Mauryan  Architecture

This article deals with topic titled ‘Mauryan Architecture .’ This is part of our series on ‘Culture’  . For more articles , you can click here

Introduction

• Major architectural input of Mauryan Art was  wood. Hence,remains are very scant
• Reminiscent of Persian Achaemenid Architecture.
• Ananda Coomaraswamy has divided Mauryan Art in following way

Mauryan Palace

• Remains are scanty because timber was the main material
• Pillar fragment was discovered in Kumrahar (place in Patna) in 1903 .  72 pillars found in 1903 were arranged in neat chessboard pattern & 8 pillars were discovered later . Pillars were made of buff colored Chunar sandstone & smooth polished surface
• Although they were made of same stone as free standing Ashokan pillars but they were thinner & shorter. All have hole on the top clearly for metal dowels that connected shaft to capital which in turn supported roof.
• Some marks were found on their bases including crescent on hill (insignia of Mauryas) .
• Discovery of large quantity of ash & pieces of burnt wood indicated that floor & roof were made of wood & structure was subjected to fire
• There were no traces of walls & hall seems to be open on all sides
• Spooner was struck by similarity between pillared hall at Kumrahar  & Darius’s hall of Public audience at Persepolis in Iran but Maurya structure is less elaborate than persian palace . Along with that, precise function of 80 pillared Mauryan hall is unknown

Stupas

• Stupas were known before the time of Ashoka too but Ashoka divided the existing body relics of Buddha & erected Stupas to enshrine them . Hence, Stupa became object of cult worship
• In Buddhist Tradition, originally 9 stupas were erected – 8 over relics of Buddha & 9th on vessel in which relics were originally kept at Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilvastu, Allakapa, Ramagrama, Vethadipa, Pava, Kushinagar and Pippalvina.
• Material used in initial Stupas

Core of Stupa	Made up of Unburnt Bricks
Outer Face	Made of Burnt Bricks & covered with thick layer of plaster

• In subsequent century, stupas were elaborately built with certain additions like the enclosing of the circumambulatory path with railings, gateways & sculptural decoration. Thus, with the elaborations in stupa architecture, there was ample space for the architects and sculptors to plan elaborations and to carve out images
• Three chhatra on the stupas represent triratnas of Buddhism i.e. Buddha (The enlightened), Dhamma (doctrine) and Sangh (order). 

1 . Barhut Stupa

• Barhut is situated in eastern part of MP
• Stupa at Barhut was made by Ashoka around 300BC but improvised & beautified by Shungas
• Unlike Mauryan imperial art, inscription on railings were made by lay people&monks
• Earliest stupa railings (vedika) to have survived
• Sculpture mainly include Yaksha & Yakshinis
• Has nine feet railing (vedika) & gateway(torana) made in imitation with wooden architecture
• On railings are depicted stories of virtuous qualities of Budha & Jataka stories
• Sculpture done here is low in relief and narratives are few in words
• In one sculpture, story of Queen Mahamaya (mother of Buddha) is depicted where she is reclining on bed and elephant is shown on top heading towards womb

2. Sanchi Stupa

• Sanchi is in  MP

• Monuments present in the complex : Two stupas+ some temples  + Pillar edicts + monasteries

• Stupa is the Oldest stone structure
• It has long history
  • It was commissioned by Ashoka
  • Later , Pushymitra Shunga of Shunga Dynasty vandalised it
  • Again it was rebuild by Agnimitra Shunga who also added Railings (Vedika) to it
  • Later, it was repaired by Satavahanas who also added Toranas (Gateway) to it.
• Nucleus is hemispherical brick structure built over relics of Buddha
• Has upper & lower Paradakshinapatha or Pathways
• It also has Four beautifully decorated Toranas depicting various life events of Buddha & Jataka stories
• In contrast to Barhut, relief in it’s railings is high &  more naturalistic . Carving technique is also more advanced than Barhut

3. Dharmarajika Stupa (Taxila)

• Several Stupa-Monastery sites are there in Taxila out of which Dharmarajika  (locally called Chir Tope) is most important
• Belong to Maurya period

Rock Cut Architecture

This article deals with topic titled ‘Rock Cut Architecture .’ This is part of our series on ‘Culture’  . For more articles , you can click here

Introduction

• There are around 1500 Rock Cut Architectures in India and most of them religious
• Built mainly by Indian sculptures,monks and general public
• Two types of caves (mostly both were present at one site)

Chaitya	Prayer Hall for Monks
Vihara	Residence /Rest place for Monks

1 . Barabar Caves

• Oldest example of rock cut caves
• Located in Barabar Hills,Bihar
• Caves date back to reign of Ashoka and his son Dasratha
• Initially built for Ajivika sect. Later for all Buddhists, Jain & Brahmanical traditions

Main caves at Barabar

Lomas Rishi Cave	– Known for horse shoe type façade – It imitate contemporary timber architecture of that time – Polished from inside is it’s marked feature
Sudama Cave	– Known for bow shaped arch – This and Lomas Rishi cave are the oldest rock cut caves
Karan Chaupar	– Single rectangular room with polished surfaces – Contains inscription dating back to  Mauryan era
Visva Zopri	There are two rectangular caves there

2. Kanheri Caves

• Location- Kanheri, north of Borivali Mumbai within Sanjay Gandhi National Park
• Early caves excavated in 1st & 2nd century BC
• Caves continuously occupied by Buddhist monks & inland traders as stop  till 7th century AD
• Have both Chaityas & Viharas
• It’s Chaitya is the 2nd largest Chaitya after Karle Caves

Significance of these caves

• Site provides view of development of Buddhist art for a thousand years from 1st century BC as its proximity to sea & thriving ports ensured continual patronage by mercantile class
• Kanheri temple presents last expression of early rock cut tradition of western India
• These are home to colossal Buddha statue and mark the beginning of long tradition of colossal Buddha which became popular in Tibetan & central asia

3. Karle Caves

• Location – near Lonavala,Maharashtra(between Mumbai & Pune)
• Shrines developed over two periods

First Phase	2century BC to 2century AD
Second Phase	5century to 10th century AD

• Caves provided lodging houses to travelling traders thus ensured continued patronage
• Associated with Mahasamghika sect of Buddhism
• Largest rock cut Chaitya in India
• Sculptures include Mithuna and animals such as lions & elephants
• Roof is given shape like that of wood (hence, giving wooden look to stone cut cave was still prevalent)

4. Bhaja Caves

• Belongs to Hinayana faith
• It has Wooden ceiling over Chaitya-griha.
• Stupa has a hole on top, for inserting wooden umbrella.

