This article deals with ‘ Moderates in Legislature – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here
Introduction
Legislative councils in India had no real power till 1920 , yet work done in them by nationalist leaders played important part in growth of national movement
Role of Legislative Councils
1861 to
1892
– After Mutiny of 1857 , government thought main reason for Revolt was Indian vies were not known to rulers & decided to include them in councils . But didn’t serve the purpose because persons those were selected were Princes, big zamindars & merchants who didn’t represent common people – Although nationalists from beginning believed that India should eventually become self governing but till 1892 their demand was only limited to expansion & reform of Legislative councils because they were afraid of government declaring their activities as seditious
1892
– Nationalists were totally dissatisfied with the Act of 1892 – Saw it as mockery of their demands. Councils still impotent & despotism still ruled – Demanded Right to vote on Demand & raised slogan “No Taxation without Representation”
Use of Legislatures by Nationalists
Lord Dufferin designed Act of 1892 in such a way that it enjoyed no
real power & its members can make only worldly speeches & indulge
in empty rhetorics.
But Indian leaders soon
reformed impotent councils into forums for ventilating popular grievances,
exposing the defects & shortcoming of bureaucracy & submitted the
acts & policies of government to ruthless examination regarding their
intention, methods & consequences
Changed SAFETY VALVE TO MAJOR CHANNEL FOR
NATIONALISTIC PROPAGANDA
Most important Members who used Legislative Councils for National Awakening
1 . Pherozshah Mehta
Born in 1845 & was influenced by Dadabhai
Naoroji when he
was studying in London
Dominant figure of INC from 1890 to 1915 & exercised
autocratic authority
Powerful
debater +
speeches marked by boldness & lucidity
Mehta was accused of
changing the role and character of the colonial legislatures . Although press was used to
condemn policies of government but
Mehta took that voice in Legislative Assembly
First Major
intervention in Imperial Legislative Assembly came in 1895 on a bill for amendment
of Police Act of 1861 which enhanced the power
of the local authorities to raise a punitive police force in an area and
to recover its cost from selected sections of the inhabitants of the area.
Mehta pointed out that , “the measure was an attempt to convict and
punish individuals without a judicial trial under the garb of preserving
law and order.” We may not find
these remarks very strong today but they were like bomb thrown on civil
services which considered itself beyond criticism in those times
Other intervention
on Cutting government
spending on Higher education because it was producing
‘discontended and seditious babus’
. Pointing
to real motives Mehta said most of the
bureaucrats looked upon ‘every Indian college (as) a nursery for hatching
broods of vipers; the less, therefore, the better.’
Also criticised
the Bill in 1901 on taking away
of peasants‘ right of
ownership of land to prevent them from bartering it away . Government passed it away
using its official majority but he performed first
walkout in Indian
History
Retired from legislative council in 1901 due to bad health & his place was taken by Gopal Krishna Gokhale who was to prove more than worthy successor
Presided
Congress session of 1890 .
2. Gopal Krishna Gokhale
Outstanding intellectual &
trained in economics by Justice Ranade & GV Joshi
Not a great
orator like Dadabhai, Tilak, Mehta or RC Dutt but relied upon
his detailed knowledge & careful ,logical analysing power
Gokhale gained great fame for his budget speeches & he transformed
legislative assembly into open university for imparting political
education
Criticised
government for presenting surplus budget & said that surplus
budget is coming at time of depression & suffering when people are
dying out of drought & famines .
Analysed that even during famines land & salt revenue was
continuously increasing
Condemned large expenditure on
army & territorial expansion beyond Indian frontiers & demanded
greater expenditure on education & industry instead
Such was fear of his budget
speeches that in 1910 , Lord Minto appointed RW Carlyle one of the greatest economist of
times as Revenue member so that they can defend Gokhale in assembly
This article deals with ‘ Moderate Phase – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here
Introduction
For first 20 years, politics of Congress is referred to as moderate politics because Congress was hardly a full fledged political party by then . It was more in nature an annual conference which deliberated & adopted resolutions during 3 day tamasha (name given to them by extremists (rival group within Congress))
Moderates were basically influenced by Utilitarian theories of Edmund Burke, John Stuart Mill& John Morley
Moderates represented what can be said as Indian Liberalism . They wanted gradual or piece-meal reforms . Their complaint was only against “un-British rule” in India perpetrated by the Viceroy, his Executive Council and the Anglo-Indian bureaucracy-an imperfection that could be reformed or rectified through gentle persuasion
They had intrinsic faith in the providential nature of British rule in India, they hoped that one day they would be recognized as partners and not subordinates in the affairs of the empire and be given the rights of full British citizenship.
Expectation of the Moderates was that full political freedom would come gradually and India would be ultimately given self governing right like those enjoyed by other colonies. But before achieving self government , Indians should be enlightened via education so that they can become responsible citizens (many Congress leaders were associated with educational institutions like Gokhale , SN Bannerjee)
Methods of work in Initial Years
Early Congressmen had an implicit faith in the efficacy of peaceful and constitutional agitation.
Press and the platform at the annual sessions were their agencies. However, the press was the only agency through which the Congress propaganda was carried out throughout the year. Many leaders, in fact, were editors of either English or Indian language newspapers and wielded their pen powerfully.
Congressmen had great belief in British sense of Justice. They worked under the illusion that all would be well if British could be acquainted with true state of affairs in India . They thought that it was bureaucracy that stood in the way of their rights & intended to inform the Britishers about their problems & remind them their duty towards India . They send delegations to Britain to present Indian viewpoint . Dadabhai Naoroji spend his life in England
They took recourse to making earnest appeals , sending applications & petitions , holding meetings, organizing public opinion , propaganda through press (Key word : Petitions , Prayers and Press (PPP) )
Demands of the Moderates
All they
wanted was Limited Self Government within the imperial framework
Indianization
of Civil Services and Simultaneous examination for the I.C.S. in India and
England (Indianized civil service would be more responsive to the Indian
needs. It would stop the drainage of money, which was annually expatriated
through the payment of salary and pension of the European officers. )
Abolition or reconstitution of the India Council,
Separation of the Judiciary from the Executive,
Repeal of the
Arms Act,
Appointment
of Indians to the commissioned ranks in the Army,
Reduction of
military expenditure
Introduction
of Permanent Settlement to other parts
of India.
Expand &
reform the Legislative Councils for elected
representatives of people
Budget to be referred to legislature which should have right to discuss & vote
Military
expenditure which used Indian
exchequer to fight imperial wars should be evenly shared by India &
Britain
These demands were
repeated year after year but there was hardly any response by the Britishers
They worked for the political unity of the country , for welding diverse people into a nation . For
this, they kept
all issues & demands which would bring one class in conflict with other out of their political agenda
Social demands too weren’t part of their agenda. Congress to them was a political body to represent political aspiration of Indian people as a whole & not a platform to discuss social reform. Separate organisation called Indian Social Conference (1887) was formed for this.
