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Cooperative Federalism

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Cooperative Federalism

This article deals with ‘Cooperative Federalism – Indian Polity.’ This is part of our series on ‘Polity’ which is important pillar of GS-2 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here.

Introduction

The concept of federalism is where the governments at various levels, i.e., central, state, and local levels, work in synergy with each other for the larger public interest, bypassing the differences between them.

Some Obstacles to Cooperative Federalism in India

Proclamation of Emergency under Article 356: Post-1977, the arbitrary use of Article 356 to impose President’s Rule in states has been a persistent issue.
Union Dominance in Legislative Matters: The Union’s dominance in legislating over the concurrent list and its interference in the state list are also in special cases, such as while ratifying international agreements.
Governor Appointments without State Consultation: States have no say in the appointment of the Governor.
Centrally Sponsored Schemes: The imposition of centrally sponsored schemes under the ‘One-Size-Fits-All’ approach has been a source of tension. States often find themselves obligated to implement schemes without considering regional variations, leading to inefficiencies.
Fiscal Responsibility and Budgetary Management (FRBM) Act: Forcing states to follow the dictates of the Fiscal Responsibility and Budgetary Management (FRBM) Act before the basic public services of ordinary citizens in States are met.
Deployment of Paramilitary Forces without State Consent: Instances of deploying paramilitary forces in states without their consent, such as the use of central forces in Jammu and Kashmir
Enquiries against Chief Ministers for Personal Reasons: The initiation of inquiries against Chief Ministers for personal or political reasons has been a source of tension.
Non-Devolution of Powers to Local Governments: The reluctance of states to devolve powers to local governments, particularly in matters under Schedule XI & XII, remains a hurdle.

How can we achieve Cooperative Federalism?

Consensus Building: Encouraging dialogue and collaboration among states and the central government. For Example, The Goods and Services Tax (GST) was implemented after extensive deliberations and consensus-building among states.
Reactivation of the Inter-State Council: Strengthening the constitutional body will facilitate cooperative decision-making between the Centre and the States.
Protection of State Interests: Ensuring that on issues such as international treaties, World Trade Organisation obligations, or environmental concerns, the interests of affected states are safeguarded.
Greater devolution of power to states: Ideally, the Union should have only those powers which the state can’t handle and require national unity in the form of matters like defence, communication, foreign policy, etc.
Formation of NITI Aayog after scrapping Planning Commission. NITI Aayog has increased the participation of states in its functioning & decision-making.
States’ Involvement in Governor Appointments: Allowing states to have a say in the appointment and removal of Governors to enhance mutual respect
Reform of Schedule XI & XII: Abolish Schedule XI & XII & instead work towards a new local list outlining activities and sub-activities under Local Bodies within Schedule 7 itself.

Side Note: Reasons for the Rise of Cooperative Federalism post-LPG

End of single-party Rule at Centre & emergence of Coalition Politics: The era post-1990 witnessed a shift from a dominant single-party system to a more diversified and collaborative political landscape with multiple parties forming coalitions to govern
Judicial activism, exemplified by landmark cases such as the S R Bommai case, has been instrumental in preventing the Union government from misusing constitutional provisions. The judiciary, acting as the guardian of the Constitution, has consistently intervened to safeguard federal principles.
Active Media: The active role of media in the post-LPG era has contributed significantly to Cooperative Federalism. Informal and vigilant media have played a crucial role in bringing attention to instances where constitutional provisions are at risk of being manipulated for political gains.

Federal System

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Federal System

This article deals with ‘Federal System– Indian Polity.’ This is part of our series on ‘Polity’ which is important pillar of GS-2 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here.

Introduction

The idea of federalism as an organizing principle between different levels of a state is quite old. Greek city-states had it. Lichchhavi kingdom of northern India in the 6th century BCE is a celebrated example of a republican system. European Union is a recent example of the idea of federalism being implemented at a trans-national level.

The term “federation” is derived from the Latin word “foedus,” meaning treaty or agreement.
A federation can be formed in two ways.
- Integration, i.e. Coming Together Federation: When two or more weak states come together to form a strong union, e.g., USA.
- Disintegration, i.e. Holding Together Federation: When a Big unitary state is converted to a federation by granting autonomy to provinces, e.g., Canada and India.
Federal Polity is a system of governance in which sovereignty is constitutionally shared between the centre & states.

Federal system is adopted so that

The federal system is adopted so that

States & their diversity can flourish with autonomy.
For multicultural societies, federalism is an attractive option. It enables minorities to become majorities in sub-national units
Political Motives
- The Federal System provides security from external & internal threats.
- Additional central assistance, when required, can be provided by the centre in the Federal System.
Economic Motives
- The Federal System provides access to the larger national market
- Transfer of resources from other states in case of an underdeveloped state.
India has a Federal system, but the term federation is mentioned nowhere in the constitution; instead, Article 1 describes India as a Union of states

Federalism and Stability of State

Centralized administration often refuses to decentralize, thinking it will undermine its integrity. But the opposite is true. Decentralization leads to stability, and those who refuse to decentralize often crumble under their weight.

Difference between Federal and Unitary Government

Federal System	Unitary System
Federal Polity has a ‘dual government.’	Unitary Polity has a ‘single government.’
It has a written constitution (must)	It may have written (France) or unwritten (Britain) constitution.
There is a division of powers between the centre and the states	There is no division of power, as all the powers are vested in the centre
There is a supremacy of the constitution	Constitution may be supreme (Japan) or may not be (Britain)
Federal Polity has a rigid constitution	Unitary Polity may have a rigid or flexible constitution.
Federal Polity has an independent judiciary	Unitary Polity may or may not have an independent judiciary.
Federal Polity has bicameral legislature	Unitary Polity may have two houses (Britain) or one house (China)

Federal System in India

India is holding together federation different from the USA, which is coming together.
The holding together model was adopted for the sake of the unity of the country & national integration – The constituent assembly prescribed the federalist model so that the country could face the challenges of Centrifugal forces effectively.

Features of the Indian System of Federation

Dual Polity: India follows the concept of a dual polity, with the Union at the Centre and the States at the Periphery.
Division of Powers: There is a well-defined division of powers between the Union and the States, elucidated in the 7th Schedule of the Constitution.
Supremacy of the Constitution: The Indian Constitution establishes the supremacy of the Constitution itself. All laws must conform to its provisions, and any law inconsistent with the constitution is declared void.
Rigid Constitution: The constitution is rigid in its structure, and the method of amendment is also rigid. Provisions concerned with federal character can be amended by joint action of state and centre.
Independent Judiciary: The judiciary in India is independent and not under the influence of the Union government.
Bicameralism: The Indian Parliament follows a bicameral system, where the Rajya Sabha represents the states of the Indian Federation, and the Lok Sabha represents the Indian people as a whole.
Asymmetric Federalism: India has Asymmetric Federalism in the sense that the rights and responsibilities of all the states are not the same. The special nature and needs of certain regions are defined constitutionally via various sub-clauses of Article 371

Architect of the Indian Constitution, Baba Saheb Ambedkar, believed that for a culturally, ethnically and linguistically diverse and heterogeneous country like India, federalism was the ‘chief mark’, although with a strong unitary bias. This understanding, which was shared by Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Patel and other national leaders, stood at sharp variance with Gandhi’s idea of federalism, who was a votary of decentralization and devolution of power to the lowest unit of Panchayat.