5. Bedsa Caves

• Location -Pune
• Known for chaitya and viharas of 1st century BC
• Chaitya is partly hidden from profane world. Belief was that one should learn truly only when one made a special effort for that purpose

6. Ajanta Caves

• Situation : 100 km from Aurangabad in horse shape gorge of Waghora river
• These caves are carved on a perpendicular cliff. As they are on perpendicular side, there are no courtyards

• All the three forms of Art are combined in these caves : Architecture, Sculpture, Paintings
• Were discovered in 19th century (1829)
• Total 29 caves(according to NCERT) : Made in two phases
  • These all caves are Buddhist in theme
  • 4 Chaityas & 25 Viharas

Satavahana Phase	– Built in 2nd century BC – Patronage of Satavahana Kings – Hinayana phase ie Buddha represented figuratively – Less figurative sculpture & emphasising on stupa instead
Vakataka Phase	– Period:5th & 6th century AD – Patronage:Vakataka Kings – Mahayana phase ie Buddha depicted as human – Human representations of Buddha found in both facades and interior – Murals present in this period which is great artistic achievement

• Chinese Buddhist traveller Fa-Hien & Huen Tsang refer to Ajanta in their accounts
• 5 Caves belong to Hinayana & 24 to Mahayana
• Chaitya caves –  earlier phase : Cave Nos. 10 and 9 and  later phase : Cave Nos. 19 & 26. Cave no 19 & 26 are profusely decorated.

Notable paintings and sculptures at  Ajanta

• Figures in these caves are painted with considerable naturalism and there is no over -stylisation
• It may also be observed that various skin colours are used in the paintings such as brown, yellowish brown, greenish, yellow ochre, etc. which represent a multicoloured population.
• Paintings of Cave Nos. 16 and 17 have precise and elegant painterly quality. They do not bear the ponderous volume of the sculptures in the caves.

Cave 1

• Consists of a hall sided by 14 cell
• Famous Paintings of Vajrapani and Padmapani situated here (many times asked in UPSC)

Cave 16

• According to an inscription found here, the excavation of this cave was caused by Varahadeva, the minister of Vakataka king Harishena 
• Largest and most finest and interesting monastery (vihara ) of all Ajanta caves
• Consist of Colossal hall ,ornate doors ,beautifully painted galleries ,ornamental pillars. Central hall is surrounded by 14 cells on three sides and sanctum housing buddha image as shown in Pralambapadasana
• The important painted themes depicted are the conversion of Nanda; Miracle of Sravasti; Maya’s dream; and certain incidents from the life of Buddha. The Jataka stories depicted are Hasti, Maha-ummagga, Maha-sutasoma. 

Cave 17

Cave 19

• It is chaitya & most perfect specimen of buddhist art in India
• Built during 5th century AD
• Total 17 pillars in chaitya with single door entry & at centre stands globular buddha
• Other sculpture Buddha offer begging bowl to his son Rahula

7. Ellora Caves

• Location :Aurangabad district  in Maharashtra( 100 km from Ajanta )
• Built by: Rashtrakutas (5th to 12thcentury)
• Epitome of Indian rock cut architecture and one of World Heritage sites
• Unlike the Ajanta caves,Ellora cave temples were carved out on the sloping side of the hill. Hence most of the temples have courtyards.

• Ellora has even 3 storey  buildings but Ajanta double storeyed only 
• Was on trade route from Paithan to Ujjain in central India
• Total : 34 caves  (dominant Hindu caves)

Buddhist	12 (mainly Vajrayana)	1-12
Hindu	17	13-29
Jaina	5	30-34

Demonstrate generous attitude of rulers towards worshipers of all divinities

Important Caves and Temples within Ellora

Carpenters Cave /Vishvakarma Cave at Ellora : Cave no 10

• Only Chaitya in Ellora rest all are viharas
• Locally known as Vishwakarma ie “celestial architect” or Sutar ka jhopda ie “carpenter’s hut”

• Sculptors have tried to give wooden look to stones
• It is cave no 10 and most famous Buddhist cave at Ellora
• Chaitya hall has stupa on the face of which is a colossal Budha – 3.30 m high & seated in Vyakhyana mudra

Kailasnath Temple : Cave no 16

• Vast multi-storey structure carved inside and outside 
• Carved out of single rock
• Built by Rashtrakuta king -Krishna I in 8th century AD
• Remarkable example of Dravidian Architecture
• Vertical excavation- carvers started at the top of original rock and excavated downward.

