This article deals with ‘Women Safety in India .’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.
Introduction
Women’s Safety includes various dimensions like sexual harassment in the workplace, rape, marital rape, dowry, acid attack etc.
India is the 4th most dangerous country in the world for women (Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Congo are ahead of India).
NCRB data (2019) shows that 88 rape cases are recorded daily in India.
In 2024, Women Trainee Doctor in Kolkata was brutally raped and killed while she was on a break after a long shift at her workplace (i.e. Hospital), leading to widespread outrage.
Factors aggravating & affecting women safety
1 . Socio-Economic-Cultural Factors
Patriarchal nature of society: Due to the patriarchal nature of Indian society, women are considered inferior to men leading to gender-based crimes like rape, domestic violence, workplace harassment etc. Furthermore, patriarchal attitudes also create barriers for women seeking help and support.
Objectification / Commodification of women: In Indian society, women are viewed as objects to be used for men’s pleasure. It leads to a disregard for their rights and safety.
Influence of “Western culture”: The encroachment of Western values like consumerism and hedonism has changed social norms as Indians have started prioritizing personal pleasure and self-gratification over the welfare of others.
2 . Institutional Failures
Poor enforcement of laws and present laws have various lacunae.
The poor conviction rate in crimes against women.
Slow criminal justice system
Inadequate gender sensitization of law enforcing agencies like police, judiciary etc.
3 . Lack of Reporting
Women don’t complain due to various reasons like women are afraid to speak out, lack of faith in the legal system, family pressure to keep quiet, complex and lengthy legal process etc.
4. Infra Gaps
Poorly lit urban spaces and inadequate police patrolling make it easy for criminals to hide and carry out their nefarious activities. Due to this, women who go out in the evening are more likely to become victims of crimes, such as sexual assault and molestation.
Note – Not only in physical spaces, but women are not safe in India, even in digital spaces (Internet).
Justice Verma Committee
Justice Verma Committee was formed after the horrific event of
Nirbhaya’s death.
Recommendations of the Committee
It rules out the death sentence for rape convicts.
Life Imprisonment in the case of rape should mean imprisonment for the entire natural life of the convict.
Stalking is to be viewed as a serious offence.
It observed that Law Enforcement Agencies are gender insensitive. Hence, an officer who doesn’t report an FIR or delays it for a rape case should be punished.
Marital rape should be made an offence under IPC.
Government Schemes in this regard
1 . Acts and Legal Measures
Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act 2013
Various provisions under IPC
States also have specific laws. Some states, like Maharashtra, have amended their statutes making their provisions more stringent. Under the new Shakti Act 2020, provisions include the death penalty for rape, a fine up to Rs 10 lakh on perpetrators of violence, an investigation to be completed within 15 days after an FIR is filed, the trial has to be completed within 30 days after the chargesheet is filed against an accused.
2 . Surakshit Nari, Sashakt Nari
The
following things have been done under this scheme
Panic Button has been introduced in Mobiles.
181 – Universal Women Helpline number has been started.
Himmat App: To raise SOS alert has been started.
CCTV Surveillance cameras have been installed in trains.
3. Sakhi-One Stop Centre Scheme
It provides support to women affected by violence.
Scheme offers Medical Aid, Police Assistance, Legal Aid, counselling and shelters.
4 . Transportation Schemes
Pink Auto initiative of Odisha: Pink autos drivershave undergone psychological tests and training.
Delhi: Special women’s compartment in Metro.
5. Faster Judiciary
Fast Track Court: Fast Track Courts have been established to deal exclusively with cases of women safety.
This article deals with ‘ Domestic Violence .’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.
Introduction
Domestic violence is the use of physical, sexual, emotional, psychological, or financial abuse by one person against another in an intimate relationship like marriage. This behaviour is used to gain power and control over the victim (woman) and can cause significant harm and fear.
It is also known as Intimate Partner Violence (IPV).
Forms of Domestic Violence
Physical Injury
– Includes slapping, kicking, hitting, beating etc. – It is the most visible form of Intimate Partner Violence.
Emotional Abuse
– Includes harassment, threats, verbal abuse, blaming and isolation etc. – It erodes a woman’s sense of self-worth.
Sexual Assault
– Includes touching or fondling, sexual coercion, wife swapping etc.
Causes of Domestic Violence
Dowry Demands: It can lead to physical & emotional abuse and even dowry death and bride burning.
The patriarchal structure of household where men claim ownership over women’s bodies, labour, reproductive rights and level of autonomy
Cultural acceptance of Intimate Partner Violence
Alcoholic husband.
Not having a male child
Legislative lacunae, as marital rape is not punishable under Indian law
Violence against young widows, esp. in rural areas, as they are cursed for their husband’s death
Under Reporting: Underreporting & non-reporting encourage partners to indulge more in this.
Erosion of the joint family structure has reduced the check on the spouse’s violent behaviour.
Lack of awareness of women’s rights and belief in women’s subordination perpetuates a low image of women.
Increasing stress has increased the instances of Intimate Partner Violence
Effects of Domestic Violence
Emotional distress & suicidal tendencies in women suffering from Intimate Partner Violence
Infringement of Fundamental Rights of women, including the Right to Life
Serious health problems: Injury, Unwanted Pregnancy etc.
Negative Impact on Children: Children of such parents also face psychological problems and live in an atmosphere of fear.
Act: Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005
The definition of Domestic Violence has been modified recently – it encompasses actual or threat of physical, sexual, verbal, emotional, and economic abuse, as well as harassment in the form of unlawful dowry demands made on the woman or her relatives.