All federal systems, including the American system, are placed in a tight mould of federalism. No matter the circumstances, it cannot change its form and shape. It can never be unitary. On the other hand, the Indian Constitution can be both unitary and federal according to the requirements of time and circumstances. In normal times, it is framed to work as a federal system. But in times of distress(e.g. National Emergency), it is designed to make it work as a unitary system.

Unitary features of the Indian Constitution

Strong Centre: The Indian Constitution leans towards a strong Centre, where the powers are tilted in favour of the Union.
Parliament’s Authority to Change State Boundaries: Parliament holds the unique power to alter state boundaries and names and even create new states.
Single Constitution for Union and States: Unlike other federations, India has a single constitution that governs the Union and the states. It ensures a unified legal framework throughout the country.
Flexible Process of Constitutional Amendment: The process of Constitutional Amendment is less rigid than found in other federations.
Inequality in State Representation in Rajya Sabha: The Rajya Sabha, the upper house of Parliament, does not guarantee equal representation for states.
Unitary Transition During Emergencies: In times of Emergency, the federal structure temporarily transforms into a unitary one. This shift occurs without the need for a formal Constitutional Amendment.
Single Citizenship: There is only single citizenship, i.e. citizenship of India, and no separate citizenship of states.
Unified Judiciary: There is a single judiciary with the Supreme Court at the top that enforces central and state laws.
All India Services: The creation of All India Services, such as the IAS, IPS, and IFS, is a unitary feature.
Integrated Audit Machinery. CAG audits accounts of both Central and State Governments but is appointed by the President only, and states have no say in his appointment or removal.
Office of Governor: The head of state, i.e., the Governor, is nominated by the President and is an agent of the centre in states.
Integrated Election Machinery: India maintains a single integrated election machinery for conducting both central and state elections.
President’s Absolute Veto: The President has an Absolute Veto over the State Bill if the Governor send any bill to the President for consideration.

Is India a federal state or a Unitary state?

India’s constitutional framework raises the intriguing question: Is India a federal or unitary state? The answer lies in the nuanced understanding of the features embedded in the Indian Constitution.

Although there are large unfederal features that are essentially incorporated for the unity and integrity of the country, it is equally important to recognize that all the fundamental federal features are present in the Constitution. The presence of strong unitary elements has led some scholars to categorize India as a “Quasi-federal” state.
Although Article 1 states that India is a Union of states, this doesn’t mean India isn’t a federation. No particular significance is to be attached to the word union because the word union is used in the Preamble of the USA, too, and citing this, BR Ambedkar said the description of India as a Union, although it is a Federation, does no violence to its usage.
At the time of Independence, traumatized by the partition and violence, the Constituent Assembly wanted to ensure the unity and integrity of the new nation. Hence, the framework departed significantly from all existing models of federalism.

When India adopted this system, In the absence of any track record of India in federalism and the tendency to compare all federal states with the US model, jurists found it difficult to certify that the system was indeed federal. It was therefore declared ‘Quasi-Federal’. This description is no longer valid today because the federal principle has taken root and further developed on Indian soil.

After the 73rd & 74th Amendments & formation of the Panchayati Raj, a new era was started in the chapter of Indian Federalism.

Parliamentary System

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Parliamentary System

This article deals with ‘Parliamentary System– Indian Polity.’ This is part of our series on ‘Polity’ which is important pillar of GS-2 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here.

Introduction

In India, there is a Parliamentary form of government at the State and Centre levels.

Centre	Article 74 and Article 75 speak about it.
State	Article 163 and Article 164 speak about it.

Definition of Parliamentary System

Government in which the Executive is responsible to the Legislature for its policies is known as Parliamentary System of Government.

It is also known as

Cabinet System
Responsible Government
Westminster Model of Government

Features of the Parliamentary System

The President is the nominal (de jure) head, while the Prime Minister is the real (de facto) Executive.
The Party, which secures a majority of seats in Lok Sabha, forms the government.
Ministers are collectively responsible to Parliament (i.e. they swim and sink together).
Usually, members of the Council of Ministers belong to the same Political party and hence share the same ideology.
There is a double membership. Ministers are members of the Executive and legislature.
The Prime Minister plays a leadership role, and he is the leader of the council.
President can dissolve the lower House on the recommendation of the Prime Minister.

Merits of the Parliamentary System

Harmony between the Legislature and Executive as members of Executive are members of the Legislature, too.
Government is responsible as it is answerable to Parliament for acts of omission and commission.
Prevents despotism as Executive is controlled by various tools like No Confidence Motion, Zero Hour Discussion etc.
There is ready alternate government if no-confidence motion is passed against the ruling party.
It provides broad representation as the Executive consists of a variety of members

Demerits of the Parliamentary System

The government is unstable and stands at the mercy of Legislators.
There is no continuity of policies. When government changes, policies also change, which is bad for the economy.
The government can become autocratic if the ruling party enjoys an absolute majority.
It is against the Principle of Separation of Power.
It is not conducive to administrative efficiency as ministers are not experts in their fields.

Why did India Choose the Parliamentary System?

Historical Continuity: Familiarity with the system due to its presence in British India.
Emphasis on Responsibility: Preference was given to the system that prioritizes responsibility over stability.
Recognition of the need to avoid the Legislative-Executive divide, which was necessary for an immature democracy like that of India
Fear of an Overly Strong Executive: Constituent Assembly feared too strong Executive
Representation in a Diverse Society: In a diverse society like India, this system provides representation to more diverse groups in the Executive
Avoidance of Personality Cult: The alternative to the Parliamentary Executive was a Presidential form of government. However, the Presidential Executive puts much emphasis on the President. There is always danger of a personality cult.