• It has images of deities ,mithunas and other figures.
• Grand sculpture of Ravanna attempting to lift Mt.Kailasa ,abode of Lord Shiva with full might is landmark in Indian art

Dashavatara Cave : Cave no 15

• Began as Buddhist cave
• Closely related to Cave 12
• Shows Vishnu in his 10 Avatars

Indra Sabha (Jaina) : Cave no 32

• There are Five Jain caves at Ellora
• Belonging to Digambara sect

Notable ones are:

• Chhota Kailash
• Indra sabha
• Jaganatha sabha

Out of them , Indra sabha is two storeyed cave with one more monolithic shrine in its court

8. Udaigiri Caves

• In Vidisha  (there are two Udaigiri Caves, other are Jain Caves in Odisha)
• Developed during reign of Guptas

• Here all the caves (except for one Jaina cave) depict Hindu deities although most of the sculptures are carved outside the caves. These include Four armed standing Vishnu (Cave 6) , Kumara (Cave 3), an eka-mukha linga (Cave 4), pratiharas /Doorkeepers (Cave 6) & Durga Mahishasuramardini( Cave 4,6) .
• A particularly powerful relief shows Vishnu in his boar incarnation rescuing the earth from waters

9. Elephanta Caves

• Built under the patronage of Vakataka
• Situated at Elephanta Island in Mumbai Harbour (named so by Portuguese due to presence of Elephants)
• It has two group of caves
  • First Group : 5 Hindu Caves
  • Second Group : 2 Hindu Caves
• Hindu caves are dedicated to Shiva . Central Attraction here is 20 foot statue of 3 headed Shiva . Three heads represent
  • Aghori : Aggressive form
  • Ardhanarishwara  : Half man and half woman
  • Mahayogi : Meditative Aspect

Caves in Eastern Ghats – Udayagiri & Khandagiri

• Udayagiri & Khandagiri hills  in Puri District of Orissa 6 km from Bhubaneswar & not far from site of Shishupal Garh
• One of the oldest Jaina rock cut caves are present here
• Sandstone present in these caves are easy to excavate but not very suitable for intricate carving . Stone of these caves are brittle & suffered lot of weathering
• Hathigumpa inscription , carved over an overhanging rock in front of Cave 14 connects it with Mahameghavahana or Chedi Dynasty of Kalinga dated 1st century BC . This dynasty  extended patronage to Jainism & hills continued to be occupied by Jaina Ascetics with a few breaks right upto present date

Differences with Buddhist Caves in Western Ghats

• No congregation hall or rock cut shrines present here (in later period although some of the cells were enlarged to make shrines)
• Tiny cells graphically represent hard ascetic regimen of monks who lived here . With few exceptions , they were not high enough to permit man to stand up
• Interior of cell was stark & plain but outer brackets sometimes had carved ornamentation
• Generally single storeyed  . Only one is double storeyed ie Ranigumpha (Queens cave) . Ranigumpa is largest & best preserved

Indus Valley Architecture

This article deals with topic titled ‘Indus Valley Architecture .’ This is part of our series on ‘Culture’  . For more articles , you can click here

Introduction

• Sophisticated  town planning with flourishing urban structure
• Well planned grids with broad main roads & smaller lanes intersecting at right angles
• Sophisticated drainage system
• Houses were made of bricks

Characteristics of Town planning

1 . Grid pattern

• Cities were laid out in grid pattern
• Streets oriented from East to west with broad main roads & smaller lanes intersecting at right angles

2. City walls / Fortified Cities

• Harappan Cities were fortified . Fortification serves two purposes.
  • It exclude outsiders and the underprivileged.
  • They indicate that communities inside  had something to protect.

Thus it give clue to socio-political hierarchy. It helps the powerful to control activities inside the fortification. It also helps them keep an eye on the outsiders. If traders bring goods from places faraway they can collect their share for allowing them access to potential buyers inside the fortification

3. Acropolis & lower cities

Typical city would be divided into two sections ,each fortified separately

Acropolis / Citadal	– Located on artificially raised mound – Important buildings like Assembly Halls , Religious Structures , Granaries , Great bath of Mohenjodaro situated here
Lower section	– On level ground – Housing for inhabitants

4. Residential buildings

• People lived in houses of different sizes ie stratification was present in society
  • Opening of houses never in main streets
  • Staircases was present – may have led to roof
  • Floors made of high packed earth often replastered or covered with sand 
  • Roofs often made with timber  beams
  • Clay models of houses show that doors were sometimes carved or painted with simple designs
  • Small houses attached to large ones may have been quarters of service groups working for wealthy city dwellers
  • Toilets & Bathrooms – many houses or group of houses had separate bathing & toilet areas . Floor of these was made of tightly fitted bricks . Although some people may have relieved themselves outside city but toilet was present in almost all houses especially in Harappa
  • Houses were without much decoration. In general it was plain & un-decorative. This shows utilitarian outlook of Harappan people .

5. In -house wells

• House  had its own wells, drains & bathrooms
• In house well is a common & recognisable feature of Indus Valley civilisation

6. Drainage system

• Impressive drainage system : It was the most complete ancient system as yet discovered.
  • Every house was connected to the street drains.
  • Main channels were made of bricks set in mortar and were covered with loose bricks that could be removed for cleaning.
  • House drains first emptied into a sump or cesspit into which solid matter settled while waste water flowed out into the street drains
  • Sewage chutes & pipes were separate from drains for collecting rain water
  • Drainage systems were not unique to the larger cities, but were found in smaller settlements  as  well.  Eg : At  Lothal , while houses were built of mud bricks, drains were made of burnt bricks.