It has widened the scope of the term WOMEN: The act now covers “live-in partners”, wives, sisters, widows, mothers, single women, and divorced women.
Right to SecureHousing, i.e. the right to live in a matrimonial or shared household, regardless of whether or not she has any ownership or rights.
The principle of Locus Standi doesn’t apply.
The state needs to create shelter homes for women who prefer not to stay in the shared household.
To fast-track the verdict, the first hearing should happen within 3 days after receiving the application, and the case should be disposed of in 60 days.
Protection Officers should be appointed to assist women with medical examination, legal aid etc.
The act has a provision of up to 1-year imprisonment.
Lacunae in the Act
Madras High Court Bench observed that it could be misused by the women to file frivolous cases.
A man can be booked under the act even if women feel she has been mentally harassed and verbally abused. But these terms are subjective.
The conviction rate in such cases is very low (just 3%).
Marital rape is not included in the definition of Domestic Violence.
There is no provision for the online filing of cases.
The number of protection officers appointed in the state is inadequate.
The law specifically targets men as being responsible for domestic violence and only recognizes women as being victims. This law fails to acknowledge the rights of male victims of domestic violence. In contrast, domestic violence laws in the Western world provide equal protection to both genders.
Therefore,
the present legal framework fails to address the issue of domestic violence
effectively. It places an excessive burden on men while denying them rights and
granting women numerous rights without holding them accountable.
Recent Judgement making it Gender Neutral
The Supreme Court has
declared that a female individual has the right to file a complaint against
another woman who she believes is responsible for domestic violence.
Reasoning of Court
Since the perpetrators and abettors of Domestic Violence can also be women, insulating them would frustrate the act’s objectives. Under this immunity, females and minors can continue to commit domestic Violence.
It discriminates between persons similarly situated and, thus, violates Article 14 of the Constitution.
Significance of the Change
It makes Domestic Violence gender-neutral.
However, there are concerns that it would encourage husbands to file countercases against their wives through their mothers or sisters.
This article deals with ‘ Honour Killing (UPSC) .’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here .
Introduction
According to Britannica , Honour Killing is the murder of a woman or girl by male family members. The killers justify their actions by claiming that the victim has brought dishonour upon the family name .
Reasons
Problem
of Honour killing is quite complex & reasons vary in different areas.
Feudal Mindset : woman
marrying outside her community brings dishonour to the family and it is better to kill them and set example
for others .
Strike against
Dalit Assertion especially when women is from OBC caste
& boy from Dalit caste .
Inter religious
marriages : Politicisation of matter
especially in UP and ‘Love Jihad’ campaign by Hindutva
ultra right wing.
Same Gotra Issue
in Haryana : In
Haryana, marriages between couples belonging to the same gotra are not recognised leading to incidents
of honour killing.
Law Commission of India observed that one of the reasons of honour
killing is change in economic
status of women
and taking a stand against the male-dominated culture.
Law regarding this
But, inspite of the
increase in the number of crimes in the name of honour there is
no definition of the crime
no protections legally afforded to couple
Special law like
Scheduled Caste/Scheduled Tribe Prevention of Atrocities Act could render some justice to the victims of honour
killings.
Judgements wrt Honour Killing
1 . Shakti Vahini Case (2018)
NGO Shakti Vahini filed PIL in Supreme Court.
Supreme Court gave various
guidelines to end honour killings like
State
Government should identify
districts where honour killing happened in last 5 years .
Khaps should not act as they are
conscience-keepers .
Police should help couples .
Safe Houses for
couples (1 month to 1 year) .
Fast Track
Courts should be made to decide case within 6 months .
Earlier Judgements regarding Honour Killings
2. Supreme Court Judgement on Khap Panchayats (2011)
In 2011, Supreme
Court termed
Khaps were termed as “kangaroo courts” .
They were declared them illegal .
Court wanted them to be stamped out
ruthlessly.
3. Lata Singh v. State of U.P.
Inter-caste marriages are in fact in the national interest as they will result in destroying the caste system.
4. Bhagwan Das v. Delhi (2011)
Supreme Court deemed honour killings in the “rarest of rare” category of crimes that deserve the death penalty.
This article deals with ‘ Triple Talaq .’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.
Introduction
Triple Talaq (also known as Talaq-e-Bidat) is a practice in which a man pronounces ‘talaq’ thrice in a sitting, or through the phone, or writes in a talaqnama or a text message and the divorce is considered immediate and irrevocable, even if the man later wishes to reconciliation.
The only way for the couple to go back to living together is through Nikah Halala and then return to her husband. In Nikah Halala, a divorced Muslim woman is required to wed another man and then obtain a divorce.
Then and only then will she be qualified to remarry her ex-husband.
In Shayara Bano v. Union of India (‘Triple Talaq case’), Supreme Court declared Triple Talaq as un-Islamic and “arbitrary”.
Why should Triple Talaq be banned?
Triple Talaq is not Essential Practice of Islam: It is not an Islamic Practice but social practice of Arab Society which has gradually crept into Islam.
Islamic countries such as Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco, Sudan, Syria, UAE and Yemen have made the concept of Triple Talaq unconstitutional & India must follow suit.
It infringes on the Right to Equality and the Right to Life of women.
Committee on the Status of Women (2012) has also recommended banning Triple Talaq and polygamy.
Arguments against Supreme Court’s interference in Triple Talaq
In Narasu Appa Mali’s (1952) Case, Supreme Court held that personal laws are not ‘laws for the purpose of Article 13.’ Hence, they can’t be scrutinised for violation of fundamental rights violations.