Indian System is different from British System

India Parliamentary System	British Parliamentary System
Republican system	Monarchial system
Parliament is not supreme and enjoys limited and restricted powers due to the written constitution, judicial review and fundamental rights	It is based on the Doctrine of Sovereignty of Parliament
PM can be a member of any of the two houses	PM should be a member of the Lower house
Non-MP can be appointed as a Minister, but he has to acquire membership within 6 months	MP alone can be appointed as Minister
There is no legal responsibility of the Minister	The legal responsibility of the Minister is present
There is no Shadow Cabinet	Shadow Cabinet is present

Features of the (American) Presidential System

The President in the American Presidential System holds a dual role as both the head of state and head of government.
President is elected by the electoral college for 4 years and can be removed by impeachment.
President governs with help of his secretaries who are not elected and are answerable to him only.
Advice of secretaries not binding on the President
The President and his secretaries are neither answerable to the Congress nor have any membership.
The American Presidential System operates on the fundamental principle of the separation of powers in which the executive, legislature & judiciary are independent & separate.

Should India switch over to Presidential System?

Question of changing over to Presidential System has been raised various times

1956	Nehru himself expressed his doubts about whether the Parliamentary System could meet the needs of the times and the complexities of modern administration.
1960s	The desirability of a switch-over to the Presidential system was discussed & several eminent men, including a person like JRD Tata, advocated a Presidential system for India.
1967	After Nehru, Congress’s monopoly of power began to be eroded at the level of States. The Presidential model is described as a remedy for all of India’s ills.
Indira’s Reign	Demand became the most prominent

Arguments against

This issue was sufficiently discussed in the Constituent Assembly, and it made an informed choice after considering both the British and American models.
It would violate the ‘basic structure‘ of the Constitution.
Presidential system centralises power in one individual unlike the Parliamentary System, where Prime Minister is first among equals.
A diverse country like India can only function with consensus-building. But the Presidential System works on a “winner takes it all” approach.
‘Outside’ talent can be brought into a parliamentary system, too. Examples: C.D. Deshmukh, T.A. Pai, Manmohan Singh etc.

Arguments in flavor

There is no genuine separation of powers as the legislature cannot truly hold the executive accountable since the government wields the majority in the House.
During the time of the coalition government, the government is unstable and stands at the mercy of MPs & MLAs
Cabinet posts would not be limited to those who are electable rather than able. Experts can become ministers/secretaries.
Fear that an elected President could become a Caesar/Authoritarian is ill-founded since the President’s power would be balanced by the legislature (including Rajya Sabha)
It is good for diverse country like India because to get Bills passed, President instead of facing a monolithic opposition, would have the opportunity to build issue-based coalitions on different issues.
The Parliamentary system was taken from Britain, but conditions similar to Britain do not exist in India. It requires the existence of clearly defined political parties, whereas, in India, a party is all too often a label of convenience.

The Present Parliamentary System has been tried and tested for nearly 70 years. As a famous saying goes – Why fix a thing which isn’t broken? Rather than changing the system, we should reform thoroughly and cleanse the electoral processes.

Leather Industry

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Leather Industry

This article deals with the ‘ Leather Industry.’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

Since immemorial, leather has had universal appeal because of its aesthetic and functional properties.

Main considerations in the Leather Industry

Raw Material: The hides and skin of cows, goats, sheep, and buffaloes serve as the primary raw materials for the leather industry. India, being one of the largest producers of livestock, provides a substantial supply of raw hides and skins.
Water: Water is a vital component in the tanning process, where raw hides are treated to become leather. Tanneries are often established near rivers or lakes to ensure a continuous and sufficient water supply. For instance, tanneries in Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, utilize the water from the Ganges River.
Labour Availability: The leather industry is labour-intensive, involving various stages like cleaning, dyeing, cutting, and stitching. It requires huge numbers of skilled and unskilled labourers.
Concentrated Demand: The presence of a concentrated demand for leather products, both domestically and internationally, plays a crucial role in shaping the leather industry.

Reasons: UP has a well developed Leather Industry

Historical Factor: The rich history of Mughal patronage in the region played a significant role in developing leather craftsmanship in UP.
Water Availability: Major leather centres like Kanpur are strategically located along the banks of the Ganga River.
Demand:
- UP is one of the most populous regions in India. The high population density creates a consistent demand for leather products like footwear.
- UP has a well-developed sports industry, and leather is an essential material used in sports equipment manufacturing—for instance, cricket balls and footballs.
- The proximity of UP to Haryana, a state with a robust automobile industry, creates a leather market for car seats and interiors.
Government Policies: Supportive government policies, subsidies, and initiatives have encouraged entrepreneurs and investors to establish and expand leather-related businesses in UP.

Reasons: Why is Tamil Nadu a significant Leather Industry?

Historical Reason: Tamil Nadu’s leather industry has historical roots as the British colonialists initiated leather production in the region to meet the military needs (boots, belts, etc.)
Abundant Water Resources: The presence of rivers like Cauvery and Palar ensures a consistent water supply.
Access to Market: Proximity to major automobile manufacturing centres, especially in Chennai, provides a ready market for leather products used in automobile interiors.
Skilled Workforce: The state boasts a skilled workforce proficient in leather craftsmanship.
Government Initiatives and Support: The Tamil Nadu government has implemented various policies and initiatives, like the Tamil Nadu Leather Development Corporation, to promote the growth of the leather industry.

Reasons: Why is West Bengal a significant Leather Industry?

Historical Reasons: During World War II, the soaring demand for army boots and belts acted as a catalyst for the leather industry in West Bengal. Consequently, Bata has also set up their plant in West Bengal at the place now known as Batanagar (in 24 South Pargana)
Cheap Labour: West Bengal and its neighbouring states, such as Bihar, provide a vast pool of skilled and unskilled workers at competitive wages.
Fresh Water: West Bengal benefits from the presence of the Hugli River, providing a consistent and ample supply of fresh water required for leather manufacturing
Market
Domestic Demand: West Bengal, a populous state with a growing economy, offers a robust domestic market for leather products.
Port Facilities: West Bengal has strategic ports such as Kolkata Port and Haldia Port. These ports facilitate the export of leather products to international markets.

Problems of Leather Industry

Inadequate Supply of Hide and Low Hide Quality:

Cultural Factors: In India, cattle are considered sacred and a source of wealth. Unlike the US and other Western countries, Indians do not sell their cattle for slaughter.
Laws on Cow Slaughter: Several states have imposed bans on beef and cow slaughter, negatively impacting the leather industry.
Right-Wing Vigilantism: Right-wing vigilantism frequently harms people from castes involved in flaying, leading many to abandon the profession, causing difficulties when cattle die and need to be flayed.
Poor Quality Hide: Flaying, considered polluting work, is done by lower caste individuals without proper scientific equipment, resulting in lower hide quality.

Problems with Tanning:

Tanning Pollution: Tanning, done with Chromium salt and sulfides, pollutes rivers when untreated wastewater is dumped, rendering the water unsuitable for drinking and commercial purposes.

Competition from China:

During the 1980s and 90s, the US leather industry moved to China due to strict environmental laws, enabling China to acquire US technology and capital.