7. Great Bath

• Rectangular measuring 14.5X7 m & 2.4 m deep at Mohenjodaro . Wide staircase leads down into tank from North & South . It was made water tight by finely fitted bricks . But purpose of the Great Path is matter of debate

Irfan Habib	Was meant for only elite class (not for common people)
DK Chakraborty	Was equivalent of tank accompanying a typical Hindu temple where one takes ritual dip before entering temple

There are series of rooms along the eastern edge of buildings. One of them has well that may have supplied water to the tank

8. Dockyard

Huge Basin / Dockyard that was placed in centre of city & measured 770 feet in length & 120 feet wide & 15 feet deep with two openings on each side . Most probably it was used for docking ships ( but some historians feel that Basin was water reservoir for irrigation or for use of city )

9. Granaries

• Largest building at Mohenjodaro (150ft long 75ft wide 15ft high )
• Well ventilated
• Used to store surplus grains and indicate centralized control

10. Pottery

• Red and black pottery .
  • Red to paint the background and
  • Black colour to draw the designs of trees, birds , animals , human figures , other geometric patterns
• Mainly wheel made . Very few hand made

Use of pottery

• Utilitarian : Used in household purposes like storing water and food grains , cook food , eat food etc
• Decoration : Vessels with designs were for decoration purpose  

11. No temples

12. Cemeteries

• Disposal of the dead has been an important religious activity of the human group . This is because the attitude towards the dead is linked up with the human beliefs regarding this life & life after death. Harappan civilisation hasn’t yet yielded a monument for the dead who could equal Pyramids of Egypt or Royal Cemetery of the Mesopotamian city of Ur
• Archaeologists generally use certain strategies to find out whether there were social or economic differences among people living within a particular culture. These include studying burials. Some graves contain pottery and ornaments, perhaps indicating a belief that these could be used in the afterlife. Jewellery has been found in burials of both men and women. In some instances the dead were buried with copper mirrors. But on the whole, it appears that the Harappans did not believe in burying precious things with the dead
• Located at sites eg Harappa , Kalibangan , Lothal , Rakhigarhi & Surkotda. In this, Harappa has maximum burials and require particular study.
• Types of burials

Common	– Place body of deceased in extended position with head in north – Simple pit or Brick chamber – Grave goods include food, pottery , tools but they were never too lavish
Symbolic Burials	– With grave goods but no skeletons – Found at Kalibangan
Fractional burials	– Body exposed to elements & bones then gathered and buried – In Harappa & Mohenjodaro – These two sites also have urn burials – suggestive of cremation
Urn Burials	– Body burned and then ash placed in Urn and buried – In Harappa & Mohenjodaro
Multiple Burials	Of male & female Discovered at Lothal

• A study at Kalibangan show different kind of burials found at same settlement. This shows different kind of religious beliefs & practices even in the same settlement.

Side Topic : Water Management System of Indus Valley Civilization

• Ancient Indus Systems of sewerages and drainage that were developed & used in cities throughout Indus Region were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East
• Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets.

Mohenjodaro	– Almost all houses had private wells (700 wells found in city) – Great Bath also found there
Lothal	Port at the Arabian Sea with a dockyard
Dholavira	– System of water management was architectural marvel which was crucial in an area, which is prone to frequent droughts. – Rain water in the catchment areas of the two seasonal streams – Manhar and Mansar – was dammed and diverted to the large reservoirs within the city walls. – Apparently, there were 16 water reservoirs within the city walls, covering as much as 36 percent of the walled area.
Shortughai	Canal for irrigation of fields drawing water from nearby Kokcha river

This article deals with topic titled ‘Metal Sculpture .’ This is part of our series on ‘Culture’  . For more articles , you can click here

Introduction

• Lost wax (Cire-Perdu) technique is known to Indians since Indus Valley & bronze from 5,000 years
• Earliest Bronze sculpture is dancing girl from Mohenjodaro. Similar group of bronze statues have been discovered on archaeological excavation at Daimabad (Maharashtra) datable to 1500 BCE.
• Bronze sculptures & statues of Buddhist,hindu and deities of 2nd to 6th century have been found which were mainly used for ritual worship

Jain Images

• At Chausa (Bihar) , Bronze Images of Jain tirathankaras belonging to kushana period have been found
• Most remarkable is depiction of Adinath who is identified with long hairs (all other tirathankaras have short hairs)

Buddha Images

• Most metal Buddha images in North are in Abhayamudra
• Commonly found in UP& Bihar from Gupta & post gupta period & also in Maharashtra from Vakataka (Guptas & Vakatakas were contemporary)
• In Abhayamudra right hand is free so that drapery(cloth) clings to right side of body. Result is continuous flowing line on this side of figure. At level of ankles of Buddha figure the drapery makes curvilinear turn as it is held by hand
• Two such bronze statues are very famous  ie Sultanganj Buddha & Phopnar Vakataka Buddha
• Advantage of these- monks can carry them from one place to other as they are portable for purpose of worship

About Sultanganj Buddha

• Epitome of metal sculpture of that time
• Dated between 500-700 AD
• 2.3 m in height & 1 m wide , weighing 500 kg
• Made using lost wax technique

Utsava Murtis Tradition of South India

• In medieval times , this tradition emerged
• In this deity leaves the sanctum & becomes approachable to all
• Deity in many manifestations of human forms comes to street. Sometimes perform the journey to a place of pilgrimage or even to seashore to enjoy the breeze

Taalamana System of Tamil Nadu

• During Chola period from 10th to 12th century , Bronze Murthis became extremely popular
• Tradition of modelling followed in India & especially South India was entirely different from European tradition using Models
• In India , images were made using mnemonic technique . In this craftsmen were meant to memorise dhyana shaloka which describe the attributes of various goddesses and gods & they used taalamana system of measurement to essentially visualise image & then sculpt it out of their own imagination rather than using models
• Taalamana system of Iconography is derived from Shilpa Shastra
• Taalamana system is system of measurement by Taala (ie palm ) & scale of 1 taala to 10 taalas was used

Nataraja Image

• Most magnificent image in Bronze
• Nataraja represents Shiva in his cosmic Dance ie Dance with which he destroys and creates world
• One of the greatest icons created by man

What different things represent

1 . Ring of Cosmic Fire

• Oval Ring around original figure
• Represents cosmic fire which he uses to destroy the universe as part of cycle of destruction and creation
• Three edged but in 12 th century 5 edged were also produced

2 . Third Eye

• Represents his cosmic knowledge

3. Multiple arm

• Hindu deities are represented with multiple arms to represent their divine powers
• His four arms take different positions or hold symbolic objects showing his strength & constellation of skills