Religious practices are safeguarded under Article 25 of the Constitution.
Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Act
Timeline
1986: Shah Bano Case
Shah Bano Case was to decide whether the relief extended to divorced women under CrPC, 1973, applied to Muslims too. The Constitution bench decided that it extended to Muslim women as well.
1986
Shah Bano Act/Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act was enacted by the Rajiv Gandhi government to overturn the Supreme Court order. It held that divorced women were entitled to maintenance for the period of iddat (3 lunar cycles/menstruations) only.
2001
Daniel Latifi Case – Maintenance for a period of (only) iddat was challenged in the Supreme Court for violating Articles 14 & 21. Supreme Court held that this doesn’t violate Articles 14 & 21 as an intelligible difference can be made in this case.
2017
Shyara Bano Case: Supreme Court declared Triple Talaq to be unconstitutional.
Provisions of Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Act
Triple Talaq will not nullify the marriage.
The act makes Triple Talaq a criminal offence with imprisonment of up to 3 years.
The act shall be cognisable and non-bailable (i.e. police officers can arrest without a warrant.)
Principle of Locus Standii don’t apply: Complainant can be anybody – not just wife.
The Muslim woman who has been subject to Talaq is allowed to seek subsistence allowance from their husband for both herself and her dependent children. The Magistrate will determine how much the allowance will be.
Main Issues with the Act
Act converts a civil wrong into a criminal wrong as marriage is a civil contract.
Against the Doctrine of Proportionality and hence infringes on the Right to Equality. Under IPC, a 3-year jail term is for crimes like rioting.
Against principles of natural justice: Triple Talaq doesn’t nullify the marriage. Hence, when a crime is not committed, how can a person be punished for the act of crime?
Issue of implementation: The is challenging to implement, especially in cases of oral triple divorce given by husbands when no one other than the couple was present
Rise in divorces and abandonment: Issues remain as no husband, on his return from jail, is likely to retain the wife on whose complaint he had gone to prison.
In favour of the Criminalization of Triple Talaq
Triple Talaq has never been sanctioned, even in Islamic scripture. In Pakistan and Bangladesh too, which are Islamic countries, Triple Talaq is a criminal offence (with imprisonment of up to 1 year ).
The government’s intent is not to punish. The government argues that if nobody gives Triple Talaq, nobody gets punished.
Supreme Court judgment of 2017 recognized the discriminatory nature of Triple Talaq. The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Act 2019 offers Muslim women recourse and access to the protection of the law from the practice of arbitrary instant divorce.
This article deals with ‘ Women in Combat Forces .’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here .
In news because
2018: Government of India allowed women to occupy combat roles in all sections of the army, navy and air force.
2019: Sainik Schools opened for girls (Earlier, only boys could be admitted)
2020: In the Babita Punia case (2020), Supreme Court ordered the government to ensure that Women are allowed Permanent Commission in the Armed Forces. Till that time, women officers were recruited through the Short Service commission for 14 years.
2021: The Supreme Court authorised women to take the National Defence Academy entrance exam (NDA).
Current position of woman in Combat Forces
Despite
being inducted in the armed forces since the 1990s, women officers form a
meagre number in the total armed forces of the country. Currently, the
percentage of women in the Indian Forces
Army: 0.56%
Air Force: 1.08%
Navy: 6%
Earlier, Women officers were mainly inducted under the Short Service Commission (SCC), where they could serve a maximum of 14 years. Women were permanently commissioned only in the education, legal branches, medical, dental and nursing services.
In other countries as well, this issue is contentious. For example, countries such as UK and USA have been conservative about women in their respective combat arms. In contrast, others, like the Israeli Defense Forces, have achieved widespread integration of women.
Case study of Gunjan Saxena
Rationale for the decision to include Women in Forces
Unequal treatment of women leads to the infringement of
Right to Equality
Right to Freedom of Profession (Article 19(1)(g)).
Qualities required for a good soldier are taking responsibility for fellow soldiers, moral and mental toughness, being an expert in the use of a weapon, commitment etc., and women score better in these skills.
The best and fittest people should be taken, and the resource pool should not be limited to half by putting a blanket ban on women.
The landscape of modern warfare has changed with more sophisticated weapons, a focus on intelligence gathering and the emergence of cyberspace as the combat arena.
Granting Permanent Commission to women officers will make them eligible for full pension post their retirement, thereby securing their futures.
Concerns
Issue of acceptability of women as an officer by male jawans.
Concerns over women’s vulnerability in capture.
The combat roles are physically demanding.
Certain situations, such as pregnancy, can affect the deployability of women in combat.
It should not be a political gimmick.
In the name of Gender Equality, the security of the nation shouldn’t be put at risk.
This article deals with ‘Women in Politics .’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.
Introduction
Women have a very low status in the political scenario of the country. For example, the number of women in Parliament has never crossed the 20% mark till now.
Historically, women
were not considered fit for politics earlier. According to philosophers like
Kant, women have the inability to control emotions & thus, the inability to
be impartial & rational requires their exclusion from politics.
Steps taken to improve women representation in politics
73rd & 74th Constitutional Amendments to the constitution provide the reservation of 1/3rd of seats for women in Panchayati Raj Institutions.
108th Constitutional Amendment Bill was introduced in the Parliament to provide 1/3rd reservation for women in Lok Sabha
110th Constitutional Amendment Bill was introduced in the Parliament to reserve 50% of seats for women in Local Bodies
Pam Rajput Committee recommended 50% reservation of seats for women at all political levels.
