Science and Technology

This article deals with ‘Generations of Wireless Communication .’ This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

• COMPUTER = Commonly Oriented Machine Particularly Used for Trade, Education and Research.
• The computer is an electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user, processes the data, gives the result and saves it for future use.
• Hence, Computer must perform 4 functions

1. Speed (the usual computer can do 3 million calculations per second).
2. Accuracy (if there is any error, it is due to the programmer’s mistake in writing the program. Computer will process data according to the program).
3. High Storage Capacity.
4. Automation (give the program to the computer and it will keep performing the task according to the commands without human intervention).
5. Diligence
6. Flexibility

• Charles Babbage is considered to be the father of the computer.
• Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine which was made in 1812 is considered to be the first Computer.
• Even today, computers are made on that framework.

Based on various stages of development, computers can be categorised into different generations:-

Pre Modern Computer

• Abacus: It is made up of a frame in which rods are fitted and round beads slide on the rod. A person can do calculations fastly using Abacus.  It was developed primarily in Egypt in the 10th Century. Later, it evolved with time and what we know as the abacus today was made in China in the 12th Century.
• Napier’s Bones: It is a type of Abacus made by John Napier. Numbers were printed on Bones (instead of beads in the abacus).
• Pascal’s Calculator: It is an  Adding Machine made in 1640 by Blaise Pascal. 
• Leibnitz calculator: It was made in 1646. It was a mechanical device that can do addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

First Generation

Second Generation

Third Generation

Fourth Generation

Fifth Generation

Sixth Generation

• The computer is a combination of hardware and software.
• Hardware is the physical component of a computer like a motherboard, memory devices, monitor, keyboard etc., while the software is the set of programs or instructions. Both hardware and software together make the computer system to function.

Input Unit

• The input unit is used to feed any form of data to the computer.
• Example: Keyboard, mouse, etc.

Microprocessor / Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• It is known as the brain of the computer.
• The CPU or microprocessor is a programmable multipurpose silicon chip. It is driven by clock pulses.
• It accepts input as binary data and after processing, it provides the output data as per the instructions stored in the memory.

The microprocessor is made up of 3 main units. They are:

Arithmetic and Logic Unit

• ALU performs arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and logical operations.
• The result of an operation is stored in the internal memory of the CPU.

Control unit

• The control unit controls the flow of data between the CPU, memory and Input / Output devices.

Registers (Internal Memory)

• It serves as the main memory, also known as primary memory or semiconductor memory.
• They hold the instruction and data for the execution of the processor.

Characteristics of Microprocessors

A Microprocessor’s performance depends on the following characteristics:-

Types of Micro-processors

Depending on the data width that microprocessors can process, microprocessors can be classified as

1. 8-bit microprocessor
2. 16-bit microprocessor
3. 32-bit microprocessor
4. 64-bit microprocessor

Output Unit

• Output Unit is any hardware component that conveys information to users in an understandable form.
• Example: Monitor, Printer etc.

Memory Unit

• A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions.
• Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data and instructions are stored.

1 . Keyboard

• The keyboard is the most common input device used today.
• It has the keys for letters, numbers and special characters. It also has Function keys for performing different functions.
• Note: Keyboard was introduced with 84 keys. Nowadays, a minimum of 101 keys is present on the keyboard (frequently asked question).

2. Mouse

• The mouse is a pointing device used to control the movement of the cursor on the display screen. It can be used to select icons, menus, command buttons or activate something on a computer.
• The mouse was invented and developed by Douglas Engelbart and was patented in November 1970.
• There are different types of mouse
  1. Mechanical Mouse
  2. Optical Mouse
  3. Laser Mouse
  4. Air Mouse
  5. 3D Mouse
  6. Tactile Mouse
  7. Ergonomic Mouse
  8. Gaming Mouse

3. Scanner

Scanners work like a Xerox machine. They convert any type of printed or written information including photographs into a digital format.

4. Fingerprint Scanner

• Fingerprint Scanner is a fingerprint recognition device that works on biometric recognition technology.
• It is more secure and convenient than passwords as passwords are vulnerable to fraud and are hard to remember. On the other hand, every human has a unique fingerprint that can be used as a password to unlock the device using Fingerprint Scanner.

5. Track Ball

• The trackball is similar to the upside-down design of the mouse.
• In Track Ball, the user moves the ball directly while the device itself remains stationary. The user spins the ball in various directions to navigate the screen movements.

6. Light Pen

• A light pen is a pointing device shaped like a pen and is connected to a monitor.
• The tip of the light pen contains a light-sensitive element that detects the light from the screen enabling the computer to identify the location of the pen on the screen.