4. Cloth

• Veshti around waist
• Yogyopeeth ie Janeau across torso

5. Earrings

Right ear	Earring depicting Makara(=mythical water creature )
Left ear	Circular earring worn by women

• Represents Shiva’s male & female aspects (Ardhinarishwar)
• Half male half female form illustrating balance of male & female energies

6. Hands & different things in it

1 Left hand	Points downward => pointing sanctuary of the soul of the devotee
1 Right Hand	Open palm in Abhyamudra => worshipper needn’t fear
2 Right Hand	Damru => that Shiva beats to bring universe into creation
2 Left. Hand	Cosmic fire to end cycle of creation and destruction
Metted locks of Jatta	Reflect his role as yogi
Moon in Hair	Shiva is associated with moon in number of narratives

7. Feat & Apasmara

• Balancing on right leg & suppressing Apasmara (=demon of ignorance or forgetfulness)
• Left leg raised in Bhujangatrasita stance which represent kicking away veil of maya or illusion from devotees mind

Gupta Sculpture

This article deals with topic titled ‘Gupta Sculpture .’ This is part of our series on ‘Culture’  . For more articles , you can click here

Introduction

• Art and architecture becomes complex. The earlier designs displaying simple pleasures of life gave way to contemplative & spiritual vision.
• Many art historians prefer to call Gupta period Art as Religious Art.
  • Utilitarian during Harappan Civilisation to
  • Court Art during Maurayan Period
  • Religious Art during Gupta Period.
• Large scale temple construction took place.
• For the first time , a clear & distinctive development between Sculpture, Architecture & Painting can be seen.
• Major centres of Gupta art were
  • Sarnath
  • Mathura
  • Nalanda

1 . Sculpture at Dashawatara Temple Deogarh ( U.P.)

Sheshnag   Vishnu	– Sheshnaag Vishnu at Deogarh is important specimen of sculpture during Gupta Period – Headgear, ornamentation of Vishnu are important to notice
Sculpture on Lintel	– Lintel has detailed artistic sculpture on it – Geometric precision is noticeable.

2 . Sarnath Standing Budha

Already explained in other article. Refer here

3. Udayagiri Cave , Vidisha

• Great Boar (Varaha) at the entrance of Udayagiri Cave
• Here at entrance of one of the Cave, particularly powerful relief shows Vishnu in his boar incarnation rescuing the earth from waters

In the Udayagiri caves of Vidisha , Mukhalinga belonging to Gupta rule is also present

4. Terracotta

• Includes small figurines and plaques found at many places including Kaushambi, Rajghat, Bhita and Mathura
• These represent animals , ordinary people and gods & goddesses such as Durga, Kartikeya & Surya .
• Among the remarkable pieces of monumental terracotta sculpture are almost life size images of the goddesses Ganga and Yamuna found at Ahichchhatra . Such images were placed in temple niches

5. Bronze Sculpture

• Used Lost Wax Technique (aka Cire Perdue Method)
• Copper and Bronze images of Buddha found at many places especially Nalanda (Bihar)
• 2.3 m high Copper-Bronze Buddha image from Sultanganj (refer next article)
• Mehrauli Iron Pillar – Very interesting because first such thing & it hasn’t rusted yet.

Post Mauryan Sculpture

This article deals with topic titled ‘Post Mauryan Sculpture .’ This is part of our series on ‘Culture’  . For more articles , you can click here

Introduction

• In Post Mauryan Phase, Shungas, Kushanas & Satavahanas ruled. 
• This phase paved the way for different schools of sculpture (like Mathura School of Art, Gandhara School etc & these School of arts gave way to Temple architecture) 
• Factors which developed art and culture in this phase
  • Geographical expanse of respective kingdoms
  • Local available material
  • Local traditions of craftsmanship
  • Political requirements
  • Tastes of royalty (Satavahana queens gave donations to Buddhist monks in Western Ghats and various caves like Karle, Kanheri etc came up there)
  • Religious inclination of the dynasties (these three dynasties patronised Brahmanism but at the same time kept on patronising Buddhism and Jainism although not at that great scale as Ashoka)
• In this phase, although state patronage continued ( on lesser scale) but local players like Guilds and common people started to play important role in Art and Sculpture .
• In this age, different motifs of yakshas&  yakshis became very favourite. Shilabhanjika motif ie grasping the tree motif was very popular during this age

Kushana Period

• Art & sculpture developed in this period at great pace. This was beginning of Golden phase of Indian Art
• Kushana rule opened the gateway for active interaction of Indian Culture with those of Central & Eastern Asia . These further paved the way for exchange of ideas with other advanced traditions of ancient world like Graeco-Roman Traditions
• Development of various schools of art took place in this period
• Era of excellence in several fields including religion , philosophy & literature.
• Most important development took place in Buddhism . During Kushana rule , first major Schism took place in Buddhism when Buddhism divided to Hinayana & Mahayana . Mahayana provided  great impetus for development of sculpture because Buddha in this school can be shown in human form.  