The dominance of MSMEs

In India, Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) dominate the leather sector, making it challenging to compete with global players.

Lower Demand:

Religious Considerations: Religious beliefs in India affect leather usage, leading to lower demand for leather products.
Climatic Conditions: Warm weather makes leather jackets and garments unsuitable, affecting demand.
Price Consciousness: Indian consumers prefer cheaper synthetic substitutes due to price consciousness.

Jute Industry (in India and World)

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Jute Industry (in India and World)

This article deals with the ‘ Jute Industry (in India and World) .’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Jute Industry

India is the major producer of jute, along with Bangladesh. China and Pakistan are other notable producers.

Bangladesh: Bangladesh is the world’s largest producer of jute. The jute industry is a vital sector of their economy, employing millions.
India:
- West Bengal: The majority of India’s jute mills are concentrated in West Bengal
- Andhra Pradesh: Andhra Pradesh also has a significant jute industry.
China: China also has a notable jute industry, with mills in cities like Nantong and Qingdao.
Pakistan: Pakistan has a smaller but significant jute industry, mainly centred around cities like Karachi and Lahore.

Jute Industry is mostly located in India & in India concentrated in West Bengal. WHY?

Raw material: The majority of jute is cultivated in West Bengal. The favourable climate and soil conditions in this region are ideal for jute cultivation.
Energy: Proximity to coal mines in Raniganj and Jharia provides a stable energy source for jute processing.
Water: Jute processing requires substantial amounts of water. The Hooghly River (a distributary of the Ganges) in West Bengal ensures a reliable and abundant water supply for the jute mills.
Cheap Labour: West Bengal, along with states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, provides a large pool of skilled and unskilled labour at relatively low wages.
Capital: Kolkata, the capital of West Bengal, had well-established banking and financial facilities during the British colonial period.

Problems faced by Jute Industry

Geographical Disadvantages: After partition, jute mills remained in India while the prime jute-producing regions ended up in Bangladesh.
Intense Competition from Bangladesh: Bangladesh adopted modern technology in jute production, thus reducing production costs and making their products more competitive in the global market.
Labour Union Problems: Frequent strikes and disputes in jute mills hindered regular operations, affecting overall productivity.
Competition from Synthetic Packing: The growing usage of synthetic materials for packaging has decreased the demand for jute products.
Lack of Marketing Strategy for Eco-Friendly Appeal: There are insufficient efforts in promoting jute as an eco-friendly and biodegradable material in international markets.

Woolen Industry (in India and World)

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Woolen Industry (in India and World)

This article deals with the ‘ Woolen Industry (in India and World) .’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Woolen Industry

Major wool producers include

Australia

Australia is the largest wool producer.
Australian Merino sheep are renowned for their fine wool quality.

New Zealand

New Zealand is another prominent wool-producing nation.
New Zealand wool is valued for its softness.

South Africa

The country has a substantial sheep farming industry.
South African wool is recognized for its durability.

Argentina

Argentina, particularly the interior and rain shadow areas of Patagonia, is a significant wool producer.

Location Factors for Woolen Industry

Climate: Temperate and semi-arid conditions are conducive to sheep farming and wool production.
Abundant Grazing Land: Vast expanses of grasslands and grazing areas are conducive for sheep farming activities.
Sheep Breeds: Specialized sheep breeds, like Merino sheep in Australia, have been developed over the years to produce high-quality wool efficiently.
Traditional Livelihood: Sheep farming has been a traditional livelihood in regions like Australia, New Zealand, Patagonia (Argentina), etc., and passed down through generations.

Decline of Woolen Industry in the Great Britain

During the Industrial Revolution, Yorkshire emerged as a significant hub for woollen textile production due to:

Abundant local supply of wool
Access to water from nearby streams
Availability of coal for powering machines

However, the Yorkshire woolen industry declined. It can be attributed to:

The commencement of large-scale sheep rearing in the South Hemisphere (SH) made it challenging for Yorkshire to compete in terms of pricing.
Introduction of cheaper synthetic fabrics, which the Yorkshire industry couldn’t compete with.

As a consequence, the industry in Yorkshire suffered, leading to its downfall. Yorkshire’s woolen industry still uses imported wool from the South Hemisphere, but it has lost its former glory.

Indian Woolen Industry

Factors influencing Woolen Industry in India

Nature of Raw Material: The location of raw material sources is not crucial as wool is non-perishable and lightweight.
Market Conditions: Winters in Northern India are extremely cold, fostering a high demand for woolen products. Approximately 75% of the woolen industry is concentrated in the northern states.

Important Note

Apparels: Imported wool is preferred due to the coarseness of Indian wool, which can cause discomfort.
Non-Apparels: Indian wool is utilized for making carpets and blankets.

Major centres in India

Near Raw Material

J&K	Srinagar
Punjab	Ludhiana, Dhariwal, Amritsar
Gujarat	Jamnagar (raw material from Kathiawar)
Rajasthan	Bikaner & Barmer

Near Market

J&K	Srinagar
Punjab	Ludhiana, Dhariwal, Amritsar
Kanpur	1870: Woollen textile setup to meet requirement of British Indian army
Mumbai & Chennai	They mostly utilize imported wool for making apparels

Silk Industry (in India and World)

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Silk Industry (in India and World)

This article deals with the ‘ Silk Industry (in India and World).’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Location Factors of the Silk Industry

Cheap Labour: Historically and even in contemporary times, the silk industry heavily relies on cheap skilled labour, particularly women, due to their dexterity and precision required in the delicate process of silk production. Cheaper labour reduces production costs significantly, making it economically viable for manufacturers.
Proximity to Mulberry Farms: Silk-producing units are often located near mulberry farms to reduce transportation costs and ensure a constant supply of leaves for the silkworms.
Climatic Conditions: Silkworms require a specific temperature range for their growth and cocoon formation. Regions with moderate temperatures and high humidity are conducive to sericulture. Extreme cold or hot climates are unsuitable.
Well-Drained Soil: Silkworms are susceptible to diseases in waterlogged soil.
Water Availability: The silk industry requires a significant amount of water, both for mulberry cultivation and for the rearing of silkworms.
Government Support: Government policies, subsidies, and incentives play a vital role in the growth of the silk industry.
Transportation and Connectivity: Good transportation infrastructure, including roads, railways, and ports, facilitates the movement of raw silk and finished products. Well-connected regions have a competitive advantage.

Side Topic: Silk Formation Process

India and Silk Industry

India is home to various types of silk, including Mulberry, Tasar, Oak Tasar, Eri, and Muga. Among these varieties, Mulberry silk dominates, constituting 74% of the total silk production.

Major Producers include

Mulberry Silk	Mainly in Southern states 1. Karnataka 2. Tamil Nadu 3. Andhra Pradesh
Non-Mulberry Silk	1. Jharkhand 2. Chhattisgarh 3. Odisha 4. North East

Importance of Silk Industry in India?