Moderate leaders
D Naoroji
B Tyabji
Pherozshah Mehta
MG Ranade
G K Gokhale
D E Wacha
S N Banerjee
Anand Mohan Bose
Rash Behari Ghosh
How many of their demands were met ?
Lord Cross’s Act or Indian Councils Act , 1892
Provided for marginal
expansion of Legislative Councils (LCs) both at centre & provinces but members were to
be selected & not elected
Budget can be
discussed in
Legislatures but not to be voted on
Government
was given power to legislate without referring to Legislatures . Role of LC was recommendatory & not mandatory
Reformation of Administration : Charles Wood who was president of Board of Control opposed their demand of simultaneous holding of ICS exam in India & Britain on ground that there was no institution in India that can train boys but Public Service Commission was appointed later under Aitchison which recommended simultaneous exam .
None of other demand was even considered by British authorities like
Income tax, abolished in the
1870s, was reimposed in 1886
Salt tax was raised from Rs. 2
to Rs. 2.5
Customs duty was imposed, but
it was matched by a countervailing excise duty on Indian cotton yarn in
1894
Fowler Commission artificially
fixed the exchange rate of rupee at a high rate of 1 shilling and 4 pence.
British attitude towards Moderates
From the beginning, Government was hostile towards development of nationalist forces. Dufferin was critical of its formation. He even suggested to Hume that Congress should devote itself to social rather than political affairs but congress leaders refused to make the change . But they couldn’t be openly hostile to Congress . They hoped that Congress would keep itself busy with academic discussions confined to handful of people
Soon, it became clear (by 1887) that Congress & other nationalist associations & newspapers would not confine themselves to such a limited role. Newspapers reached out to people & Congress began to publish pamphlets in Indian languages . British couldn’t tolerate political awareness spreading among common people . This was nothing but sedition for administration because they exposed real, exploitative face of imperialism
Officials now publicly began to criticize & condemn Congress & other nationalist spokesperson. They were branded as disloyal babus, seditious Brahmins & violent villains
In 1887 , Dufferin attacked Congress by ridiculing it to be representing only a microscopic minority of people
British authorities pushed further their policy of Divide & Rule to counter nationalist movement
Encouraged Sayyid Ahmed Khan, Raja Shiva Prasad & Pro-Britishers to start anti congress movements. This started to drive a wedge between Hindu-Muslims
Cleverly exploited a controversy around Hindi & Urdu & give it a communal touch
Cow protection movement started by Hindu nationalist was used for same purpose
Achievements & contributions of Moderates
Creation of national
awakening among
the people and trained people in the art of the political work
Popularise the idea of democracy
& nationalism
among the people
Exposition of the exploitative character of the British imperialism eg
drain
of wealth theory & Economic Critique of
moderates was their greatest achievement
Creation of
the common political & economic programme around which Indians gathered
and waged political struggles
Providing sound base for foundation on which Indian national movement build up the
momentum
They adopted the values of
women empowerment , equality in the society and secularism and democracy
Shook the very belief that British Rule was for benefit
of Indians –
turned legislatures into forums
Limitations of Moderates
Don’t have much of political success to their credit but however meagre their success is it has to be seen in the context of prevailing political circumstances & colonial conditions they worked in
The movement under them failed to acquire roots in the masses and mobilise them & their programme remained confined to educated elite called Bhadraloks
Landed interests dominated : For initial few years British Indian Association of landlords was major source of their finance + among lawyers most of them had landed interest . They demanded extension of Permanent Settlement only in interest of zamindars + in 1898 pro zamindari amendments were added to Bengal Tenancy Act,1885 on their demand .
Didn’t take pro worker stand – They opposed factory reforms to improve living condition of the workers & were pro industrial class always .They were opposed to factory reforms like the Mining Bill, which proposed to improve the living condition of women and children and restrict their employment under certain age. They also opposed similar labor reforms in Bombay on the plea that they were prompted by Lancashire interests. However, they supported labour reforms for Assam tea gardens, as capitalist interest involved there was of foreign origin
Early moderates were all mainly Hindus barring notable Bombay politician Badruddin Tyabji . From 1892 to 1902- 90%. Hindus & 6.5 % Muslim delegates & among Hindus 40% were Brahmins & rest upper class Hindus . When congress demanded elected councils it was not liked by Sir Syed KHAN who feared that it would mean Hindu Majority rule . On cow protection issue although it has no sympathy with Hindu nationalists didn’t speak against them fearing losing Hindu votes & all this further alienated Muslims from them
This article deals with ‘ Revolt of 1857 – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Modern History’ which is important pillar of GS-1 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here
General Survey
Series of local risings &
civil disturbances was not a rare occurrence in British India . Novelty of
this mutiny lay in the wide extent of
area covered & its military potentiality . Revolts of 1857 in parts of central &
northern India resulted in the nearly collapse of British rule in these
regions until the spring of 1858
Revolt
witnessed extraordinary amount of violence unleashed on both
sides
British
Counter insurgency measures
Public Execution of rebels – blowing them off
from cannons & indiscriminately burning of their villages
Rebels
Rebels
massacred white civilians – women & children included . Bibighar Massacre in Kanpur was the most notorious
among all
Revolt ended the rule of the
EIC in 1858 by an act of the
Parliament . India was taken over by British crown
Revolt for long was mistaken to be mere mutiny of the Indian
Sepoys in Bengal army , was indeed joined by an aggrieved rural
society of the North India
Causes of Revolt
1 . Military Causes
1.1 Composition of the Army
Company while raising a standing army since mid 18th century respected traditions and customs of the indigenous communities . High caste identity of the army was deliberately encouraged . All sepoys were from Brahmin, Rajput & Bhumihar caste & their caste rule, dietary & travel restrictions were respected under instructions from Warren Hastings
But from 1820s , things began to change . Army reforms were initiated to make it more universalized & from 1830s army begun to curtail some of the caste privileges & pecuniary benefits
1.2 Bengal Regiment & Revolt
Mutiny mainly affected Bengal army : Madras & Bombay regiments remained quiet
while Punjabi & Gurkhas soldier actually helped to suppress the
rebellion (but half of the total army was in Bengal regiment ) . If we want to
know why revolt happened, we have to concentrate here.
Composition of the Bengal Army was to be blamed for
High caste background of the sepoys mainly recruited from Awadh gave it a homogeneous character
They were nurturing for a long time number of grievances : their religious beliefs had lately come in conflict with new service conditions .