Data on Women Representation in Politics
17th) Lok Sabha has 14.6% women representatives.
Rajya Sabha has 11% women representatives.
State Legislatures have just 9% women representation (some states like Nagaland have 0% women representation).
Case Study of Bhakti Sharma
Bhakti Sharma, sarpanch of Barkhedi Abdulla village, was just 25 years old when she left her job with an attractive package and post-graduate degree in political science to become sarpanch of her village.
She gives up her two months’ salary to each family where a girl child is born in the village.
In 2015, she was chosen as one of the 100 most popular women in the country.
Examples of Women in Indian Politics
Problems in the Reservation approach
One-size-fits-all policies designed in New Delhi backfire in states like Nagaland.
It would perpetuate the unequal status of women since their merit will always be questioned.
The right to choice of voters will be restricted as they will have limited choice.
Sarpanch Pati Syndrome: In many places, the concept of Sarpanch Pati has emerged where the woman is just the nominal sarpanch, whereas her husband is the real decision-making authority.
Reservation does not lead to real empowerment as seats are contested by women from wealthy families and business and political families.
Watch this video to know more about the phenomenon of Sarpanch Pati
Points in favour of reservation
Due to reservations in Panchayati Raj Institutions, a positive impact on governance is visible where women head them. Women representatives have contributed immensely in overcoming social taboos and constraints like removing ghunghat, sitting at the same height as men on chairs etc.
Though it begins with token equality that caused acute discomfort and even confrontation, women, especially Dalit women, have been able to push boundaries and create space in the decision-making sphere across all sectors.
The acts made by women are more gender-sensitive and are able to include female perspectives in them.
Last Updated: Jan 2025 (Feminization of Agriculture)
Table of Contents
Feminization of Agriculture
This article deals with ‘Feminization of Agriculture .’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.
Introduction
Feminization of agriculture means the increasing visibility and participation of women in agriculture.
Women constitute nearly 35 % of all agricultural workers (NSSO 2011-12).
However, they are joining agriculture as agrarian proletariat / labour class (& not as owners).
Historians and even M.S. Swaminathan believe that it was women who first domesticated crop plants and initiated the art and science of farming. While men went out hunting in search of food, women started gathering seeds from the native flora and cultivating those of interest from the point of view of food, feed, fodder, fibre and fuel.”
Reasons for Feminization of Agriculture
Migration of males from rural areas to cities leaving behind agricultural chores to women. This trend in the agriculture sector was most visible during 1999-2005, marked by declining agriculture growth rates which saw a distressed migration of male members to relatively better-paying jobs either in the urban informal economy or the agriculturally prosperous states.
Widowhood forces a woman to till the land to feed her family.
Has this led to women’s empowerment?
Yes, it has
It has
increased the participation of women in the workforce & helped them to
Acquire financial independence
Imbibe decision-making skills.
No, it hasn’t
Feminization of Agriculture is not an intended consequence but an unintended impact of distress migration.
Due to the patriarchal nature of society, they are referred to as flexible labours. Hence, they are joining the sector as an agrarian proletariat.
Although they participate in agriculture, they don’t have land rights (According to the agricultural census, 73.2% of rural women are engaged in farming activities, but only 12.8% own landholdings.)
Because of rural sector schemes like MGNREGA,men are migrating back, and women are again confined to domestic spheres (a phenomenon known as the ‘de-feminization of agriculture’).
Issues
Lack of Property Rights: Given India’s social and religious set-up, women do not generally enjoy equal property rights as their male counterparts. As a result, they are not guaranteed the rights they would otherwise be given if they were recognized as farmers, such as loans for cultivation, loan waivers, crop insurance, subsidies or even compensation to their families in cases where they commit suicide.
Women also have poor access to credit, irrigation, inputs, technology and markets.
Agricultural implements are designed for men.
What steps can government take in view of feminization of Agriculture ?
Gender-responsive agricultural budgets and policies are the need of the hour.
More property rights should be provided to women.
Machines like tractors should be specifically designed for women.
Women should be provided preferential membership in rural cooperatives.
Formation of Agricultural SHG for women.
Providing creche facilities to such women farmers.
At least 30% of budget allocation should be provided to women beneficiaries in all schemes & programs (including agriculture).
Low duty and tax if the land transfer is in a women’s name in some states like Punjab.
The government is promoting Women’s Agricultural Self-Help Groups (SHGs).
Side Topic: Defeminization of Agriculture
Due to schemes like MGNREGA, men who migrated to other areas in search of jobs have started returning. It has led to a reverse process known as the Defeminization of Agriculture.
Concept: Feminization of work
It has three
dimensions
When more females are working
When there is an increased concentration of women in certain jobs
When men start participating in the work that was traditionally the domain of women (Eg: cookery)
Last Updated: July 2025 (India-Maldives Relations)
Table of Contents
India-Maldives Relations
This article deals with ‘India-Maldives Relations.’ This is part of our series on ‘International Relations’ which is an important pillar of the GS-2 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.
Brief History
The archipelago of Maldives consists of 1192 islands, of which roughly 200 islands are inhabited with an estimated population of 430,000.
The Maldives was a British colony since the mid-1880s. The Maldives was important for Britishers to secure trade routes with India (the crown jewel of the British Empire).
India – Maldives formal relations began with Maldivian independence in 1965 when India became the first country to give formal recognition to the Maldives.
The first state-level visit happened in 1974 when President Ahmed Zaki of Maldives made an official visit to India.
Later, India saved the regime of Maumoon Abdul Gayoom under Operation Cactus from a Coup attempted by the Pro-Eelam group in 1998.