Mathura & Gandhara school of Art

• Both Gandhara & Mathura were part of Kushana rule

• First Buddha appeared  in Mathura & later spread to other places including Gandhara
• Both developed under political hegemony of Kushanas
• In due course of time both schools merged

1 . Mathura School of Art

Origin	– In heartland of India & percolation of foreign influence was almost none. – No foreign influence,but later fertilised with Gandhara School – Initial development took place indigenously inspired by Yakshas
Material	Spotted red sandstone (from Sikri mines)
Features	– Mathura image makers didn’t  intend to sculpt anatomically correct Budha & were images were generally disproportionate. – Images were compositions of 32 major & 80 minor laksana. – Images were very inexpressive Buddha has been shown sitting cross legged. – Boldness in expression . Images express more of power & less  of compassion – Hair aren’t dressed. – Drapery and clothes are shown in simple manner – Images are mainly in Abhayamudra
Centes	Mathura, Sarnath, Kosambi
Images	– Buddha – Jain Tirathankaras – Images of hindu gods and goddesses like Vishnu, Shiva, Parvati, Kuber etc – Image of Emperors – most important being that of Kanishka
Patrons	Developed under Kushanas & Zenith during the Gupta period 325-600 AD

2. Gandhara School of Art

Origin	– Gandhara region is in North West of Subcontinent and Silk Road passes through it. Also it is on border of Subcontinent. Hence , ideas from different regions like from China, Greek, Roman, Persian kept on coming in this region. As a result of mixing of all ideas along with Indian ideas, totally different school came up here. – Strong Greeko-Roman influence- based on greco- roman norms (but influence of  Indian Traditions was strong as well) Also known as  Greco-Buddhist school of Art
Material	Black stone & Stucco
Features	– Closely connected with Mahayana Buddhism – Has distinct influence of old Greek School of Art. => It used the Indian themes but used the material (Stucco)  & ideas of Graeco -Romans – Main theme of this school was Buddha & Bodhisattvas.
Image Features	– Finer details and realistic images – Buddha carved out in various mudras – Curly/wavy hair,anatomically accurate,spatial depth. – Wrinkles on skin, compassion and muscular frame of body – Transparent garments , fold of garment very natural , flowing drapery Images are very expressive & muscularity of body is depicted very well (Greek gods are also depicted in masculine posture)  – Buddha is depicted like Greek God Apollo
Centres	Taxila,Begram, Bamiyan & Peshawar (Afghanistan & NW India)
Patrons	Shakas & Kushanas

Greek , Roman and Indian Influence

Greek	– Depiction of Buddha as a ‘man-god’ in Gandharan sculpture is inspired from Greek mythology. Greek sculpture believed in mythological and idealist statues, while the Roman sculpture was more realistic (Greek Sculptures = God | Roman Sculptures = Mainly used to make statues of Kings and Generals) – Stucco plaster, which was commonly used in Greek art, was widely used in Gandharan artwork – Wavy hair (Romans have adopted wavy hair from Greek) – Masculinity ( Greek gods were always shown muscular)
Roman	– Roman Sculpture developed from Greek Sculpture. Hence, there was large similarity in them but differences were visible as well. Drapery     Drapery of the robes on Buddha was also very similar to the drapery on Roman imperial statues. (refer image below)
Indian	– Jewelry indicated was Indian – Idea of Buddhism is Indian.

Mathura vs Gandhara School of Art

This type of question is very important for State Level PCS examinations.

	Mathura school	Gandhara school
Origin	No foreign influence & indigenous development (although  later cross fertilised with Gandhara schools )	Strong Greek-Roman influence . Graeco Buddhist school of art . Initially inspired by Hellenistic features.
Material used	Spotted red sandstone	Stucco
Religions	All 3 = Buddhism , Jainism & Hinduism	Only Buddhism
Image feature	– Not much attention to detailed sculpting – Buddha is stout	– Finer details – Realistic images – Buddha in various mudras
Area	Mathura, Kosambi	Taxila, Bagram, Bamiyan  etc
Patronage	Kushanas & later Guptas	Kushanas & Shakas

Amravati School of Art

During the time of Satavahanas , Amravati & Nagajunakonda developed as center of art popularly known as Amravati School of Art aka Vengi School of Art. 

Location	– Amravati is in Guntur dist of AP. – Aka Vengi School of Art & developed in lower valleys of Krishna -Godavari region
Patrons	Satavahans & Ischvakus
Material	White Marble
Place	Andhra Pradesh (Krishna -Godavari Valley)
Theme	– Buddha life & Jataka stories – Both Mahayana & Hinayana – There is emphasis on the narrative element with stories from the life of Buddha and Bodhisattva dominating such episodes relating to the Birth, the miracles, Enlightenment
Features	– Curly hairs of Buddha influenced by greeks – Kings,princes,palaces have got prominence – Its gateways has images of lion – Amravati figures are lean, beautiful, curvy & mobile even when resting (in this respect close to Gandhara) – Flowers & lotus motifs are carved frequently – Various postures create an interest in activities of each individual \- Most of sculptures are joyful. – Female figurines are made in different postures. Feminine beauty is better depicted in Amravati than in Mathura School of Art. – Amravati School of Art had a great influence on the later period sculpture of South India and even Sri Lanka & South East Asia.

Sarnath School

• Sarnath is place near Varanasi and is famous as place where Buddha delivered his first sermon
• Sarnath School developed much later than Gandhara & Mathura School and some scholars opine that development of Sarnath school is closely associated with the Gupta Period.
• It is also associated with Buddha (and Boddhisatvas are also shown)
  • Halo is very much developed . 
  • Hair are developed than Mathura (but lesser than Gandhara) – small dot like structure
  • Drapery isn’t developed – Flows are simple and not showing natural cloth like Gandhara . Almost transparent
  • Made of Red Sandstone
  • Calm & inner tranquility is shown
  • Very popular for preaching Buddha ie Dharmachakramudra is most common in this .
  • Here Stupa Architecture was very much different than other places like Sanchi . Eg Dhamekh Stupa & Chaukhandi Stupa both belonging to this school.

Mauryan Sculpture

This article deals with topic titled ‘Mauryan Sculpture .’ This is part of our series on ‘Culture’  . For more articles , you can click here

Introduction

• Dr.Ananda Coomarswamy  differentiated Mauryan sculpture to

Court Art	Palaces, Pillars & their capitals
Popular Art	Yakshas & Yakshinis, Pottery.