7. Optical Character Reader (OCR)

• OCR is a device that detects characters printed or written on paper.
• With OCR,  a user can scan a page from a book.  The Computer will recognise the characters on the page as letters and punctuation marks and stores them. The Scanned document can be edited using a word processor.

8. Bar Code / QR Code Reader

• Bar code is a pattern printed in lines of different thickness. QR (Quick Response) Code is the two-dimensional bar code that can be read by a camera and processed to interpret the image.
• The Bar code reader scans the information on the bar codes and transmits it to the Computer for further processing.

9. Digital Camera

• Digital Camera captures images/videos directly in the digital form.
• It uses a CCD (Charge Coupled Device) electronic chip. When light falls on the chip through the lens, it converts light rays into digital format.

10. Touch Screen

• A touch screen is a display device that allows the user to directly interact with a computer by using the finger.
• Touch screens are used on a wide variety of devices such as computers, laptops, monitors, smartphones, tablets, cash registers and information kiosks. 

11. Keyser

• Keyser is a device for signalling by hand, by way of pressing one or more switches.
• Modern keyers have a large number of switches but not as many as a full-size keyboard.

1 . Monitor

• The monitor is the most commonly used output device to display the information.
• It looks like a TV.
• It is also known as a visual display unit.
• Pictures on a monitor are formed with picture elements called PIXELS.
• Monitors may either be  Monochrome which displays images in White or can be colour, which displays results in multiple colours.
• There are many types of monitors available such as
  1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
  2. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
  3. LED (Light Emitting Diodes).
• The monitor works with the VGA (Video Graphics Array) card. The video graphics card acts as an interface between the computer and the display monitor. Usually, the recent motherboards incorporate built-in video card.

2. Plotter

• The plotter is an output device that is used to produce graphical output on papers.
• It uses single colour or multi colour pens to draw pictures.

3. Printer

• Printers are used to print the information on papers.
• Printers are divided into two main categories:
  1. Impact Printers
  2. Non Impact printers

Impact Printers

• These are the old type of printers.
• With this type of printer, a character is formed when something strikes the paper and ribbon together.
• Examples: Dot Matrix printers, chain printer and Line matrix printers are impact printers.
  • Dot-matrix printer prints using a fixed number of pins or wires. Each dot is produced by a tiny metal rod, also called a “wire” or “pin”, which works by the power of a tiny electromagnet or solenoid, either directly or through a set of small levers.  It generally prints one line of text at a time. The printing speed of these printers varies from 30 to 1550 CPS (Character Per Second).
  • Line matrix printers use a fixed print head for printing. Basically, it prints a page-wide line of dots. But it builds up a line of text by printing lines of dots. Line printers are capable of printing much more than 1000 Lines Per Minute, resulting in thousands of pages per hour.
• These printers also use mechanical pressure to print on multi-part (using carbon papers).

Non-Impact Printers

• These printers do not use striking mechanism for printing. They use ink spray, toner powder, electrostatic or laser technology to form the character.
• The quality and speed of these printers are better than Impact printers.
• Laser printers and Inkjet printers are non-impact printers.
  • Laser printers mostly work with similar technology used by photocopiers.  It makes a laser beam scan back and forth across a drum inside the printer, building up a pattern. It can produce very good quality graphic images. One of the chief characteristics of a laser printer is its resolution – i.e. Dots per inch(DPI). The available resolution range around 1200 dpi. Approximately it can print 100 pages per minute (PPM).
  • Inkjet Printers use colour cartridges that combined Magenta, Yellow and Cyan inks to create colour tones. A black cartridge is also used for monochrome output. Inkjet printers work by spraying ionised ink on a sheet of paper. The speed of Inkjet printers generally ranges from 1-20 PPM.

4. Speakers

• Speakers produce voice output (audio).
• Using speaker along with speech synthesise software, the computer can provide voice output. This has become very common in places like airlines, schools, banks, railway stations, etc.

5. Multimedia Projectors

• Multimedia projectors are used to produce computer output on a big screen.
• These are used to display presentations in meeting halls or in classrooms.

Memory Unit is of two types which are primary memory and secondary memory.

1. Secondary memory is used to store the data permanently. For example Hard disk, CD-ROM and DVD ROM.
2. Primary memory is used to store data temporarily.

Primary Memory

• Primary memory is used to temporarily store the programs and data when the instructions are ready to execute.
• For example : Random Access Memory (RAM).

Random Access Memory (RAM)

• Random Access Memory is available in computers in the form of Integrated Circuits (ICs).  It is the place in a computer where the Operating System, Application Programs and the data in current use are kept temporarily so that they can be accessed by the computer’s processor.
• RAM is a volatile memory, which means that the information stored in it is not permanent.  As soon as the power is turned off, whatever data resides in RAM is lost.
• It allows both read and write operations.