Women-Friendly Occupation: The Silk Industry in India is a women-friendly occupation, with women consisting of more than 60% of the total workforce.
Ideal for upliftment of Weaker Sections in Rural Areas: This industry is an ideal program for weaker sections in rural areas due to its low capital intensity and short gestation period.
Eco-friendly activity: As a perennial crop with good foliage and root spread, Mulberry contributes to soil conservation. Waste from silkworm rearing can be recycled as inputs to the garden.
Fulfil equity concerns: As end-product users are mostly from the higher economic groups, the money flows from high-end groups to low-end groups.
Export Potential: India’s Silk Industry has significant export potential, allowing the country to earn foreign currency.

Challenges faced by Indian Silk Industry

Decreased Export Revenue: The Indian Silk Industry has been grappling with a decline in export earnings, primarily caused by the global recession and diminished demand for silk products in Western nations.
Intense Price Competition: Intensified price competition due to the incorporation of low-cost Chinese silk or artificial/synthetic silk yarns has forced natural silk traders to resort to distress sales to remain competitive.
Reduction in Cultivated Area: The cultivation of mulberry silk has suffered due to a consistent reduction in the area of mulberry cultivation.

India is a leading producer. WHY?

Raw Material: India’s leading silk production is facilitated by the cultivation of mulberry plants. These plants can be grown on any soil type, including hill slopes and have a high tolerance for drought conditions.
Labour: Sericulture does not demand hard physical labour. Silkworms, the critical players in silk production, can be reared by individuals, especially women and older people, making them an ideal source of supplementary income for households.
Low Capital Requirement: Sericulture requires minimal capital investment. This affordability enables tribals and impoverished sections to engage in silk production, boosting their economic prospects.
High Demand: In India, the demand for silk consistently exceeds the domestic supply. This demand-supply gap necessitates the import of silk to meet the market requirements.

Karnataka has a well-developed Silk industry. WHY?

Karnataka’s thriving silk industry has prospered due to several factors.

Raw Material:

Mulberry thrives in Karnataka’s climate, making it readily available for sericulture.
Karnataka utilizes the Bombax variety of silkworms, which can be reared throughout the year with a high yield.

Water Supply:

Karnataka benefits from an abundant supply of soft water, which is crucial for silk production.

Labour Force:

Women play a significant role in rearing silk worms, contributing to the labor force involved in silk production.

Capital Investment:

During World War II, capitalists in Mysore accumulated substantial wealth, providing a financial boost to the silk industry.
Mysore’s silk was in high demand for making parachutes, further driving economic growth in the region.

Technological Advancements:

Karnataka benefits from the presence of the Central Silk Board located in Bangalore.

Location of Silk Industry in the World

China dominates global silk production, contributing approximately 80% of the total output.
India is another substantial producer, accounting for around 18% of the global silk production.
Countries like Japan, Brazil, Thailand, and Vietnam individually produce 0.5% or even less of the world’s silk supply.

Why is China a leading producer?

China holds a prominent position as the leading silk producer due to several factors.

Climate: China’s temperate and tropical climate provides an ideal environment for cultivating silk.
Technology: Scientists have developed hybrid silk varieties with higher yields.
Labour: China has abundant & skilled labour.
Government Policy: Sericulture in China is organized through cooperatives, ensuring efficient production and distribution.

Japan was earlier a major producer but now produces less than 0.5%.

Japan was once a significant producer, but currently, its silk production has declined drastically, accounting for less than 0.5% of the total output.

Labour:

The industrial sector offers higher wages, leading to a scarcity of labour for sericulture.

Capital:

Other sectors provide better returns on investment compared to silk production.

Lost Market:

Traditional Japanese attire like kimonos are no longer widely worn by Japanese women, resulting in a diminished market for silk products. Kimonos are predominantly reserved for ceremonial occasions in contemporary Japan.

Entrepreneurship:

An example is Koromo town, where the silk industry was in decline, and both land and labour were available at a low cost. Toyota seized this opportunity, purchased land in the area, and transformed it into an automobile manufacturing facility.

Cotton and Textile Industry (in India and World)

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Cotton and Textile Industry (in India and World)

This article deals with the ‘Cotton and Textile Industry (in India and World).’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Location Factors of the Cotton & Textile Industry

Many factors have influenced the establishment of cotton and textile industries in India.

Proximity to Raw Material: Unlike other industries where the weight or perishability of raw materials is a critical concern, cotton and textile industries benefit from the fact that cotton is relatively lightweight and non-perishable. Therefore, being in immediate proximity to the source of raw cotton is less important than in some other industries.
Proximity to Market: Given the importance of market demand in dictating the type of cloth to be produced, a significant consideration is the proximity to the consumer markets. Being close to the market facilitates efficient distribution and reduces transportation costs.
Water Availability: The textile industry involves processes like dyeing and bleaching that require substantial amounts of water. Consequently, the availability of water bodies such as rivers and lakes plays a role in industry location.
Energy Availability: Cotton and textile production requires a considerable amount of energy, particularly in processes like spinning, weaving, and finishing.
Labour Supply: Textile production involves intricate processes that require skilled workers, and a region with an ample labour pool can provide a competitive advantage.
Capital and Finance: Access to financial resources can facilitate expansions, modernization, and technological advancements.
Climate: Climate considerations are also relevant. Dry climates can lead to thread breakages during textile production. Historically, this led to the preference of coastal areas with higher humidity for textile industry setup. However, technological advancements, such as artificial humidifiers, have diminished the climate-related constraints on industry location.

At present, the trend is to locate industry at or close to markets, as the market decides what kind of cloth is to be produced.

Cotton Industry in India

Cotton and Textile Industry (in India and World)

Cotton Industry in Ancient & Medieval India

The cotton textile sector has been integral to India’s traditional industries. Across the globe, India held a renowned reputation for crafting muslin, an exceedingly delicate form of cotton fabric, along with calicos, chintz, and various other superior cotton textiles.
The development of the textile industry in India stemmed from many factors.
1. Firstly, the nation’s tropical climate made cotton the optimal fabric, providing a large market.
2. Secondly, India has abundant raw materials due to the substantial cultivation of cotton.
3. The country possessed an abundant reserve of skilled labour necessary for this industry.