Key Players in Maldivian Politics
Mohammad Nasheed
He was elected democratically in 2008.
India and Maldives had a cordial relationship during President Nasheed’s tenure. He made his maiden international trip to India in 2008, and India promised a $100 million loan to improve the tourism industry in the Maldives.
But subsequent coup d’état in 2012 led to his fall. In 2013, he lost to Abdullah Yameen in a rigged election.
Abdullah Yameen
He came to power in rigged elections in 2013.
He started his autocratic rule and declared an emergency in 2015.
Later, he went close to China, posing a threat to Indian interests.
During President Yameen’s time in office, Male-New Delhi relations turned sour because of his pro-China stance.
Ibrahim Mohammad Solih
He was elected in 2018 as the new President after defeating Abdullah Yameen.
India’s engagement has significantly grown since President Solih came to power, particularly in development partnerships.
Narendra Modi had attended the swearing-in ceremony of President Solih.
India announced $1.4 billion in financial assistance to bail out its debt-trapped economy.
Solih also visited India on his first overseas trip since assuming the presidency (Dec 2018).
Mohammad Muizzu
He was elected in and is the present President
He came to power based on his ‘India Out’ campaign.
He is seen as pro-China and anti-India.
He has taken various steps which are inimical to Indian interests. These include
Withdrawing Indian defence personnel from the country.
Termination of Hydrographic Survey Agreement with India.
But the relations are improving, as PM Modi was invited as Chief Guest at the Maldives Independence Day Celebrations of 2025.
India-Maldives Cooperation
Strategic Importance
The strategic importance was realized for the first time during British rule. The Maldives is located just 700 km from the strategic Lakshadweep island chain, 1200 km from the Indian mainland and around major trade routes of India. Hence, Maldives is crucial for securing the trade routes of India.
India has various Military assets in the Maldives for surveillance purposes in the Indian Ocean, making Maldives part of our security grid. India and Maldives also cooperate to contain piracy in the region.
India has the ambition to be a ‘Net-security provider’ in the Indian Ocean region, and this calls for close military and naval ties with the Maldives.
50% of India’s external trade and 80% of her energy imports transit through the Sea Lanes of Communication (SLOCs) in the vicinity of Maldives.
Islamic State and Lashkar e Taiba are gaining ground in the Maldives due to the rise in Islamic fundamentalism and extremism.
Economic Relations
India and Maldives signed the Comprehensive Trade Agreement in 1981, after which trade flourished.
Bilateral trade between India and Maldives stands at US$ 289 million (2018).
While the exports from the Maldives to India are not of much significance, the imports to the Maldives from India quite substantial.
State Bank of India (SBI) is one of the major banks operating in the Maldives.
Taj Hotels of Tata Group are an important component of the tourism industry of Maldives.
Indian tourists also account for close to 6% of Maldives’ tourists each year.
Multilateral Cooperation
The Maldives has supported India’s permanent membership candidature at UNSC and has also voted in favour of India for a non-permanent seat for 2020-21.
Both India and Maldives are part of
SAARC
Indian Ocean Rim Association
Commonwealth
India and Maldives have always supported each other in multilateral platforms such as the UN, the Commonwealth, the NAM, and the SAARC.
Maldives is part of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), where Pakistan frequently raise its voice on the Kashmir Issue. Hence, Maldives is an important ally that plays a part in safeguarding Indian interests in OIC.
People-to-People Relations
Maldivian students attend educational institutions in India.
Maldivian patients fly to India for super-speciality healthcare.
India Cultural Centre (ICC) in Male was inaugurated in 2011, which conducts yoga, classical music, and dance courses.
Hindi commercial films, TV serials and music are immensely popular in the Maldives.
India has assisted in developing the following
Indira Gandhi Memorial Hospital
Maldives Institute of Technical Education (now called the Maldives Polytechnic)
Technology Adoption Programme in Education Sector in the Maldives
Indian Diaspora
22,000 Indians live in the Maldives, making it the second-largest expatriate community of Maldives.
25% of the doctors and teachers in the Maldives are Indians.
Other
Maldives is part of India’s ‘Neighbourhood First Policy.’
The Maldives was the first country to receive the Corona vaccine from India.
India has funded and assisted in forming and constructing the National College of Policing and Law Enforcement in the Maldives. It will help strengthen law enforcement and deal with drug trafficking and Islamic radicalization in the Maldives.
Maldives supports India’s candidature for permanent membership of an expanded and reformed UN.
In 2015, India launched Operation Neer to help the Maldives by providing water aid after a major fire broke out at the Male Water and Sewerage Company.
Indian Initiatives for the Maldives
India has announced $500 million assistance for the Greater Male Connectivity project (GMCP) to connect Male to three neighbouring islands – Villingili, Thilafushi and Gulhifahu islands. GMCP would be the largest civilian infrastructure project in the Maldives.
India also provides training to the Maldivian Defence Forces.
Major completed development assistance projects by India include Indira Gandhi Memorial Hospital, Maldives Institute of Technical Education, Construction of National Police Academy etc.
Grants for projects under High Impact Community Development Projects (HICDPs): These include ambulances, Convention Centre, drug rehabilitation centre, police station up-gradation, development of Addu Tourism zone etc., in the Maldives.
Water-Aid: India has provided large-scale assistance to the Maldives in the aftermath of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami and the 2014 Male water crisis under Operation Neer.