• Maurayan Empire has great role in promoting Indian Sculpture.
• Why Maurayans were Patronisers of Art & Architecture
  • Maurayans gave secured borders to India and in times of peace, art and architecture saw phenomenal growth.
  • Other reason was that because of such a huge area under control and surplus revenue, emperors could easily patronise art
  • Role of religion was also there. Pillars to spread message of Ashoka’s Dhamma & along with this, Stupas & Monastries came up due to spread of Buddhism.
• From Utilitarian Art of Indus Valley Civilization , in Maurayan Period it became Court Art.
• Uniformity in styles of pillar capital tells us that craftsmen were  from same region

Influence on Mauryan Art

Mainly influenced by two things

Religious influence	– Buddhism became most popular social & religious movement – Concept of religious sculpture prominent
Foreign Influence	– First three Mauryan emperors Chandragupta,Bindusara & Ashoka known to have friendly relations with Hellenistic west and Achaemenids of Iran – Adaptation of Achaemenids seen in Edicts & imperial palace of Pataliputra

Court art

It mainly consist of Edits and Pillars made by the royal court on the direct orders of king himself.

General Outline

Consist of

• Shaft : Monolithic & Freestanding
• Bell/Lotus Base : Act as Joint between pillar & capital
• Drum : On bell base. Can be rectangular, square or circular
• Capital : Placed on Drum eg Lion, Bull, 4 headed Lion etc.

General Features of Ashokan Pillars

• Inscriptions on Stone  ie Ashoka’s Message to his subjects
  • In middle of Pillars . If seen with bare eyes, these inscriptions cant be read properly. That is the reason , why Dhamma Mahamatras were there in Ashokan Period who periodically visited these places and read out the message of Emperor to people.
  • Mostly written in Brahmi Script and Pali or Prakrit Language. In North West , Greek language and Aramaic script was used.
  • Important to note that any Pillars don’t mention Ashoka but Devnampriya Priyadarshi

• Monolithic & free standing structures (ie without support)
  • All the Ashokan Pillars are carved out of single stone with no breaks
  • They are not supported with any material
  • Prof Jaiswal of BHU argues that many a times, these arent monolithic but joined and polished from above so that joints arent visible . Nevertheless most of them are monolithic.

• Use of Chunar Sandstone
  • Chunar is place in Mirzapur district & there are naturally existing mines of Sandstones there.
  • All the pillars were mined out of that place and transported to different places.

• Polished surface
  • Surface of these Pillars is very shiny and archeologists called it Polish
  • Actually it is mixture of animal fat with lime, gypsum and sandstone .

• Animal capitals
  • Every pillar has capital made of same stone

• Transportation Technique
  • Since these pillars are massive structure several feet in height and very heavy. In those days, transportation was not that effective as that of modern time
  • Inland navigation was used for this. River Ganga was used extensively. This is the reason that most of these pillars are found in Ganga Valley.

• They are placed either to mark a sacred site associated with Buddha’s life or to commemorate a great event. On many of these pillars are inscribed the famous edicts of Ashoka propagating the Dhamma (laws of the Buddha) or the imperial sermons of Ashoka to his people.
• Some were of spotted red and white sandstone from the region of Mathura, the others of buff colored fine grained hard sandstone usually with small black spots quarried in Chunar near Varanasi.The uniformity of style in the pillar capital suggests that they were all sculpted by the craftsmen from the same region.

Various Pillars

1 . Lion Capital

Place	Sarnath (now our national symbol without crowning wheel) Note :  there is one Lion capital similar to this at Sanchi too but that is not our national symbol because in it’s drum base  is different
Components	For all these are same 5 in number (now only 4 remains)
1.shaft	Broken into many parts now
2.Bell base	Artistic beauty and act as joint between pillar and capital
3.Drum on Bell Base	Circular in shape Has drum shape with 4 animals -elephant,horse,bull &lion
4Lions	– 4 voluminous roaring lion figures back to back – Indicate spread of dharma in all direction – Reminiscent of Persian tradition
5.crowning Element	– Dhammachakra, a large wheel – Lions originally supported this and it is important symbol of cosmic order; in Buddhism it represents Dhammachakraparivartan (first sermon by Buddha) – This wheel is lying in broken condition &displayed in museum

2. Pillar at Vaishali

How different	Only one lion capital
Direction of lions face	North
Why north	Direction buddha took on his last voyage
Location of pillar	Contiguous to site of monastery

3. Allahabad pillar

• First erected at Kausambhi (30km from Allahabad) capital of Koshala Kingdom
• Located inside Allahabad fort now
• Earlier inscriptions from Ashoka (Brahmi Language dated around 232 BC)
• Later inscriptions attributed to Samundragupta &  Jahangir
• Too has single lion capital

4. Lauriya-Nandangarh

Location	23km from Bettiah in West Champaran,Bihar
Feature	– Single lion capital – Hump and hind legs of lion go beyond abacus

5. Lauriya-Areraj

Location	East Champaran , Bihar
Speciality	Devoid of any capital

6. Rampurva

• Bull Capital in Rampurva ( Bihar)
• Presently, it is in Rashtrapati Bhavan

Comparison with Persian Pillars

• Most of the Colonist/Imperialist Historians gave theory that Indian Art was highly influenced by foreign Art & Ashokan Pillars were simply a copy of the Pillars of Persian Empire of Darius I because they wanted to show that Indians weren’t capable of such artistic endeavors . 
• Yes, these two types of pillars are of same period and ideas do match but we cant say that one is the simple copy of other. Idea of these pillars was very much prevalent in Persia & India both of which came in same cultural zone in those time but developed in both places  with local artistic craftsmanship. It cant be said that one copied from other.