During the Colonial Era

Initially, the British didn’t foster the growth of the native cotton textile sector. They shipped raw cotton to their mills in Manchester and Liverpool, then imported the finished goods back to India. These products were more affordable due to mass production in British factories.
In 1854, the first modern cotton mill was set up in Mumbai. The city had various advantages as a hub for cotton textile manufacturing:
- It was situated close to Gujarat and Maharashtra, key cotton-producing regions.
- Mumbai’s status as a financial centre provided access to the necessary capital for industrial initiation.
- Its urban nature attracted a substantial labour force, ensuring a readily available pool of affordable workers.
- The machinery required for cotton textile mills could be directly imported from England.
Subsequently, Ahmedabad saw the establishment of two more mills, namely the Shahpur Mill and the Calico Mill.
By 1947, the total number of mills in India rose to 423. However, this situation changed after the partition, leading to a significant downturn in the industry. This was because most of the prime cotton-producing areas were now in West Pakistan, leaving India with 409 mills and only 29% of the previous cotton-producing territory.

After Independence

After Independence, this industry gradually recovered and eventually flourished.
Production of cotton cloth has increased almost five times since Independence. Cotton textile has been facing tough competition from synthetic cloth.

Importance of Cotton and Textile Industry

India’s Cotton and Textile industries are vital to the nation’s economic landscape, owing to their multifaceted significance and widespread impact.

Backward Linkage with the Agriculture Sector
Employs 4.5 crore individuals
Approximately 12% of the nation’s total exports are comprised of textiles and textile products.
Rural Development: Cotton cultivation and subsequent processing through the textile value chain often occurs in rural areas. As a result, the growth of these industries contributes to rural development.

Location of Cotton and Textile Industry in India

The Cotton and Textile industry is located in almost every state where one or more locational factors have been favourable.

South India	Coimbatore, Madurai, Tirunelveli and Bengaluru
Central India	Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Ujjain, Nagpur, Indore, Kolhapur and Solapur
UP	Kanpur, Agra and Hathras
West Bengal	Kolkata (due to port facilities)
Punjab	Ludhiana

Important Points

Among the major centres of this industry, Ahmedabad, Bhiwandi, Solapur, Kolhapur, Nagpur, Indore, and Ujjain stand out, which are strategically located in proximity to cotton-producing regions, optimizing their supply chains.
The role of hydroelectricity in shaping the industry’s geography cannot be overlooked. Cotton textile mills began to sprout away from traditional cotton-producing areas due to the availability of hydroelectric power. This shift is particularly evident in Tamil Nadu.
Labour costs can play a pivotal role in determining industry locations. Centres like Agra, Ujjain, Bharuch, Agra, Hathras, Coimbatore, & Tirunelveli capitalized on lower labour expenses, prompting the industry to be located away from primary cotton-producing areas.

Reasons: Why Cotton and Textile Industry is located in Mumbai?

Mumbai, known as the “Cottonopolis of India,” is the epicentre of the country’s thriving cotton and textile industry.

Abundant Raw Material: Maharashtra, particularly the region around Mumbai, has black soil well-suited for cotton cultivation.
Access to Premium Cotton: Being a busy port, Mumbai historically had access to international trade routes as a bustling port city, allowing the import of long-staple cotton from places like Egypt.
Favourable Climate: Mumbai’s proximity to the sea results in a humid coastal climate conducive to textile manufacturing.
Reliable Power Supply: The Tata hydroelectric grid in the nearby Western Ghats provides a consistent and reliable source of power.
Availability of Soft Water: The Mithi River in Mumbai supplies soft water, which is ideal for dyeing and bleaching (important processes in the textile industry).
Capital and Financial Infrastructure: During the American Civil War, Mumbai-based capitalists amassed substantial profits through the cotton trade. They later reinvested this wealth into the establishment of textile industries. Today, Mumbai is home to a well-developed banking and financial sector.
Skilled and Affordable Labour: Mumbai and its surrounding regions provide a vast pool of labour, which is both skilled and cost-effective.
Access to Expansive Markets: Mumbai’s strategic location places it at the heart of India, with access to the local and national markets.

Reasons: Why Cotton and Textile Industry is located in Gujarat?

Abundant Raw Materials: Gujarat benefits from its proximity to cotton-producing districts in the state and neighbouring regions.
Water Availability: Water is a crucial resource in textile manufacturing, particularly for dyeing, cleaning, and bleaching. Gujarat benefits from water sources such as the Sabarmati and Khari rivers.
Proximity to Markets: Gujarat has a large domestic market for textiles, owing to its population and the presence of major industrial and commercial centres.
Port Facilities: Gujarat’s coastline is dotted with major ports like Kandla, Mundra, and Pipavav. These ports offer excellent connectivity for the export of textile products.
Government Support: The state government has been proactive in supporting the growth of the textile industry through favourable policies, incentives, and infrastructure development.

Reasons: Why Cotton and Textile Industry is located in Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu)?

Abundant Raw Material Supply: Tamil Nadu has a consistent and substantial cotton supply. The region is known for cultivating a specific variety of cotton known as “Cambodia cotton,” which is highly sought after in the textile industry.
Energy Resources: Coimbatore is home to the Pykara Hydel project, a significant source of hydroelectric power.
Water Resources: Access to ample water resources is critical for various stages of textile production, including dyeing, cleaning, and bleaching—Coimbatore benefits from the Noyyal River.
Market: Coimbatore has a massive demand due to its proximity to large consumer markets in the southern states, including Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.

Problem faced by Indian Cotton Textile Industry

Fierce International Competition: The industry faces fierce competition from countries like Bangladesh, Vietnam, and Ethiopia, which enjoy Duty-Free Access or have signed Free Trade Agreements with major markets such as the EU and USA. This advantage puts Indian textiles at a disadvantage in terms of pricing and market access.
Most Indian mills are small-scale operations, preventing them from achieving the economies of scale enjoyed by larger competitors.
Mechanization vs Job Dilemma: The Indian industry is caught in a dilemma regarding mechanization. While mechanization can enhance productivity, it also threatens traditional jobs. Balancing technological advancement with employment opportunities is a critical challenge.
Competition from synthetic textiles: The rise of synthetic textiles has further intensified the struggle for market share. Synthetic textiles often offer cost advantages and versatility.
Cotton Farmers under stress: Indian Cotton Farmers face immense stress due to various factors, including the monopolization of seeds by a few major corporations and the introduction of genetically modified crops like BT Cotton.

Location of Cotton and Textile Industry in the World

The foundation of the cotton and textile industry lies in cotton cultivation. Cotton is primarily grown in regions with favourable climatic and soil conditions. Significant producers of cotton include

United States: Cotton is grown in southern states like Texas and Mississippi
India: Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh
China: Northwest regions, particularly Xinjiang
Pakistan: Sindh and Punjab provinces contribute significantly to Pakistan’s cotton production
Brazil: Mato Grosso region

After cotton is harvested, it goes through a series of processing stages. Major cotton processing centres are concentrated in:

United States: Southern states like North Carolina.
India: Textile Mills are concentrated in Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu
China: Coastal regions like Shanghai, Zhejiang, and Jiangsu
Pakistan: Karachi, Faisalabad, and Lahore
Brazil: São Paulo and Santa Catarina

Analysis: Rise and Fall of Textile Industry in Manchester & Lancashire

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TEXTILE INDUSTRY IN BRITAIN

The textile industry in Manchester and Lancashire has a rich history that witnessed remarkable growth during colonial times but declined significantly after World War II.

