in rural areas were converted to flush latrines.

8. TN Sheshan

• Cleansed Political System in the country
• Example of courage and working fearlessly

9.Manjunath Shanmugam

• He was working with Indian Oil Corporation (IOC) and was graduate of the IIM, Lucknow.
• He is noted for Whistle-blowing on adulteration by the petrol pump owners.  
• He was shot dead in 2005 for blowing the whistle against corrupt practice.

10. Satyendra Dubey

• National Highways Authority of India (NHAI), exposed the rampant corruption in construction
• Found dead on 27th November, 2003.

The list can be endless. Student should keep on adding to the

Contributions of Moral Thinkers and Philosophers from India

This article deals with ‘Contributions of Moral Thinkers and Philosophers from India.’ This is part of our series on ‘Ethics’  . For more articles , you can click here

1 . Kautilya

• In Arthashastra, Kautilya has written how ideal king should conduct the affairs of state especially for the welfare of the public
  • King has to personally attend the person who had come to meet him
  • The people shouldn’t wait long to meet the king especially women and old age
  • In the happiness of people should lie his happiness
  • In time of calamity, king should protect people in similar way as mother protects her child

All these things were driven by the human love , creativity, wisdom .

2. Gandhian Ethics

Gandhiji learnt from

• New Testament : Service of Man, Love to Mankind, Niranakar Brahma (formless god)
• Ruskin Bond’s Sermon on the Mount
• David Thoreau : Civil Disobedience
• Confusious : Treat other person in such a way that you want other’s to behave with you
• Gita : Every shaloka of Gita is case study of human life and how to work in real situation

2.1 Seven sins of Gandhi

Seven Deadly Sins according to Gandhiji are

Commerce without morality :	– Commerce = Sale and Purchase – For sale and purchase , Civil Law cant define every minute aspect Hence, Morality has big role to play
Science without humanity	– Human must not become slave of science – It resembles Kant’s Ethics
Religion without sacrifice.	– Religion is medium of internal peace – Gathering and collecting money or property on name of religion is sin – Internal peace cant be achieved without sacrifice .
Politics without principle	– Politics is such a process in which based on ideology and philosophy, matter of human importance is taken up. – If it is mobilized without any principle for just vote bank, it is equivalent to sin. – This is the reason why Gandhi advised to end Congress after Independence as goals for what it was made were achieved.
Knowledge without character	– In absence of Character, integrity cant be developed. – Better Character generates moral strength in person – If Moral Character is absent, then presence knowledge is dangerous and chances of it’s misuse are great.
Wealth without work	– Nature has ownership over Wealth. We are normal possessioners who after fixed time keep on changing. Hence, person should act as trustee of wealth – Wealth acquired without any work is equivalent to sin .
Pleasure without conscience	– Physical pleasure is not Real Pleasure as it is temporary – Real Pleasure is in the pleasure of others .

2.2 Ethical Religion

• Ethics tells us what it ought to be , it enables man to know how he should act.
• Man has two windows in his mind. Through one he can see his own-self as it is and through other he can see what it ought to be.
• In path of morality, there is no such thing as award for moral behavior. If a man does some good deed, he shouldn’t do it to win applause but he does it because he must do it .

2.3 Nonviolence and Satyagraha

• Satyagraha = Truth Force
• Nonviolence doesn’t mean servile passivity. It means changing others heart by strong moral force. If harm is to be done, it is to be done on oneself’s body
• Other examples of Person’s using Non-Violence : Nelson Mandela and Martin Luther King

2.4 Ideal Morality

• Moral Desires : We don’t wish for what we have already but always value more what we don’t have . He taught to be content with what you have. Although desire is good but if desire is limited to self interest , then it is immoral. Other desire is to do good for others, this is moral
• Moral Action : Most of our actions are non moral ie not involve morality . We think that if we go along convention and prevailing rules,  we are moral. By doing this one prevents anarchy in society. But don’t think that this is morality , this is the minimum that one should do. Morality begins after when u start doing things  beyond non moral  . Also any good act isnt moral unless intention behind doing that act is also good.

2.5 Means and End

• According to Gandhi , means may be likened to seed and ends to tree and there is same connection between the means and end as between seed and the tree. As the seed will be, as the tree will become.
• Purity of the means is very important because of the relationship he has proposed.
• A good mean will result into good end and bad means will result  into bad ends. 
• Gandhi said that if one take care of means, the ends will take care of itself. Hence, one must concentrate on means and end will be proportionate to the means . That is why he stressed on achieving freedom by non violence because he thought that what is gained by sword will also be lost by sword.

2.6 Sarvodaya

• Sarvodaya  means ‘progress of all’.
• Welfare of person lies in the welfare of society
• No profession is small or big . Barber , Farmer and
• Gandhi’s Ashrams (Phoenix Farm, Tolstoy Ashram,  Sabarmati Asharam) were example of Sarvodaya experiment. Here persons lived, performed their function and every person was treated equally and shares the fruit equally

2.7 Trusteeship

• Gandhi was of the view that everything belongs to god and we are not the absolute owner. So the concept of ownership is completely wrong.
• All the things are for people of god as a whole and not for particular individual. When individual has more than his proportion , he become trustee for that resource for god’s people.
• Hence, he was not against idea that person with great talent must not earn more but gave idea that whatever he earns more has to be used as trustee.