Mission Sagar: India launched Mission Sagar to provide assistance to Indian Ocean Region Nations during the Corona period. Under the project, INS Kesari was dispatched for Maldives, Mauritius, Seychelles, Madagascar and Comoros, to provide food items and COVID related medicines.
Issues in India-Maldives Relations
Chinese Presence
Maldives is part of China’s Maritime Silk Road (MSR).
The Maldives has provided a base to the Chinese Navy in the Indian Ocean, which has the potential to disturb the Balance of Power in the region.
China and Maldives signed a controversial Free Trade Agreement with China in 2017. But with the regime change, Maldives’ new government has decided to pull out of FTA with China, realizing the one-sided nature of the FTA).
The Maldives has earlier cancelled Infrastructure contracts given to Indian companies in favour of Chinese Companies (e.g., GMR’s contract for building Male’s Airport).
Chinese Debt Trap: Chinese loans are 1/4th of Maldivian GDP, which the Maldivian economy can’t service on its own.
GMR Issue
In 2012, Maldives annulled the $500 million contract with GMR Group to develop a modern International Airport near Male. Later the project was transferred to a Chinese company.
Growing Radicalization
Maldives has provided the maximum number of terrorists per capita to ISIS.
Radical Wahabi and Salafi ideologies are on the rise in the Maldives.
Growth in Anti-India Feelings
‘India Out Campaign‘ gained momentum in 2022 demanding Indian military personnel to leave the Maldives. The campaign started on social media but was later led by Yameen.
Uneasiness over Indian Military installations in the Maldives
Earlier, Maldives had asked India to withdraw 2 Indian ALHs operating in the Maldives.
Maldivian refused to extend visas of 26 Indian navy personnel.
Increased bonhomie with Pakistan during Abdullah Yameen’s (previous President) reign
During Pakistan’s Army Chief’s visit in 2018, Maldives announced joint patrolling with Pakistan Navy to guard Maldivian Exclusive Economic Zone challenging the Indian position in the region.
Way Forward
India should enhance investment cooperation with the Maldives.
India should pursue a ‘Free-Purse’ policy of aid with the Maldives to counter the Chinese plans in the country.
While dealing with smaller neighbours like the Maldives, India needs to become a lot more magnanimous, staying faithful to its own “Gujral Doctrine.”
SAARC and IORA should be used to work on lingering concerns.
To guide India-Maldives relations, five basic principles of Gujral doctrine are relevant to Nepal, Bangladesh, the Maldives and Sri Lanka, i.e. India would not ask for reciprocity but do all it could in good faith and trust.
Previous Year Questions
Discuss the geopolitical and geostrategic importance of Maldives for India with a focus on global trade and/energy flows. Further also discuss how this relationship affects India’s maritime security and regional stability amidst international competition? (GS Paper 2, 2024)
Last Update: September 2025 (India-Myanmar Relations)
Table of Contents
India-Myanmar Relations
This article deals with ‘India-Myanmar Relations.’ This is part of our series on ‘International Relations’, which is an important pillar of the GS-2 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.
Historical Bonds
Two Indian monks named Tapusa and Bhallika promoted Buddhism in the Myanmar region in ancient times. Ashoka, during his reign, also sent missionaries to Myanmar or Burma.
Rulers of Myanmar, since ancient times, have been majorly Kshatriyas, and their origins can be traced back to India.
Britishers exiled Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal Emperor, to Yangon in Myanmar and the Konbaung King of Myanmar to Ratnagiri.
When Britishers annexed Burma in the 19th century, they administered Burma as the province of India until 1937, when Burma was separated from British India and made a separate colony.
Yangon was once a centre for India’s independence struggle. General Aung San, Burma’s independence hero, was a close friend of Netaji.
In 1951, India and Burma established diplomatic relations in modern times through a treaty of friendship.
Importance of Myanmar for India
Myanmar is vital for India because
Myanmar is an integral part of India’s Act East Policy.
Myanmar can act as transit for North East.
It is the only Indian neighbour of ASEAN. Hence, Myanmar can serve as India’s Bridge to ASEAN.
1. Connectivity
It can be seen in the following aspects
1 . Bridge to ASEAN
Projects
in which Myanmar is important include
IMT Highway: Highway connecting Moreh in India to Mae Sot in Thailand and passing through India, Myanmar & Thailand.
BCIM Project: Bangladesh, China, India and Myanmar are part of this project.
2 . Important for connecting North East
Myanmar is essential for the connectivity of North-East India with the rest of the world.
The important projects in this regard include Kaladan Multimodal Transit Transport Project.
Side Topic: Kaladan Multimodal Transit Transport Project
Kaladan Multimodal Project can act as an alternate outlet for North Eastern states and an alternate route to connect to mainland India.
It will connect Kolkata (port) => Sittwe (port in Myanmar) => Paletwa (river port on Kaladan river) => Mizoram (via road).
The project will boost employment and lower the food prices in the region, but the intrusion into the area will threaten local heritage.
Side Topic: BCIM Corridor
BCIM Corridor will start from Kunming and end at Kolkata, passing through Bangladesh, China, India and Myanmar.
Southwest China is landlocked & poor. China hopes, the BCIM corridor will
Provide an outlet to Yunan province
Boost trade & tourism in the region
Thereby reducing poverty and extremism in its southwest region.
Advantages of BCIM
For Act East Policy and North East
BCIM project is in line with India’s Act East Policy.
Indian states of the North East will come into the mainstream.
It can help in containing insurgency in North East by providing economic prosperity.
Exploiting each other’s trade complementarities, i.e. China’s manufacturing, India’s Service sector, Bangladesh’s low-cost manufacturing and Myanmar’s cheap labour and raw material.