Rise during Colonial Times

Favourable Climate: Manchester and Lancashire’s location was advantageous due to the moist Westerlies, providing high humidity levels and preventing threads from breaking during manufacturing.
Abundant Raw Materials: Cheap cotton was available from its colonies, such as India and Egypt.
Strategic Transportation: The proximity of Liverpool as a major port city facilitated the import of raw materials and the export of finished products.
Quality Water Sources: Streams from the Pennine hills provided soft water, ideal for dyeing and bleaching.
Abundant Energy: The availability of coal from Northern England and Wales served as a reliable source of energy.
Expansive Market: The demand for textiles in Europe And the massive market in British colonies provided a market for the finished product.

Decline after World War II

The decline of the Textile industry after World War II can be attributed to the following factors.

Loss of Colonies: Post-World War II, the loss of colonies meant that the dirt-cheap raw materials(cotton) from India and Egypt were no longer readily available.
Competition from Other Nations: Emerging players like Japan entered the global textile market with cheaper production methods.

Reason: Cotton Industry in the USA

In the USA, there are two important regions of the cotton and textile industry, which can be attributed to several geographical factors.

New England Region

It is located in the northeast corner of the US and emerged as a hub for cotton-related activities.
Major factors of the concentration of cotton and textile industry include
1. Its proximity to major urban centres like Boston and New York
2. Easy access to ports for exporting cotton
3. The region attracted immigrant workers, adding to the labour force and diversity of skills.
4. The availability of coal from the Appalachian region ensured a stable energy supply, powering the cotton mills.

Cotton Belt in the South

The Cotton Belt, stretching across states such as North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and parts of Texas and California, constitutes the heartland of cotton cultivation in the USA. This region boasts vast expanses of fertile land, forming large cotton-growing areas.
Transformation from Slave Labour to Mechanization: Historically, the cotton industry in the South relied heavily on slave labour. However, over time, technological advancements led to the mechanization of cotton production. Highly efficient machines revolutionized the industry, making it less reliant on human labour.
Hydroelectric Power: Major rivers in the cotton-producing regions have been harnessed for hydroelectric power generation.

Reason: Cotton Industry in China

Various factors contribute to the thriving cotton industry in China, with a major concentration in the bustling city of Shanghai.

Favourable Climate: Shanghai is a port city with a humid climate. This humidity is crucial in the cotton industry as threads are less likely to break during production.
Raw Material: The Yangtze-Kiang Delta, where Shanghai is located, is fertile ground for cotton cultivation.
Transport: Shanghai benefits from its status as a port city, offering easy access to international markets. Additionally, the city is well-connected by rail and road networks, facilitating the movement of raw materials and finished products.
Water and Energy: The Yangtze River not only serves as a transportation route but also provides a source of water and energy. Access to water resources is crucial for textile industries. Furthermore, the river can be harnessed for hydroelectric power.
Labour: With a large population, Shanghai has a pool of skilled workers who contribute to the manufacturing process.
Market: Within 1000 nautical miles, major markets like Kobe, Taiwan, South Korea, and Hong Kong are accessible, facilitating international trade. Moreover, within China, cities like Nantong, Wuhan, and Chongqing, connected via the Yangtze River, create a robust domestic market.

Other centres in China include Hwang-Ho Valley, Sichuan, Nanjing, Beijing, etc.

National Register of Citizens

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National Register of Citizens

This article deals with ‘National Register of Citizens – Indian Polity.’ This is part of our series on ‘Polity’ which is important pillar of GS-2 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here.

What is the National Register of Citizens (NRC)?

On the eve of Independence, the Indian government felt the need to identify Indian Citizens. Hence, the National Register of Citizens was conducted in 1951 in respect of each village, showing the houses and holdings of each person in a serial order. Based on the National Register of Citizens, the Citizenship of each person was confirmed.
This Register was used to be kept in the office of the District Collector and Sub Divisional Officer. But in 1960, on the orders of the Home Ministry, all data was given to the Police and was never updated after that.
The issue in Assam: Due to the large-scale migration of Bangladeshis in Assam, the need was felt to recognize the Indian Citizens.

Assamese vs Outsiders

The issue of Outsiders coming into Assam dates back in history.

Assamese used to resent the settlement of outsiders (Bengali and Bihari labourers) brought by Britishers to work in Tea Plantations.
After Independence, Assam saw a large-scale arrival of Bengalis.
During the persecution of Bengali Muslims in Bangladesh at the end of the 1960s, more than 10 lakh people came to Assam to take shelter. After the formation of Bangladesh, most of them went back, but some stayed.
Even after 1971, Bangladeshis kept on settling in Assam.

All this created fear in the indigenous population of Assam. They started to fear demographic change, converting them into a minority and heavy stress on the limited resources of Assam.

Assam Accord

1978: Powerful agitation under the All Assam Students Union (AASU) started, which demanded that before conducting elections, the problem of illegal migrants should be solved. They demanded the removal of those who arrived after 1961 from Assam.

1985: Assam Accord between Rajiv Gandhi Government and AASU

Those who arrived between 1951 and 1961 will be given full Citizenship and the right to vote.
Those who have arrived after 1971 will be sent back
Those who arrived between 1961 and 1971 were given Citizenship, but the right to vote wasn’t given
A Special Package was given for the development of Assam
Oil Refinery, Paper Mills and Technical institutions would be opened in Assam

But due to politics, little happened over the decades. Finally, in 2014, the Supreme Court asked the state government to update the 1951 NRC in a timebound manner and conduct the exercise under its supervision.

NRC updating process in Assam

NRC updating involves the procedure of adding the names of individuals (or their descendants) whose names are found in either of the following lists.

Any of the Assam’s Electoral Rolls up to March 24 1971, or
National Register of Citizen of 1951, or
Any of the admissible documents stipulated, such as land or tenancy records, citizenship certificate, permanent residential certificate, etc.

In August 2019, the updated and final National Register of Citizens, which validates bonafide Indian citizens of Assam, was released with over 19 lakh applicants who had failed to make it to the list (and many were Hindus).

Hence, this process has the danger of exclusion and inclusion errors, and a large number of legitimate Indian citizens could end up being denied their rights. Along with that, Illegal migrants out of NRC will be sent back to Bangladesh. However, India does not have any deportation treaty with Bangladesh. Moreover, there are apprehensions that a large number of stateless people can be created in India, thus impacting the overall image of people.