2.8 Gandhi’s Talisma

• His talisma is specially for the cases of dilemma .
• While pursuing all these things, person can come across various dilemma. What should person do at that time?
• Whenever you are in doubt or when self becomes too much with you, apply the following test. Recall the face of the poorest and the weakest whom you may have seen and ask yourself if the step you contemplate is going to be of any use to him.  Will he gain anything by it?  Will it restore him to a control over his own life and destiny?  In other words, will it lead to Swaraj for the hungry and spiritually starving millions?

2.9 Gandhi’s Ramrajya

• According to Gandhiji , there will be no need of state, police or army when all people are ethically fully developed and self disciplined .
• It is ideal state of ‘Stateless Perfect Morality’
• This is Gandhiji’s Sophisticated Anarchy.

3. Aurobindo Ghosh (1872-1950)

• For moral life, moral consciousness is necessary. This can be seen in Aurobindo Ghosh . He presented that , for development of anything, three  things are required ie Matter, Life and Mind. But these three things cant develop whole universe . For this, consciousness is required which is associated with internal aspects. If consciousness is moral and ethical, better and happy world. Hence, for moral development , person should increase moral development.

• Poorna Yoga :
  • Aurobindo emphasised on Poorna Yoga rather than Yoga. He was of the opinion that rather than individual benefit which can accrue from Yoga, person should also look towards societal good by adopting Poorna Yoga
  • Person can perform Poorna Yoga only when he surrenders before his own Aatma ie soul and spirit along with knowledge that he is Consciousness rather than matter .

• Human Character : Sri Aurobindo accepted that ultimate goal of life is param anand ie ultimate pleasure and for this people try to use  method of fulfilment of physical and psychological needs which cant help person to achieve param anand. Based on this, he presented 4 stages of human conduct
  1. Individual needs , likes and desires
  2. Goodness of group and society
  3. Ideal Conduct
  4. Law of Nature

Hence, moves from Individual => Society => Nature

In this way, Aurobindo’s teachings emphasize on Virtue and goodness .

4. Vivekananda(1862 -1908)

Main points of Vivekananda’s Philosophy

4.1 Yoga

Vivekananda was influenced by Bhagwat Geeta and Yogasutra and emphasised on following Yogas

• Raj Yoga : Controlling the mind . Such people should be present in Administration (can be equated with Plato’s Philosopher King)
• Karma Yoga
• Bhakti Yoga
• Gyan Yoga

4.2 Darida Narayan

• Dridra Devo Bhava ie Service of poor and downtrodden is the biggest service of god.
• Very important for Civil Servant to cultivate Empathy and Compassion
• Due to this, he established Ramakrishna Mission and acted like Missionary.

4.3 Self Realization

• It is most important for living ethical and moral life
• It can be achieved with strength => ‘Weakness is Death , Strength is God’
• Only that person can live ethical and moral life who has ability of self-realisation

We cant make new and progressive India with weak people

4.4 Focus on Means (rather than end)

• Means are more important than ends
• If means are pure and good, then person cant fail

4.5 Sarva Dharma Sambhava

• God is one and there are many paths to reach that god
• According to Vivekananda, no god supports injustice and naked exploitation. He found universality of every religion . Religion shouldn’t bring hatered but it should bring brotherhood, mercy, love, sympathy, mutual respect etc
• Was influenced by his Guru Ramakrishna in this.
• Availability of more paths is good as all people cant follow same path as strength of each person vary.

5. Rabindra Nath Tagore

5.1 Spiritual Humanism

• Supreme reality  could be realized only through love of man.
• Love of God was thus translated into love of human.

5.2 About nature of States

• States existed for the individual and its activities should aim at giving maximum  liberty

5.3 On Education

• Object of education was simply the accumulation of knowledge.
• Education should give all round human personality- physical,  intellectual,  aesthetic and spiritual growth

5.4 On Society

• Indian society has very much degenerated mostly because of the policy of our social rulers who didn’t care to preserve our social institutions and allowed them to degenerate.

6. Mother Teresa

• The true lesson of Mother Teresa is to live your life on your values. Conditions should never deter one from his or her personal goals and mission. When we dedicate our lives to positive values we regain peace. We attain independence from the omnipresent stressful elements life brings. Our inner core values help us as an anchor that is changeless in a sea of constant change.

• Devotion for great cause
  • Mother Teresa spent over 60 years of her life in the slums of Calcutta and devoted all of her life to service of the poor, especially lepers, the sick, the dying and the abandoned. It took a lot of resolve, determination and faith to keep going in the face of incredible difficulties and challenges.

• Strong Personal Foundation
  • It means one should hold high moral and ethical values. Mother Teresa had a solid foundation that kept her going through all the turmoil and challenges in her life – her strong faith.

• She gave following message
  • Service of poor is service of god
  • Poverty is not a curse
  • God helps them who helps poor

• She was against abortion because she considered abortion is a murder in the womb and child is a gift of god .

The list is endless. We will continue to add in this article if any moral philosopher comes in news . We also advice the aspirants to keep on updating the list in their own notes as the situation demands.