They were refused to wear their caste marks
Forced to cross seas which was forbidden in their religion &
In distant campaigns forced to eat whatever necessary for survival which led to their boycott from society
Their salary levels dropped & they suffered discrimination in matters of promotion & pension
In 1856 , new service rules abolished their extra allowance for service outside their own regions
1.3 White soldiers vs Sepoys
By the 1850s, there were other
reasons for their discontent. The relationship of the sepoys with their
superior white officers underwent a significant change in the years
preceding the uprising of 1857.
In the 1820s, white officers made it a point to maintain
friendly relations with the sepoys. They would take part in their leisure activities – they
wrestled with them, fenced with them and went out hawking with them. Many
of them were fluent in Hindustani and were familiar with the customs and
culture of the country. These officers were disciplinarian and father
figure rolled into one.
In the 1840s, this began to change. The officers developed a sense of superiority and
started treating the Sepoys as their racial inferiors,
riding roughshod over their sensibilities. Abuse and physical violence
became common and thus the distance between sepoys and officers grew. Trust
was replaced by suspicion. The episode of the greased cartridges was a
classic example of this.
1.4 Christian missionaries in Army
There was constant fear among the Indian sepoys that British are determined to convert them into Christianity
Presence of missionaries , rumors about mixing cow & pig bone dust in flour & finally controversy about the cartridge of enfield rifles , all fitted well in this conspiracy theory
1.5 Other Religious beliefs shattered
In 1856, Act was passed under which new recruits had to give an undertaking to serve overseas, if required. Conservative beliefs of the sepoys were thus shaken & they sometimes reacted strongly.
This issue of crossing sea was sensitive & earlier in 1824, the 47th Regiment of sepoys at Barrackpore refused to go to Burma by sea-route because their religion forbade
1.6 Annexation of Awadh
Annexation of Awadh in 1856 had special adverse effect on the morale of Bengal army as 75% was recruited from this region
Governor General was earlier warned that every agricultural family in Awadh perhaps without exception sends one of its member into British army . Annexation of Awadh shook the loyalty of Sepoys & for them it was the proof of untrustworthiness of British
1.7 Sepoys = Peasants in uniform
Sepoys were peasants in uniform & they were anxious about the declining conditions of the peasants due to summary settlements in Awadh
Revolt was preceded by about 14,000 petitions from sepoys about hardships relating to revenue system
1.8 Introduction of greased Cartridge
Late Jan 1857: rumors started to circulate among sepoys in Dum Dum near Calcutta that the cartridges of new Enfield Rifle introduced to replace old Brown Bess musket has been greased with cow & pig fat
This confirmed the sepoys old suspicion about the conspiracy to destroy their religion & caste and convert them to Christianity . Although the production of these cartridges stopped immediately but trust that was breached was never restored
How to use Enfield Rifle and controversy surrounding this
It is much
more difficult to explain the civilian revolt that accompanied the mutiny.
Regions and people who were
beneficiaries of colonial rule did not revolt.
Bengal and Punjab remained
peaceful; the entire south India remained unaffected too.
On the other hand, those who
revolted had two elements among them-the feudal elements and the big
landlords on the one end and the peasantry on the other.
2. Exploitation of the peasants
To extract as much money as possible Company’s Administration devised new systems of land settlements – Permanent, Ryotwari and Mahalwari -each more oppressive than the other. Proprietary rights of the peasants were taken from them . This affected their social position to great extent . They were now mere tenants & owners of the land were zamindars
Peasants had to pay beyond their means & any adverse natural shifts like droughts or flood compelled them to go for loans to the money lenders who charged exorbitant interest. This made them heavily indebted to moneylenders & forced them to sell their lands
Peasantry was also oppressed by petty officials in administration who extracted money on the slightest pretexts. If the peasants went to the law court to seek redress of their grievances, they were bound to be totally ruined.
This nexus between the lower officials, law courts and money lenders created a vicious circle which made the peasantry desperate and ready to welcome any opportunity for change of regime.
3. Alienation of the Middle & Upper strata of Indians
During Mughals or even in administration of local princes & chieftains , Indians served at all the positions – both upper & lower but British administration deprived the Indians of higher posts which were taken mainly by British & Indians served only at subordinate positions.
In Military services, the highest post attainable by an Indian was that of a Subedar on a salary of ₹ 70 & in Civil Services that of Sadr Amin on a salary of ₹500 per month.
The cultural personnel like poets, dramatists, writers , musicians etc who were earlier employed by native states were now thrown out
Religious Pandits & Maulvis also lost their former power & prestige
4. Annexation of Princely States
Major grievances were
Annexations under Doctrine of Lapse : Satara, Nagpur, Sambhalpur
, Bhagat, Jhansi & Udaipur(sns buj) were taken like this in quick
succession . This amounted to British interference
in traditional system of inheritance & created a group of disgruntled
feudal lords . Their
right to succession wasn’t recognised .
Annexation of Awadh in 1856 : Awadh was annexed on excuse of
mismanagement & king was deported to Calcutta. This annexation didn’t affected nawab
&’his family but entire aristocracy
The Muslim feelings were hurt. Bahadur
Shah II , the Mughal Emperor was an old man who might die any moment.
Britishers recognised the succession of Prince Faqir ud Din but imposed many restrictions on him. Fakir died in 1856 & Lord Canning announced that the
Prince next in succession would have to renounce the regal title &
ancestral Mughal palaces in additions to renunciations agreed upon by
Fakir. These acts
greatly unnerved the Indian muslims who thought English wanted to humble
the House of Timur
Absentee Sovereignty-Ship of British Rule in India was also important
reason. Earlier rulers like Mughals or Afghans after conquering India had
settled here & became Indians. The revenue collected from the people were spent in
India only but in case of Britishers they were ruling from England &
draining India of her wealth.
Hence, various rulers took
arms against Britishers
Nana Sahib
– Leader at Kanpur – Adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II , who wasn’t recognised as next Peshwa
Begum Hazrat Mahal
Took control over Lucknow
Khan Bahadur Khan
Rohilkhand
Rani Jhansi
– Took control at Jhansi – Although she was earlier prepared to accept British paramountcy if her adopted son was recognised as legitimate heir to the throne
Case of Awadh
(This topic is explained at great length in NCERTs . Hence, we are covering this in detail)
Area which was the breeding ground of Revolt / Mutiny was Awadh. Here various events happened which made Prince , Taluqdars, Peasants and Soldiers to join hands with each other to oust their common enemy that is East India Company.
Important to study because majority of army that rebelled was from this region
Case of deposing
the King
The Subsidiary Alliance had been imposed on Awadh in 1801. By the terms of this alliance the Nawab had to disband his military force, allow the British to position their troops within the kingdom, and act in accordance with the advice of the British Resident who was now to be attached to the court. Deprived of his armed forces, the Nawab became increasingly dependent on British to maintain law and order within the kingdom. He could no longer assert control over the rebellious chiefs and taluqdars.