Assam Accord vs Citizenship Amendment Act

There are inherent differences between the Assam Accord and the Citizenship Amendment Act, as the Amendment provides citizenship rights to Hindu migrants who have arrived post-1971.

Citizenship – Indian Polity

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Citizenship – Indian Polity

This article deals with ‘Citizenship – Indian Polity.’ This is part of our series on ‘Polity’ which is important pillar of GS-2 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here.

Introduction

Some Fundamental Rights belong to citizens alone, such as

Rights available only to Indian Citizens only

Only (Indian) citizens can hold certain offices, such as

The President of India
The Vice-President of India
The Judges of the Supreme Court
The Judges of the High Court
The Governor of a State
The Attorney General of India
The Advocate General of the State
Only citizens can vote in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assembly elections.
Only citizens of India can become MLA and MP

However, apart from enjoying these exclusive rights, the citizens must also fulfil certain duties towards the Indian State (called the Fundamental Duties), e.g., paying taxes, respecting the national anthem and national anthem, defending the country, etc.

Different countries follow different principles for granting Citizenship of a country. These include

Right of the Soil/Jus Soli: If a person was born in the territory (within the borders) of that country
Right of Blood/Jus Sangunis: If one or both of his parents are citizens of that country.
By Marriage: If a person is married to a person who is a citizen of that country.
Naturalization: If a person obtains Citizenship by passing through the legal process of naturalization.

Presently, India follows the principle of the Right of Blood (with some caveats) and Naturalization for its Citizenship. However, the process has changed since independence. Initially, everyone born in the Indian territory was granted Citizenship, i.e. India followed the right of the land principle. But it was changed through the Citizenship (Amendment) Act of 1986 when the condition was added that a person born in India could become a citizen only if one of the parents was an Indian citizen.

Note: In India, anybody who is a citizen of India, whether by birth or naturalized, can become President, but only a citizen by birth can become President in the USA.

Constitutional Provisions

Article 5 to 11 of Part II deals with Citizenship. It only identifies persons who will become citizens on January 26, 1950 and leaves it to Parliament to make laws relating to other matters of Citizenship. Consequently, the Parliament of India enacted the Citizenship Act 1955, which has been amended many times, subsequently in 1957, 1960, 1985, 1986, 1992, 2003, 2005, 2015 and 2019.

Citizenship Act, 1955

The Parliament of India made this Act following the constitutional provisions.

It provides 5 ways of acquiring Indian Citizenship

1. By Birth

A person born in India

2. By Descent

A person born outside India will be considered a Citizen of India by descent if

3. By Registration

The registration process is applicable for those who have some Indian connection. The person should fulfil the following conditions.

Person of Indian Origin who is ordinarily residing in India for 7 years ( i.e., 12 months immediately before making the application and 6 years in the aggregate in the 8 years preceding the 12 months)
A person married to an Indian citizen & ordinarily residing here for 7 years.
Minor children or children of the full capacity of persons who are Indian citizens
A person registered as OCI (Overseas Citizen of India) for 5 years and residing for ONE YEAR in India before making the application.

Individuals falling into the groups mentioned above must take an oath of allegiance before being officially recognized as Indian citizens.

4. By Naturalisation

Indian Citizenship, through the process of naturalization, can be acquired by a foreigner (not an illegal migrant), and he/she must follow all the conditions given below:-

Must not be a citizen of the country where Indian citizens are barred from becoming citizens.
Must renounce previous Citizenship.
A person must be ordinarily resident of India for 12 years (i.e., twelve months immediately before making an application and Eleven years in the aggregate in the twelve years preceding the twelve months).
Must have knowledge of at least one language specified in Schedule 8.
Such a person should intend to reside in India or continue to work for the Government of India.

Further, the Government of India may waive all or any of the above conditions for naturalization if, in its opinion, the person has rendered distinguished services in the field of science, art, philosophy, world peace, literature, or human progress.

5. By Incorporation of Territory

If foreign territory becomes part of India in future. In that case, the Government of India may specify the residents of the territory to be citizens of India by orders notified in the Official Gazette.
E.g., When Pondicherry was acquired by India & the Government of India issued the Citizenship (Pondicherry) Order, 1962, under the Indian Citizenship Act,1955.

Loss of Citizenship

The Citizenship Act 1955 prescribes three ways for it

1. Renunciation

A citizen of full capacity can make a declaration renouncing his Citizenship.
It must be noted that when a person renounces his Citizenship, their minor children cease to be citizens of India. But such children may make a declaration one year after attaining the age of 18 years that they wish to resume Indian Citizenship.

2. Termination

When a citizen voluntarily accepts Citizenship of another country.
However, the provision of termination doesn’t apply when India is engaged in any war.

3. Deprivation

Compulsory termination of Indian Citizenship by the government when

Citizenship is obtained by fraud.
Citizen has shown disloyalty towards the constitution.
Citizen has unlawfully traded with the enemy country during the war.
Citizens within 5 years after registration or naturalization have been imprisoned for two years in any country.
The citizen has been ordinarily out of the country for 7 years.

Single Citizenship

In India, there is single Citizenship, i.e. all the persons are citizens of India, and there is no citizenship of state (unlike the USA)
All the citizens owe allegiance to India and not to any particular state.

Side Topic: Concept of Dual Citizenship

Dual Citizenship means a person can be a citizen of two or more countries simultaneously. Dual citizens have two passports and can live, travel and work in both countries, i.e. their native and the naturalized country.
Some countries do allow dual Citizenship. However, the Indian constitution doesn’t allow Dual Citizenship.

Overseas Citizen of India (OCI)

Initially, India did not allow any rights to people of Indian origin who are residents of other countries. However, the High-Level Committee on Indian Diaspora, under the Chairmanship of LM Singhvi, recommended the Person of Indian Origin Card (PIO) Scheme and Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI) for establishing a constructive relationship with the Indian diaspora. Subsequently, the Indian Parliament amended the Citizenship Act in 2002 and provided two special statuses, i.e. Person of Indian Origin Card (PIO) Scheme and Overseas Citizenship of India. These schemes were later merged into “Overseas Citizen of India Cardholder.”
Overseas Citizen of India (OCI) is a person who, or any of their ancestors, were Indian nationals and presently holding another country’s Citizenship and passport (other than Pakistan and Bangladesh).

Benefits available for OCI

Facilitate visa-free travel to India.
Rights of residency in India.
Rights regarding participation in business and educational activities in the country

However, such persons shall not have the following rights as given to Citizens of India, which include

Right to equality of opportunity in matters of public employment
Eligibility for election as President of India, Vice President of India, Member of the Lok Sabha, Member of Rajya Sabha, Member of State Legislative Assemblies or Councils
Eligibility for appointment as a Supreme Court Judge and High Court Judge