Popular Art of Mauryans

1 . Yaksha & Yakshini

Yaksha	Nature spirits usually benevolent also known as fertility spirits
Yakshini	Female counterpart of male yaksha

• Both attend to Kubera ,hindu god of wealth who rules mythical Himalayan kingdom-Alaka
• They were deities of common people (ie symbolize common belief of people)  but gradually other religions took them into their fold
• Both caretaker of natural treasures
• Have prominent place in Hindu, Jain & Buddhist literature
• Most common element- polished surface & clear physiognomic details

2. Didarganj Yakshini

Place	– Didarganj (Bihar) – In Patna museum presently.
Material	Sandstone with polished surface ,reflecting sophistication in treatment
Features	– Tall, well built, well proportioned, free standing sculpture – Yakshini holds chauri (flywheel) in right hand & left hand is broken – Shows sculptures sensitivity towards round muscular female human body- folds of muscles are properly rendered & tightening of garment around belly creates effect of bulging belly. – Lower garment has been rendered with  great care. Each fold of garment on legs is shown by protruding lines clinging to legs ,which create transparent effect – Heaviness of torso is depicted by heavy breasts and impressive back

3. Elephant Sculpture

Place	– Dhauli near Bhubneshwar – There is rock-cut elephant above the Edicts which  is the earliest Buddhist sculpture of Odisha.
Features	– Represent fore-part of elephant carved over edicts of Ashoka – Different from animal figures surmounting pillar capitals – Fine delineation of bulky volume & living flesh, natural to that animal along with dignified movement and linear rhythm that has no parallel

4. Facades of Lomus Rishi cave

Place	Rock cut cave of Lomus rishi in Barabar Hills near Gaya,Bihar
Feature	Decorated with semicircular chaitya arch at entrance resembling that of wood work
Patronage	By Ashoka for Ajivika sect

5. Pottery

• Pottery is known as Northern Black Pottery Ware (NBPW)
• Black color was used
• Highly lustrous polish was used
• It was a Luxury ware showing maturity
• it shows highest level of pottery making
• Was considered precious item => because archaeologists found broken NBPW pottery that was repaired

Indus Valley Sculpture

This article deals with topic titled ‘Indus Valley Sculpture .’ This is part of our series on ‘Culture’  . For more articles , you can click here

Introduction

• The artists of that time surely had fine artistic sensibilities and a vivid imagination.
• Art found at Indus valley include sculpture,seals,pottery,gold jewelry,terracotta figures

Stone Sculpture

Stone statuaries found at Harappa and Mohenjodaro are excellent examples of handling three- dimensional volumes.

1 . Bearded Priest

• Made up of Steatite
• It is interpreted as Priest or priest king
• Features

Shawl	– Under right arm & covering left arm – Decorated with trefoil pattern (indicating embroidery was practiced commonly in Indus valley)
Eyes	Little elongated, and half-closed as in meditative concentration.
Nose	Well formed & medium sized
Mouth	Average sized
Moustache	Closed cut & short beard and whiskers
Ear	Resemble double shell
Armlet	On right hand & holes around neck indicating necklace

2. Male torso

Made of	Red Sandstone
Features	– Socket holes in neck & shoulders for attachment of head and arms – Shoulders well curbed & abdomen looks prominent – Balanced lines stand equal to beautiful art of Gandhara

Bronze Casting

• Lost wax technique was used .
• In bronze we find human as well as animal figures, the best example  being statue of a girl popularly titled ‘Dancing Girl’.
• Among animal figures in bronze  buffalo with its uplifted head, back & sweeping horns and the goat are of artistic merit.

Terracotta

• The Indus Valley people made terracotta images also but compared to the stone and bronze statues the terracotta representations of human form are crude in the Indus Valley. They are more realistic in Gujarat sites and Kalibangan.
• The most important among the Indus figures are those representing the mother goddess.  The repetition of this figure in exactly the same position would suggest that he was a deity.
• Toy carts with wheels, whistles, rattles, birds and animals, gamesmen and discs were also rendered in terracotta

Side Topic : Mother Goddess

• Necklace hanging over prominent breasts
• Most distinct feature- fan shaped head dress with cup like projection on each side
• Rest facial figures very crude & distant from being realistic
• Believed to be Goddess most probably linked to Fertility

Seals

• Archaeologists have discovered thousands of seals, usually made of steatite, and occasionally of agate, chert, copper, faience and terracotta, with beautiful figures of animals
• The purpose of producing seals was mainly commercial. It appears that the seals were also used as amulets, carried on the persons of their owners, perhaps as modern-day identity cards.
• The standard Harappan seal was a square plaque 2×2 square inches, usually made from the soft river stone, steatite
• Every seal is engraved in a pictographic script which is yet to be deciphered.
• They all bear a great variety of motifs, most often of animals including those of the bull, with or without the hump, the elephant, tiger, goat and also monsters. Sometimes trees or human figures were also depicted.

Side Topic : Pashupati Seal

• Most remarkable seal is  Pashupati Seal.
• This seal depicts
  • human figure seated cross-legged
  • An elephant & a tiger are depicted to right side of  seated figure, while on left a rhinoceros and a buffalo are seen.
  • two antelopes are shown below the seat.

Last Updated: April 2023 (Utilization of Public Funds)

Utilization of Public Funds

This article deals with the topic titled ‘Utilization of Public Funds .’ This is part of our series on ‘Ethics’. For more articles, you can click here.

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Introduction

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Problems in the Public Fund Utilization

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How the problem of misuse of Public Funds can be corrected 

Last Update: May 2023 (Quality of Service Delivery)

Quality of Service Delivery

This article deals with the topic titled ‘Quality of Service Delivery .’ This is part of our series on ‘Ethics’. For more articles, you can click here.

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Introduction

Public Services are the services delivered to the public by local, municipal, or federal governments. But in modern administration, Public service goes beyond the administrative functions of the governments and incorporates non-governmental organizations as a lot of public functions are delegated to private organizations.

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Understanding the Concept of Service Delivery

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Problems in Service Delivery

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Ways to Improve Service Delivery 

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Case Study of Helsinki

One example of good quality public service can be seen in the city of Helsinki, Finland.