In the meantime the British became increasingly interested in acquiring the territory of Awadh. They felt that the soil there was good for producing indigo and cotton.
By the early 1850s, moreover, all the major areas of India had been conquered: the Maratha lands, the Doab, the Carnatic, the Punjab and Bengal. The takeover of Awadh in 1856 was expected to complete a process of territorial annexation that had begun with the conquest of Bengal almost a century earlier.
Lord Dalhousie’s annexations created disaffection in all the areas and principalities that were annexed but nowhere more so than in the kingdom of Awadh in the heart of North India. Here, Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was dethroned and exiled to Calcutta on the plea that the region was being misgoverned. The British government also wrongly assumed that Wajid Ali Shah was an unpopular ruler. On the contrary, he was widely loved, and when he left his beloved Lucknow, there were many who followed him all the way to Kanpur singing songs of lament.
Case of Taluqdars – Summary
Settlement
Countryside of Awadh was dotted with the estates and forts of Taluqdars who for many generations had controlled land and power in the countryside. Before the coming of the British, Taluqdars maintained armed retainers, built forts, and enjoyed a degree of autonomy, as long as they accepted the suzerainty of the Nawab and paid the revenue of their taluqs.
Some of the bigger Taluqdars had as many as 12,000 footsoldiers and even the smaller ones had about 200. The British were unwilling to tolerate the power of the taluqdars. Immediately after the annexation, the taluqdars were disarmed and their forts destroyed.
The British land revenue policy further undermined the position and authority of the taluqdars. After annexation, the first British revenue settlement, known as the Summary Settlement of 1856, was based on the assumption that the taluqdars were interlopers with no permanent stakes in land: they had established their hold over land through force and fraud. The Summary Settlement proceeded to remove the taluqdars wherever possible. Figures show that in pre-British times, taluqdars had held 67% of the total number of villages in Awadh; by the Summary Settlement this number had come down to 38%.
Case of Peasants
British land revenue officers believed that by removing taluqdars they would be able to settle the land with the actual owners of the soil and thus reduce the level of exploitation of peasants while increasing revenue returns for the state. But this did not happen in practice: revenue flows for the state increased but the burden of demand on the peasants did not decline. Officials soon found that large areas of Awadh were actually heavily overassessed
The dispossession of taluqdars meant the breakdown of an entire social order. The ties of loyalty and patronage that had bound the peasant to the taluqdar were disrupted. In pre-British times, the taluqdars were oppressors but many of them also appeared to be generous father figures: they exacted a variety of dues from the peasant but were often considerate in times of need. Now, under the British, the peasant was directly exposed to overassessment of revenue and inflexible methods of collection. There was no longer any guarantee that in times of hardship or crop failure the revenue demand of the state would be reduced or collection postponed; or that in times of festivities the peasant would get the loan and support that the taluqdar had earlier provided.
Case of Sepoys
The grievances of
the peasants were carried over into the sepoy lines since a vast majority
of the sepoys were recruited from the villages of Awadh.
Sepoys were peasants in uniform & they were anxious about the declining
conditions of the peasants due to summary settlements in Awadh . Revolt
was preceded by about 14,000 petitions from sepoys about hardships
relating to revenue system
5. Eroding feeling of British Invincibility
British
rule’s invincibility was eroding now .
British suffered reverses in wars
First Afghan war 1838-41
Punjab wars 1846-49
Crimean / Ukraine wars – 1854-56
Santhal Rebellion defeated British .
6. Administrative Causes
The administrative machinery
of East India Company was insufficient & inefficient . The land
revenue policy was very unpopular. Many districts of newly acquired states
were in state of permanent revolt & military had to be sent to collect
the land revenue . In the district of Panipat there were 136 horsemen for
collection of land revenue but only 22 for performance of police duties.
They eliminated
the middlemen by directly establishing contact with peasants . But the tax charged was
exorbitant . They alienated Taluqdars as well as peasants .
Confiscation
of estates on large scale was done. The Inam Commission appointed in 1852 in Bombay confiscated as many as 20,000
estates . Hence,
aristocracy was driven into poverty making them their staunch opponents .
7. Social & Religious Causes
Like all conquering people the
English rulers of India were rude & arrogant towards the subjects .
However, the English were infected with a spirit of racialism. The European officers in
India were very exacting & over bearing in social behaviour. The
Indian was spoken as nigger & addressed as a
suar or pig . It
may be easy to withstand physical & political injustices but religious
persecution touches tender conscience & forms complexes that are not
easy to eradicate .
That one of the aims of English was to convert Indians into Christianity was made clear by Directors of East India Company in House of Commons . Sepoys were promised promotions if they accepted the True Faith. The missionaries were given ample facilities & American Missionary Society at Agra had setup an extensive printing press .
Religious Disabilities Act ,1850 (Lex Loci Act) modified Hindu customs, a change in religion didn’t debar son from inheriting the property . Strange rumors were current in India that Lord Canning had been specially selected with the duty of converting the Indians to Christianity . In this surcharged atmosphere even the railways & telegraph & steamships began to be looked upon as indirect instruments for changing their faith.
8. Role of Rumors and Prophecies
According
to Britishers Rumours and Prophecies had most important role in this
That bullets of Enfield Rifle were greased with cow and pig fat which will defile the religion of Hindus and Muslims
Cow & Pig bone dust in atta (wheat flour)
British conspiracy to convert Military into Christianity
Battle of Plassey happened on 23 June 1757. They said there is prophecy that British rule will come to end after century ie 23 June 1857. Response to the call for action was reinforced by the prophecy
Discussion is not
whether those rumours were representing truth or not. But why people believed
those rumours
Rumors circulate only when they resonate with the deeper fears and suspicions of people. The rum ours in 1857 begin to make sense when seen in the context of the policies the British pursued (as mentioned above)
Events in military mutiny
29 March
– In Barrackpore near Calcutta , Sepoy by name of Mangal Pandey (of 34th Native Infantry) fired at European officer & his comrades refused to arrest him when ordered by European superiors – They were soon apprehended, court martialed & hanged in early April – Incidents of disobedience & arson were reported from army cantonments in Ambala , Lucknow & Meerut
24 April
– Meerut: 90 men of 3rd Native Cavalry refused to use greased cartridges – 85 dismissed & 5 given imprisonment of 10 years
9 May
In Meerut sepoys rescued their arrested comrades who previously refused to accept new cartridge , killed their European officers & proceeded to Delhi
12 May
– Killed all the Company’s officers in Red fort of Delhi (Simon Fraser was first to be killed) – Proclaimed Bahadur Shah as Emperor of Hindustan – From Delhi uprising soon spread to other army centers in North West provinces & Awadh & soon took shape of civil rebellion
Leaders of the revolt
Who were the leaders
To fight the British, leadership and organisation were required. For these the rebels sometimes turned to those who had been leaders before the British conquest ie Kings, Zamindars, Rajas etc
Along with that, at some places religious leaders especially Maulvis also emerged as leaders. Maulvi Ahmadullah was the most famous such leader
Elsewhere, local leaders emerged, urging peasants and tribals to revolt. Shah Mal mobilized the villagers of pargana Barout in Uttar Pradesh; Gonoo, a tribal cultivator of Singhbhum , became a rebel leader of the Kol tribals .