BCIM project will help in creating Energy Corridor as
South-West China (Yunan Province), Bangladesh, Myanmar and Assam have petroleum resources.
This region has vast potential for Hydro-Electric Energy.
It will lead to a revival of Kolkata port. Earlier, Kolkata’s importance was lost due to its unnatural isolation from its natural eastern neighbourhood.
It will help exploit a huge market as the region hosts nearly 50 crore people & a growing middle class with increasing per capita income.
Tourism in the region will get a boost as well.
Problems
Ethnic insurgency :
Fighting between Myanmar Army and ethnic Kokang rebels based near the Chinese border.
United Wa State Army runs a parallel government in North Eastern Myanmar.
Indian North Eastern states are themselves hit by insurgency.
China insists on making it part of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), and India is not part of BRI.
Due to this project, India’s trade deficit with China will increase further.
The region is also hit by communal violence involving Buddhists and Rohingya Muslims.
It will connect Moreh in Manipur to Mandalay in Myanmar to Mae Sot in Thailand.
India and Thailand have constructed their part. Only Myanmar is lagging because of political instability.
2. LNG / Energy
Myanmar has extensive reserves of natural gas.
Myanmar’s gas is attractive for India because
Proximity: Easy to transport via pipelines.
Untapped: Indian Companies like ONGC Videsh can buy a stake.
It can usher prosperity in North-Eastern states.
ONGC has already invested $1.6 billion in Myanmar gas for a 30% stake in Shwe gas fields.
Jubilant Energy and Reliance are also working in shallow water blocks in Myanmar.
Note: China is far ahead as Chinese investments in the energy sector in Myanmar has been $ 8 billion.
3. Trade & Investment Opportunities
Myanmar’s economy is opening up. Hence, there are immense investment opportunities for Indian companies.
India imports beans, pulses and forest products from Myanmar while it exports steel and pharmaceutical products to Myanmar.
Myanmar is also helpful in ‘Make Outside India’ because of Free Trade Access to ASEAN Market.
There are extensive untapped Natural Resources (oil, gas, teak, copper & gemstone) in Myanmar, which can aid the growth of the Indian economy.
Myanmar is the second-largest supplier of beans and pulses to India.
There has been a massive presence of Indian companies in Myanmar. Tata Motors has established a truck assembly plant in Magway. Apart from that, GMR, TVS motors, Birla Corporation, ITC hotels, Shree cement and Bharti Airtel are the notable Indian companies in Myanmar.
State Bank of India has also acquired the commercial license for banking purposes in Myanmar.
India is also trying to build a Buddhist circuit in association with Myanmar, where India intends to promote tourism and create jobs.
4. Security
Insurgents in North East, especially Naga groups, find safe havens in Myanmar where the border is not fenced and free movement of people is permitted due to the 16 Km Free Movement Regime.
In 2015, Indian troops reportedly crossed into Myanmar to target an NSCN (Khaplang) military camp. India & Myanmar are now helping each other in containing insurgency by not allowing insurgents to take shelter in each other’s territories.
Myanmar is a part of the Golden Triangle (Myanmar, Thailand and Laos) and has become an important transit country for illegal drug trafficking. In 2010, India and Myanmar established the Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty on criminal matters, which has emerged as the core legal instrument to address issues related to drug smuggling.
India has been a significant arms supplier to Myanmar. India has supplied T-55 tanks, transport planes and naval crafts to Myanmar.
In 2006, both concluded an MoU on intelligence sharing and training of Myanmar military personnel.
Side Topic: Rohingya Issue
Many Muslims were taken by the Britishers from Bengal to Burma from 1823 onwards when the British occupied the Rakhine state of Myanmar. After the independence of Burma in 1948, these Muslims stayed back in Burma. These are known as Rohingyas in Myanmar.
According to the 1982 Citizenship law of Myanmar, the Rohingyas were not recognized as an official ethnic group and, since then have become stateless in Myanmar.
In 2011, ethnic violence broke against the Rohingyas under a radical and rightist Buddhist monk known as Ashin Wirathu. It led to the mass exodus of Rohingyas to Bangladesh, India and Thailand. Those who remained in Myanmar were ghettoized and persecuted.
There are around 40,000 Rohingyas in India. The Indian government has decided to deport the Rohingya Muslims as
They have immigrated to India illegally.
These illegal immigrants, living majorly in Kashmir, are susceptible to recruitment by terrorist groups and thus constitute a security threat to India.
The influx of Rohingya Muslims to India also disturbs society’s demographic pattern and social, political, and cultural stability.
5. People to People Contacts
Buddhism reached Myanmar from India.
Both nations had excellent relations for centuries. Even during British colonialism, both Myanmar and India had almost a free movement of people & goods.
Many Tribes in the North East, like the Nagas, have a population on both sides of the border.
India has a two-million diaspora in Myanmar.
India was one of the first countries to send relief in response to the 2025 earthquake. India sent NDRF personnel and monetary and medical help.
6. Multilateral Engagements
ASEAN: Myanmar is the only ASEAN country that shares a land border with India.
BIMSTEC: Myanmar is a member of BIMSTEC.
India and Myanmar are part of the Mekong Ganga Cooperation.
SAARC: Myanmar was given the observer status in SAARC in August 2008.
Issue: China Factor
Myanmar shares a 2,100-km border with China.
Myanmar is part of OBOR, and China is building a following in Myanmar
Kyaukpyu port
Pipelines and Rail connecting Kyaukpyu to Yunan.