Secondary Memory

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

• Read-Only Memory refers to special memory in a computer with pre-recorded data that cannot be modified.
• ROM stores critical programs such as the program that boots the computer.
• Data on the ROM chip cannot be modified or removed and can only be read.
• ROM retains its contents even when the computer is turned off. So, ROM is called non-volatile memory.

Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM)

• Programmable read-only memory is also a non-volatile memory on which data can be written only once. Once a program has been written onto a PROM, it remains there forever.
• PROM differs from ROM.  PROM is manufactured as blank memory, whereas a ROM is programmed during the manufacturing process itself. A PROM programmer or a PROM burner is used to write data to a PROM chip. 

Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM)

• Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory is a special type of memory that serves as a PROM, but the content can be erased using ultraviolet rays.

Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM)

• Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge.

Cache Memory

• The cache memory is a very high speed and expensive memory, which is used to speed up the memory retrieval process.
• Due to its higher cost, the CPU comes with a smaller size of cache memory compared with the size of the main memory. Without cache memory, every time the CPU requests the data, it has to be fetched from the main memory which will consume more time.

Software is a set of instructions that perform a specific task. Parts of computer which are virtually present and cant be touched are known as Software.

The software can be classified into two types i.e. (1) Application  Software and (2) System Software.

1 . Application Software

• Application software is a set of programs to perform a specific task.
• For example, MS-word is an application software to create a text document and VLC player is a familiar application software to play audio, video files and many more. 

2. System Software

• System software is a type of computer program that is designed to run the computer’s hardware and application programs.
• Examples include Operating System and Language Processor.

India has a well-developed software industry because

• Not much capital required to set up the Software industry (Just a computer will do).
• The English language is understood by the majority of Indians.
• Human Resources are present.

• An Operating System (OS) is system software that serves as an interface between a user and a computer.

• The functions of an Operating System include file management, memory management, process management and device management and many more. Without an Operating System, a computer cannot effectively manage all the resources.
• When a computer is switched on, the operating system is loaded into the memory automatically.
• Famous Operating Systems include
  1. Windows (of Microsoft)
  2. Android (of Google)
  3. Macintosh (for MacBook) and iOS (for iPhone and iPad)
  4. Ubuntu (Linux)

Graphene is a form of carbon consisting of planar sheets (2D structure), which are one atom thick, with the atoms arranged in a honeycomb-shaped lattice. 

• Heat conductivity is 10 times better than Copper
• 200 times stronger than steel 
• 1000 times electrical conductivity than Copper wire 
• Highly flexible and can flex 20% without damage. 
• Transparency is 97% (hence, it can be used to make flexible & unbreakable screens).
• It has a high absorption capacity for Electromagnetic Waves
• It has anti-bacterial properties.
• It is biocompatible, i.e., it can hook up with biological cells.

• DNA profiling, or DNA fingerprinting, is a forensic method used to identify a person using a unique signature found in their DNA.
• Alec Jeffreys first developed DNA fingerprinting technique in 1985. 
• It uses the fact that the DNA of a person is unique.  
• The Short Tandem Repeat (STM) Technique is the most commonly used technique, which involves identifying differences in some specific regions in DNA sequence. However, there are 23 pairs of human chromosomes with 1.5 million pairs of genes. But 99.9% of the DNA base sequences are the same (called Bulk Genomic DNA). The remaining 0.1% DNA sequence differs from one individual to another and is present as a small stretch of repeated sequences called Short Tandem Repeats (STM).

• Forensic analysis: It can be used in the identification of a (1) person involved in criminal activities, (2) for settling paternity or maternity disputes, and (3) in determining relationships for immigration purposes.
• Pedigree analysis: It can be used for inheritance pattern of genes through generations and for detecting inherited diseases such as Cystic Fibrosis, Haemophilia, Huntington’s Disease, Sickle Cell Anaemia etc.
• Personal Identification: DNA fingerprints can be used as a genetic bar code to identify individuals.
• Anthropological studies: It is useful in determining the origin and migration of human populations and genetic diversities.
• DNA Barcoding: A technique for specifying the organisms’ species using a short sequence of DNA situated in the genome is termed DNA bar-coding. The barcode DNA sequences are too short in respect to the complete genome and hence cheaper.

• Pioneering work was done by Lalji Singh at the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB), Hyderabad 
• Other centres are :
  1. Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (Hyderabad)
  2. Centre for DNA Fingerprinting & Diagnostics (Hyderabad)
  3. Central Forensic Science Laboratory, Kolkata 
  4. National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resource (NBPGR), New Delhi
  5. National Institute of Plant and Genetic Research (NIPGR), New Delhi

Introduction

There are a large number of 

1. Missing persons 
2. Unclaimed dead bodies 

DNA fingerprinting can help the government in this regard.