Whether leaders especially Kings were
joining the revolt on their own ?
One of the first acts of the
sepoys of Meerut was to rush to Delhi and appeal to the old Mughal emperor
to accept the leadership of the revolt. This acceptance of leadership took its time in coming. Bahadur Shah’s first
reaction was one of horror and rejection. It was only when some sepoys had
moved into the Mughal court within the Red Fort, in defiance of normal
court etiquette, that the old emperor, realising he had very few options,
agreed to be nominal leader of rebellion.
Elsewhere, similar scenes were
enacted although on a minor scale. In Kanpur, the sepoys and the people of
the town gave Nana Sahib, the successor to Peshwa Baji Rao II, no choice
save to join the revolt as their leader. So was Kunwar Singh, a local
zamindar in Arrah in Bihar.
In Awadh, where the
displacement of the popular Nawab Wajid Ali Shah and the annexation of the
state were still very fresh in the memory of the people, the populace in
Lucknow celebrated the fall of British rule by hailing Birjis Qadr, the young son of the Nawab,
as their leader.
Delhi
– Soldiers proclaimed Bahadur Shah as leader but real authority lied with soldiers – 3rd July : General Bakht Khan reached Delhi to lead the soldiers – Formed a Court of soldiers consisting of both Hindus & Muslims who took all decisions in the name of emperor – Fall to British on 20 Sept 1858 => Emperor taken as prisoner & his sons were butchered – Dealt by : John Nicholson ( from Punjab)
Bareilly
–General Bakht Khan led the troops to Delhi after defeating local British army – In Delhi , troops proclaimed Bahadur Shah Zafar as leader of the movement – After Bakht khan ,movement was led by Khan Bahadur – Dealt by JOHN NICHOLSON
Lucknow
– Begum Hazrat Mahal led the revolt after her adopted son Bijris Qadir was refused to continue to rule – Dealt by Colin Campbell
Kanpur
– Nana Sahib / Dhondu Pant – adopted son of last Peshwa Baji Rao II – Tantia Tope (Full name – Ram Chandra Pandu Ram Tope ) who was Guerrilla warfare expert was appointed as commander in chief and General of Nana Saheb but was betrayed by Man Singh – Siege of Kanpur – BIBIGHAR MASSACRE or Sati Chaura Ghar Massacre in which British entered into a promise with Nana Saheb & declared the area to be safe for British. But later he declared that he was with rebels . 200 Europeans including women & children were killed in Kanpur – Dealt by : Colin Campbell
Allahabad
– Led by Liyakat Ali – Dealt by Colonel Neil
Bihar
– Kunwar Singh who was zamindar of Jagdishpur (Bihar Arrah district) in his 70s led the revolt after British acquired his land – Most formidable challenge was posed by him to British Authority – Dealt by VINCENT EYRE
Faizabad
Maulvi Ahamadullah, native of Madras led the revolt
Jhansi
– Led by Rani Lakshmi Bai – Damodar Rao , her adopted son was refused as successor after demise of his husband Gangadhar Rao – Met Tantiya Tope at Kalpi, place between Jhansi and Kanpur – General Hugh Rose said about her => here lay the woman who was only man among the rebels (Indian National Army’s first female unit was named after her) – Dealt by : Hugh Rose
Demands of Rebels
As victors, the British
recorded their own trials and tribulations as well as their heroism. They
dismissed the rebels as a bunch of ungrateful and barbaric people. Apart from few proclamations and ishtehars (notifications) , we have nothing to
reconstruct the history of Revolt from their prespective. Sepoys were
common people mostly illiterate and hence didn’t wrote any of their
experience. Attempts to reconstruct the events of
Revolt of 1857 is thus heavily relied on what British thought.
Azamgarh Proclamation (25
August 1857) by Bahadur Shah
Repression by Britishers
It wasn’t easy for the Britishers to put down revolt.
Before sending out troops, large number of laws were passed and whole of North India was placed under Martial Law. Even military officers were given power to try and rebels only had one punishment – death
They, like the rebels, recognized the symbolic value of Delhi. The British thus mounted a two-pronged attack. One force moved from Calcutta into North India and the other from the Punjab – which was largely peaceful – to reconquer Delhi. British attempts to recover Delhi began in earnest in early June 1857 but it was only in late September that the city was finally captured. The fighting and losses on both sides were heavy. One reason for this was the fact that rebels from all over North India had come to Delhi to defend the capital.
In the Gangetic plain too the progress of British reconquest was slow. As soon as they began their counter-insurgency operations, the British realized that they were not dealing with a mere mutiny but an uprising that had huge popular support.
Military wasn’t the only thing they used. They tried to break away leaders from the rebels because they knew that rebels without leaders can be easily suppressed. In Awadh, many Taluqdars were promised their old estates to be given back to them. Rights of the rulers were promised to be recognized. Hence , they were able to break unity with diplomacy
Nature of Revolt
Various historians have given various interpretations at different point of times. Some of them are discarded now .
1 . Primarily a Mutiny of the sepoys , civilian participation being secondary phenomenon
The movement began as military mutiny which led to collapse of administration & law , other elements which had their own grievances also jumped into it
What began as a military mutiny ended in certain areas as outbreak of civil population
2. SEPOY MUTINY confined to army only
British historians like Kaye, Trevelyan , Lawrence, Holmes have painted it as mutiny confined to the army which didn’t command the support of the people at large
Similar view was held by many contemporary Indians like Munshi Jiwan Lal, Moinuddin (both eye witnesses at Delhi) , Durgadas Bandyopadhyaya (eye witness at Bareilly) & Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (Sadr Amin at Bijnor in 1857)
3. Revolution jointly organised & carried on by both the Hindus & Muslims
Some writers view it as
Hindu-Muslim conspiracy to replace British Government by national one
The great rebellion was outcome of
Mohammedan conspiracy making out capital of the Hindu grievances
Bahadur Shah’s indifference in
the beginning was a political trick which he wanted to play upon the
English through which he wanted to trap them
Not
accepted by historians now.