Myanmar is important to provide an outlet to the underdeveloped South Western Province (Yunan).
Energy: China has invested $ 8 billion in the Energy sector.
Debt Trap Diplomacy: China holds 40% of Myanmar’s debt.
Myanmar’s military equipment is 80% Chinese.
With Ethnic conflict going on in Myanmar & its porous borders with China, Myanmar requires Chinese assistance to cope with the situation.
Advantages of India over China in Myanmar
India prefers to give ‘Development & Human Capital Formation loans” while China indulges in ‘Debt Trap Diplomacy’.
India can help Myanmar in building up strong democratic institutions.
India is investing heavily in Myanmar. E.g., Sittwe Port and Kaladan Multimodal Project .
Both are part of Multilateral Forums like BIMSTEC and the Indian Ocean Rim Association.
Cultural Ties: India is the birthplace of Buddhism, and most of Myanmar’s population follow this tradition.
Constraints
1. Military Coupe
In a Coupe in February 2021, the Military (Tatmadaw) has taken the control into its hand and has placed “State Counsellor” Aung San Suu Kyi under house arrest. It was in response to her party’s landslide victory in the general elections in which the military-backed party was defeated badly.
In the absence of strong democracy, India cant invest freely in Myanmar. Apart from that, the coupe will strengthen the Chinese presence in Myanmar as Western pressure on Myanmar to restore democracy will force the military leaders to go near China.
2. Rohingya Problem
A large number of these refugees have also fled to India.
Sittwe port and Kaladan Multimodal Project also passes through Rakhine Province.
Due to state persecution of Rohingyas, an insurgent group in the firm of the Rakhine Rohingya Salvation Army has arisen.
3. Chinese Factor
China is investing in large projects in China as part of its ‘Debt Trap Diplomacy’. Ports like Kyaukpyu are alleged to be part of China’s String of Pearls strategy to contain India.
4. Project Delays
There is widespread discontent against India over continuing delay in the completion of flagship projects — Kaladan and the India-Myanmar-Thailand trilateral highway.
5. Insurgencies
India’s North-East is hit by insurgencies, making the completion of projects with Myanmar extremely difficult.
Sittwe port lies in the Rakhine province, which has been destabilised due to the Rohingya crisis.
Moreover, the Kaladan project is disrupted by the activities of the Arakan Army.
6. Economic Development
Myanmar is one of the poorest nations in Asia. Infrastructure in Myanmar is almost non-existent. Hence, Private Indian capitalists hesitate to invest.
This article deals with ‘Class System in India’ . This is part of our series on ‘Society’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you canclick here.
Introduction
Class is an economic concept which is decided by economic factors like income, wealth, and occupation of a person.
Before the arrival of the British, there were no vivid classes, as the caste system was the basis of social structure. The caste system was synonymous with the class system.
British rule & emergence of Class System
After
the arrival of the British class system developed in India due to
Agricultural reforms
Urbanization
Industrialization
Education
Agricultural Reform: After the arrival of
the Britishers, the Indian revenue system was overhauled into Ryotwari,
Mahalwari and Permanent system, which divided rural society into two classes
Zamindars & Mahajans
Farmers, Ryot, Small Animal Husbands and Landless Labourers
Industrialization and urbanizationdivided society into
Industrialists and investors
Labour class
Post-Independence
After
independence, the class system further developed in India due to reasons
like
Green revolution
IT revolution
LPG Reforms
Vocational education
After 1990 , even
three classes were subdivided thrice each
into lower, middle and upper.
Upper class(upper, middle and lower),
Lower class (upper, middle and lower
Middle class(upper, middle and lower)
Generally,
three classes broadly identified in India have the following characteristics
Upper Class: Those people who control and regulate wealth & investment and gain profit from wealth & investment.
Middle Class: Those people who do white collared jobs or are in technical or administrative sectors.
Lower Class: These people do unskilled or semi-skilled work.
Middle Class
The
middle class in India is decided mainly by three factors.
Income: Income ranges from Rs. 15,000 to 1.5 lakh/month. Income is such that basic requirements of life like food, housing, clothing, education and even entertainment are easily met.
Occupation: Middle class generally do white collared, technological or administrative jobs.
Education: They are well-educated and ambitious.
The
reasons for the expansion of the middle class in India are
Macaulay’s education policy
Industrialisation and urbanisation
Green revolution: Middle class created in OBC
Reservation and education: middle class in SC and STs
LPG reforms: middle class in women as a separate identity
Globalization: Middle class in states like Kerala, Punjab etc., with the help of remittances sent from abroad.
The
structure of the middle class in India is quite complex, and around 35 crore people come under it, double the
US population.
Importance of Middle Class
Initiator of Reforms: Historically, Middle Class has always been the initiator of reforms. French Revolution was the result of the Middle Class. Middle class acts as the opinion makers in the society and challenge the status quo.
Economic Development: Demands of the Middle Class are highest. Apart from that, they are the main tax contributors in the economy.
Political Accountability: Middle Class demands accountability, making government responsive and transparent.
Promotes the formation of human capital (as they spend on their children’s education).
But Indian Middle Class is criticized because
Self-Centric: The middle class is always interested in preserving and promoting their interests.
Self-Exclusivism: Instead of demanding accountability from the political system, they have started living in gated communities.
Not paying back to society: This is due to the fact that the middle class doesn’t accept that they have benefited from the highly subsidized education system.
Excessive indulgence: Middle class has indulged in excessive indulgence as consumerism has plagued it.
But
even after that, most social movements are led by the Middle Class.