Moreover, DNA is accepted as evidence under Evidence Act. Hence, it can help in increasing the conviction rate.

Issues with DNA Fingerprinting in India

• Lack of regulation
• Privacy issue
• Lack of DNA labs and experts.
• Unscientific forensic data collection techniques used by police.

Working

• Use of DNA Data: DNA testing is allowed only regarding matters listed in the schedule to the Bill (such as paternity suits). 

• Permission for the use of DNA Data: While preparing a DNA profile,
  • Authorities must obtain consent for collection if the offence carries a punishment of up to 7 years.  
  • If the offence carries more than seven years of imprisonment or death, consent is not required.  

• Two new bodies will be created
  • DNA Regulatory Board: To supervise and regulate  DNA Data Banks and DNA Laboratories. 
  • DNA Data Bank (National & State): Data Banks will store DNA profiles received from DNA laboratories.

• Protection of information: 
  • Board is required to ensure that all information relating to DNA profiles with the Data Banks, laboratories and other persons are kept confidential
  • DNA data can only be used for identification of the person (and not for extracting any other information (like Health Vulnerabilities to be used by Insurance companies))

• Option for deletion of data – There is also provision for defined instances for deletion of profiles and destruction of DNA profiles (like if the charge-sheeted person whose DNA samples has been stored in DNA Data Bank has been acquitted by Court).

• Penalties: Any violation would attract imprisonment up to three years and a fine of up to 1 lakhs. 

Issues

Privacy Issues 

• In the absence of any Data Protection Act, DNA information stored in Data Bank can be vulnerable.
• Along with that, leakage of data can reveal intrusive information like a person’s allergies or vulnerability to diseases. This information can be misused by various organizations such as (health) insurance agencies.

Technology 

• Critics say that DNA Matching tech is not entirely foolproof. There are chances, even if very low, of erroneous results. 
• Problems of cross-contaminating samples, mislabelling samples, misrepresenting test results and intentionally planting DNA.  

Unscientific investigation

• In India, instead of forensic investigators and scientists, an untrained constable goes to the crime scene first, who does not know how to collect evidence scientifically and, in the process, destroys vital DNA evidence.

Lack of DNA examiners 

• According to international practice, one DNA examiner can take 100 cases per year. As of now, there are 40,000 unclaimed dead bodies each year & 400 examiners are required. But India has a total of 35-40 examiners.

No improvement in conviction rates 

• Over the last 25 years, most countries have adopted a DNA fingerprinting law and have developed databases for criminal investigation, disaster identification and forensic science. However, DNA tests have not improved conviction rates in countries where it is already being followed. 

Pros

Is already happening, better to do it in a regulated way 

• Experts say that apprehensions of data misuse & privacy are more in case of the absence of regulation.

Privacy 

• Minimal information is proposed to be stored (just 13 sets of numbers out of billions ). This can tell nothing about an individual except to act as a unique identifier 
• Moreover, DNA will be collected from very limited persons in conflict with the law. 

Utility

• Time has come to use forensic evidence in corroboration with eyewitness evidence. 

• Baby whose genetic makeup has been altered using genetic engineering techniques (like CRISPR Cas9) to ensure the presence, absence or enhancement of certain traits. 
• These traits include
  1. Appearance (like height, skin colour, eyes etc.)
  2. Disease resistance
  3. Intelligence
• Bio-information of physical characteristics is encoded in the genetic material. With the ability to alter this information, scientists try to control some of these features.

Pros of allowing this technology

• It reduces the risk of genetic diseases. Thus, it prevents the next generation of the family from getting characteristic diseases.
• It has the potential to increase the human life span by up to 30 years.
• Designer babies have a greater probability of success in life.
• Development in the field will help in a better understanding of genetics.

Cons of allowing this technology

• It will create a social gap as the designer babies will have better looks, intelligence etc. and thus more chances of success. 
• The genetic engineering technology used is not 100% safe yet. 
• It has the possibility of damaging the gene pool.
• It is not an inclusive technology as it is expensive, and only the rich can afford it.

2019: A Chinese scientist claimed that he made the world’s first “genetically-edited” baby in whom a gene linked to HIV was removed using the CRISPR technique.

• Euthenics is the science of improving the well-being of humans by improving the external factor of their environment.

• In contrast to Eugenics which is a capitalist ideology, Euthenics belongs to socialist ideology. It emphasises that instead of changing the genes, governments should provide a better environment for the people to develop.