4. Religious war against Christians
Not accepted by Historians
One of the cause of the revolt
was certainly religious
But they revolted not to
uproot the Christianity but to defend their religion & afterwards
rebels forgot their religious motive
5. A Revolt started by Discontented rulers
Some historians opine that it
was revolt against the British only by those discontented native rulers whose territory, jagirs ,
pensions & allowances had been taken away
But those scholars who don’t
subscribe to this view say that neither all discontented feudal elements
nor all rulers had taken part in this revolt eg Jagirdars in Punjab who
has lost their land didn’t participate in it
6. Racial struggle for supremacy
According to some of the
English historians it was racial struggle for supremacy between the Black
& White
But this view is not accepted
. Certainly all whites were on one side but all blacks were not on other
side
7. War of Indian Independence
Vir
Savarkar , Ashok Mehta & JL Nehru hold this view
First given by VD Savarkar in 1909 in his book Indian war of Independence . Although his claim was vigorously denied by many &
said it was not war of independence but it can be
certainly said to be first
combined attempt by many classes of people to challenge a foreign power.
Later Historiography,
though accepting the popular character of the Revolt, laid emphasis on its backward -looking character. Bipin Chandra has
stressed this point: “The entire movement lacked a unified and forward
looking programme to be implemented after the capture of power”
Conclusion : It was something more than a Sepoy mutiny but something less than a national revolt
It was not national because
the popular character of the revolt was limited to North India alone while regions & groups
who were benefitted from colonial rule remained loyal & infact helped
in crushing the revolt
There was no consensus
or national cause for which they were fighting for . Everybody was fighting for
his/her petty gains & even if Britishers accepted their terms, they
were ready to join them
RC Majumdar – It was neither first nor national not war of independence
Its importance was indirect and posterior . As it is said that Julius Caesar dead was more powerful than when he was alive. The same thing can be said about the Mutiny of 1857. Whatever might have been its original character, it soon became a symbol of challenge to the mighty British power in India . It remained a shining example before the nascent nationalism in India in its struggle for independence from British yoke.
Was it organised , planned revolt or spontaneous ?
No reliable account left hence it is difficult to ascertain
Our study of history is based on British record of revolt of 1857 . Rebels did not leave any record . British suppressed any favorable mention of the revolt
If one look at the Chronology of events , it looks like the start of Revolt was spontaneous without any planning of mass uprising at same time . After it started , there was some communication between Sepoys of different regiments, Leaders of different places & some elements of organisation and planning was also present . But element of planning and organisation can’t be overemphasized.
Arguments for
Spontaneous Start
Bahadur Shah vacillated at the thought of becoming the Shahenshah-e-Hindustan to lead the revolt. If it was fully planned , then this wouldn’t have happened.
All the rebellious troops didn’t rise simultaneously
If one observes the dates of mutiny it would appear that as the news of the mutiny in one town traveled to the next , the sepoys took up arms.
Elements of
Organised Revolt later on
Bahadur Shah, after initial
vacillation, wrote letters to all the chiefs and
rulers of India urging them to organize a confederacy of Indian states to
fight and replace the British regime (as shown in Azamgarh
Proclamation)
Tantya Tope , commander of Nana Sahib later faught with Lakshmi Bai suggesting correspondance
between different leaders and mobilisation of resources in each other’s
help
It is clear that there was communication between the sepoy lines of various cantonments.
Sepoys or their
emissaries moved from one station to another to join revolt . People were thus planning
and speaking about the rebellion
Charles Ball noted that nightly Panchayat
of Sepoy leaders gathered in the Kanpur sepoy lines
to decide on further actions. What this suggests is that some of the decisions were
taken collectively.
Earlier there were theories that Message was conveyed to common public by circulation of chapattis, lotus flowers , propaganda by sanyasis , faqirs and mandarins. But this is uncertain and highly unlikely.
Causes of failure of Revolt of 1857
Revolt lacked universal support – various sections remained alienated – princes, merchants, intelligentsia
Lack of unity among Indians
Soldiers of Punjab & South India didn’t revolt & even helped to suppress mutiny
Possibility of revival of Mughals created fear among Sikhs who had faced much of oppression from Mughals earlier
Rajput Chieftains & Nizam of Hyderabad was suspicious of Maratha power
Zamindars in Bengal were creation of British & they supported them
Revolt lacked central & effective leadership. Strength & energy of insurgents couldn’t be channelized in absence of effective leaders . Although Indians had Rani Lakshmi Bai, Tantya Tope etc but they were no match to professionals like Havelock etc
Revolt was poorly organised & no unity of action & coordination . Many a time resurgent acted like unruly mob
Revolt was retrogressive in character . Leaders were devoid of modern outlook . They wanted to go to old order & hence intelligentsia not only remained aloof but helped in suppressing the revolt
Leaders were suspicious & jealous of each other . Begum of Awadh quarreled with Maulwi Ahmadullah . Similar was the case between Ahmadullah and Mughal Nawab
British had superior arms & backed by industrialized nation who can keep the war machinery running for long time & on other side rebels were short of ammunition .
Luckily for the Britishers, Crimean & Chinese wars were concluded in 1856 & as a result soldiers numbering 1,10,000 poured into India from all parts of the world to suppress revolt.
Railways, post & telegraph helped in fast movement of troops + facilitated exchange of info to coordinate their operations
British attitude after Revolt
1 . Transfer of Power
Power to govern passed from East India Company to British Crown through Act of 1858
Reason was political opinion in England which held that Company’s economic & administrative policies were responsible for widespread discontent among different segments of Indian society erupting in form of Revolt of 1857.
Now Secretary of State for India aided by a Council was to be responsible for governance of India . Earlier this power was with Directors of Company
2. Change in Military Organisation
Number of
European soldiers was increased and fixed at one European to two Indian soldiers in
Bengal Army and two to five in Bombay and Madras armies
European
troops were kept in key geographical and military positions. The crucial branches of the
army like artillery were put exclusively in European hands.
Organisation of the
Indian section of the army was now based on the policy of
“divide and rule”. Regiments were created on
the basis of caste , community and region to prevent the development of any
nationalistic feeling among the soldiers .
3. Divide & Rule
British thought that revolt was a conspiracy hatched by the Muslims & they were severely punished and discrimination made against them in public appointments
Later, Policy of preferential treatment of the Muslims was adopted towards the end of the 19th century. This contributed to the growth of communalism.
4. New Policy Towards the Princes
Earlier policy of annexation was now abandoned and the rulers of these states were now authorized to adopt heirs.
Authority of the Indian rulers over particular territories was completely subordinated to the authority of the British. They were converted into a Board of Privileged Dependents.
5. Search for new friends
Found in Zamindars whose existence depended on
them
This article deals with ‘Graphene.’ This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.
Introduction
Graphene is a form of carbon consisting of planar sheets (2D structure), which are one atom thick, with the atoms arranged in a honeycomb-shaped lattice.
Properties
Heat conductivity is 10 times better than Copper
200 times stronger than steel
1000 times electrical conductivity than Copper wire
Highly flexible and can flex 20% without damage.
Transparency is 97% (hence, it can be used to make flexible & unbreakable screens).
It has a high absorption capacity for Electromagnetic Waves
It has anti-bacterial properties.
It is biocompatible, i.e., it can hook up with biological cells.
To recreate bones as they mimic the environment of the bone.
Desalination: It can be used as a sheet in the process of reverse osmosis. With Graphene, the energy used in reverse osmosis is 45% less than ordinary process & the process is twice as fast (Note that cost of energy is the most expensive component in the whole process).
But the issue with graphene is it is challenging to make. Presently, large scale studies and experiments are going on to devise a method to make it at a large scale cheaply and out of laboratory conditions.
This article deals with ‘Nanotechnology.’ This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.
Introduction
Nanometre literally means 10^-9 (one billionth of matter). At this level, the material starts to display unique physical & biological properties.
Nanoscale operates at the scale of 1 to 100 nanometres.
Nanotechnology is the manipulation of materials at the Nanoscale (1-100 nm) to exploit properties that differ significantly from those on a larger scale.
What happens at Nano-scale?
Very High Surface Area to Volume Ratio.
Particles start to follow Quantum Physics (instead of Newtonian Physics).
History
The concept was given by Nobel laureate physicist Richard P Feynman in 1959. He said two things
Encyclopedia of the whole world can be shown on the tip of a needle.
There is a lot of space at the bottom.
The human body inspired his whole research. He observed that whole information about the human body is stored in DNA, RBCs that transport oxygen is of nano size, etc. Hence, he held that nanoproducts, if made, will be more efficient.
Norio Taniguchi presented large information about Nanotechnology in 1974. He made the first nano-objects and told the world about the real uses of nanotechnology.
How it is better than traditional techniques?
The problem of Size: Objects made with the Traditional Approach are large and hence wasteful.
Impact on the environment: Traditional Approach impacts the environment and body negatively. E.g., Global Warming after Industrialization & adverse effects of medicines on body.
Problem of Efficiency: Energy that can be utilised from traditional objects has an efficiency of just 10%. In Nanotechnology, efficiency can go up to 100%.
Expensive: Due to the large size of traditional objects, they are expensive.
Nanotechnology addresses all the above problems.
Stages of Nano-Technology
Four Stages of
First Stage
The first phase is also known as the Inactive Nanotechnology Stage
Nano Products made during this stage don’t play an active role.
E.g., Nanogel, Nano polymer, Nano metals etc., were produced in this stage.
This stage was operational till 2005.
Nano metals show properties that are entirely different from
traditional metallic objects of the same metal. E.g., Nano-Aluminium (aluminium
particles broken to Nanoscale) can be used as fuel, which is not possible with
ordinary Aluminium.
Second Stage
The second phase is also known as the Active Nanotechnology Stage.
Nanoproducts made in this stage play an active role.
E.g., Targeted Nano-medicines, transistors etc.
This stage was operational till 2010.
Third Stage
Nanoproducts made in this stage were 3 Dimensional
E.g., Nanomachines, Nanobots etc.
This stage was operational till 2015.
Fourth Stage
The fourth stage is also known as Molecular Nanotechnology Stage.
Nanoproducts made during this stage are molecules important for human use.
E.g., DNA, RNA, Proteins, Enzymes etc.
Artificial Gene was made in this stage.
The enzyme was made, which can transform nitrogen into nitrate. If commercially developed, it will end the use of Urea as this enzyme can convert nitrogen in air and field to nitrate.
We are living in the fourth stage of nanotechnology
Two Approaches of Nanotechnology
Nanoproducts can be made in two ways
1. Top to Down Approach
In this technique, large particles are converted to nanoparticles by dividing them again and again till we reach Nano-Levels.
First and Second Stage nanoproducts can be made with this approach.
2. Bottom Up Approach
Particles at the Quantum level are manipulated to convert them to Nanoproducts like Nanorobot, Nanomedicines etc.
Nanoproducts of 3rd and 4th generations are made in this.
Fullerene is considered the third form of Carbon. Most popular Fullerene is C-60 or Buckminster Fullerene.
They have a football shape.
Main use
Lubricant to reduce friction in machines.
Act as an antioxidant in the human body by neutralising free radicals.
They help in neutralising the pollutants that damage the Ozone layer.
3. Medicine
3.1 Quantum Dots
he quantum
dots are nanoparticles that tightly confine electrons (or
holes) in all three spatial dimensions, which can be activated by
radiation.
Special
features of Quantum dots based therapy are
Targeted tissue damage: They can be used to target specified locations by
attaching proteins or other polymers.
Activated by Light: When they reach their location, they can be activated
by light activating tightly confined electrons.
Applications of Quantum Dots
Target-based therapy: It doesn’t damage nearby healthy tissues & cells.
Quantum Dots can
even kill superbugs that
have become resistant to antibiotics.
It can be
used in the treatment of cancer by destroying tumour cells.
But extensive clinical trials are required to begin using quantum dots in routine treatment procedures.
3.2 Other Applications
Therapy techniques where nanospongesfreely flow in the bloodstream and attract toxins to themselves.
Nanobots can be used the target-based therapy.
Dabur has made Nanogel which can destroy cancerous cells.
Gene Sequencing: Nanodevices such as gold nanoparticles can be used to sequence DNA.
But most of the technology is still in the testing phase. As a result, we need more understanding before actually deploying nanomedicine on a commercial scale.
4. Military
Military Nanobots: Military Nanobots can perform works such as nano-drones, NextGen uniforms etc., for the military.
Smart dust may be employed for stealth monitoring of hostile environments. E.g., verification of the enemy’s whereabouts from their movements.
5. Water Treatment
Nanomembranes for water purification, desalination, and detoxification.
Nano-sensors for the detection of contaminants and pathogens.
6. Environment
Combating Carbon Emission: The researchers have developed a nanoCO2 harvester that can suck CO2 from the atmosphere and convert it into methanol.
Swarms of nanorobots shall sweep oceans disassembling pollutants to protect the marine environment.
Cleaning Water & Combating water pollution: Magnetically charged nanoparticles can adsorb heavy metals and dyes from the water bodies.
7. Textiles
Clothes that clean themselves: Being developed by a group of researchers at Monash University, Australia.
Fluorescent nanoparticles used to provide a range of visible colours in a single dye.
8. Computer
Nanotechnology will enable the creation of a new generation of computer components capable of storing trillions of bytes of information in the size of a sugar cube.
Help develop compact robots which can perform delicate human functions.
9. Automobiles
Toyota has been using nanocomposites in bumpers that are less heavy & twice the resistant to scratching.
Due to high surface area, they have been used in automotive catalytic converters.
10. Nanorobotics
Nanotechnology is the technology of creating robots or nanomachines at a microscopic scale or at least very close to that.
11. Agriculture
Nano pesticides: Nano pesticides are pheromones that lure insects to either trap or destroy them. Even a small amount is very effective.
Nanosensors: Nanosensors are used to detect pathogens & take proper remedial measures.
Side Topic: Nano-Fertiliser
India’s first Nano-Fertiliser has been made by Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA), Jodhpur.
Dr Tarafdar has developed the technology.
It is an enzyme that can convert atmospheric nitrogen to nitrate.
If it is commercialised, it can reduce Indian dependence on the import of fertilisers from outside and reduce the cost of production of farmers. It can also help in ending eutrophication and water pollution done by fertilisers.
Nanotoxicology
Nanotoxicology is the study of the toxicity of nanomaterials.
Toxicological Issues with Nano Materials
Because of quantum size effects & large surface area to volume ratio, nanomaterials are highly active even when made of inert elements like gold.
It may be hazardous because of its size as it can float in the air & might easily penetrate animal & plant cells.
Most human-made nanoparticles don’t appear in nature & living organisms may not have appropriate means to deal with them.
Nanotoxicological studies are intended to determine whether & to what extent these properties may pose a threat to the environment & human beings.
Guidelines for Safe Handling of
Nano Materials has been issued by the Government giving standard operating procedure (SOP) for
handling nanomaterials
Issues with Nanotechnology
1. Toxicity
Dealt Above
2. Ethical Issues
The
ethical question is where to mark the boundary to the use of Nanotechnology
because
Nanotechnology may be used in warfare
Nanotechnology may invade people’s privacy
3. Governance Issue
Nanotechnology is an interdisciplinary field. Hence, regulating such a sector is a problem.
4. Nano-Divide
Nanotechnology will bring a ‘technological tsunami‘ that would exacerbate the division between rich and poor known as Nano-Divide.
5. Relationship between developed & underdeveloped Countries
Properties at the Nanoscale may be used to imitate the properties of rare minerals, thus affecting the export rates of their main producers.
6. Human Resource Issues
A developing country such as India may struggle to find quality human resources, especially in an emerging field that requires cutting-edge research.
Nanotechnology & India
CNR Rao is known as the Father of Nanotech in India.
11th FYB & Nano Mission
In the 11th Five Year Plan (FYP), under the leadership of CNR RAO, Nano Mission was started in India, and ₹1000 crore were allocated for this mission.
Nano Mission of India has the following targets
Promotion of basic research in Nanotechnology
Developing laboratories for Nanotechnology
Training and Developing human resources in Nanotechnology
International Collaboration in Nanotechnology
As a result of this Mission, India in 2013-14 became the country from where 3rd largest number of research papers were published. Research papers were published in diverse fields like Nanomedicine, Nanogold, Nano filter papers, Nanosilver sheet etc.
12th FYP
12th FYP considered
Nanotechnology to be an expensive technique and reduced the funding in
this
Rs. 650 crores were earmarked
for Nano Technology.
The government has
specifically asked for application-oriented R&D in nanotechnology
(instead of merely going for research papers).
Nano
Mission is still active as part of the IMPRINT II program.
Other Steps
1. Laboratories
7 Centres for Nano Technology in IITs and other institutes have been opened.
2. International Collaborations
India has
signed MoUs with various countries to develop nanotechology. These include
Last Updated: June 2023 (Role of Family Society and Educational Institutions in Inculcating Values)
Role of Family Society and Educational Institutions in Inculcating Values
This article deals with the topic titled ‘Role of Family Society and Educational Institutions in Inculcating Values .’ This is part of our series on ‘Ethics’. For more articles, you can click here.
Concept of Socialization
To set the context for the article, we will first deal with the concept of socialization.
What is Socialization?
Socialization is the process by which a person develops values to live in society as a productive and participative member.
It is a lifelong process (from coming out of the womb to going to the tomb) of shaping an individual’s social tendencies so that he becomes and remains a useful and productive member of his society.
It is a process by which a nascent biological infant becomes a sharing and participating member of his society.
It is a process by which culture is transmitted from one generation to the next.
But why are we reading this? The answer is – If a question comes about how you will develop this value/attitude, this is the way out.
Agencies of Socialization
Values are developed by the following agencies
Mechanisms of Socialization
Observational Learning: The process of learning by watching others is known as Observational Learning. It occurs through social role models like parents, teachers, friends, siblings etc.
Conditioning: It is a deliberate effort to socialize individuals by attaching rewards and punishment to encourage and discourage the behaviour.
Role Playing: It is the process of imagining and visualizing oneself as someone else and acting like him. While playing such roles, the individual is able to get a feel of others and suitably modifies his response.
Trial and Error: It is based on self-learning and experiences.
Important Points
Socialization is the story of involving these agencies and mechanisms to develop certain individuals’ values. (by extension: if a person is showing those values/attitudes which are making him a liability to society, we can use this process to mould his values/attitudes accordingly)
Implicit in the idea of socialization is individual will have some discretion about which values he wants to imbibe and which he doesn’t want to imbibe.
Also, when an individual imbibes values, it is upon his discretion in which way he will behave to show that value. E.g. individual has imbibed the value of patriotism but now how he will show that value in his behaviour is upon his discretion.
Role of Family in the Socialization of Children
It is the informal agency of socialization.
Family is a network of relationships marked by cooperation, continuity and emotionality not duplicated in any other system.
How Parents help in the formation of values?
There
is close contact between the parents and children. Parents are more accessible
to the child than other members of the family. The minds of children develop in
a major way through the process of non-formal
education at home. Home is often said to be the first school, and
parents are the first teachers.
How Parents help in the formation of values?
As far as Value development is concerned, the family is one of the agencies in forming values. The same mechanisms are at play here, i.e. Observational Learning, Conditioning, Role Modelling and other family-specific things.
Observations: The child develops values by observing people who are significant to him. Since a child spends maximum time around their parents, it is natural that they observe them keenly and start to inculcate values shown by their parents.
Conditioning: Those values which are rewarded by the parents become strong, and which are punished become weak. Hence, parents, via this, help in the formation of values in children.
Role of Customs and Traditions: Customs and traditions taught by the family help the children to be disciplined and organized. But at the same time, if the female members of the family do not have freedom or if they are not allowed to work outside, children would develop the same patriarchal mindset.
Ensures smooth integration into society: Family inculcates the values which conform to societal norms and thus ensures value consensus to integrate the child into society.
Emotional Experience: If children grow among secure individuals, they start to trust people around them & their thinking becomes positive.
Democratic decision-making: The family should allow the child to participate in decision-making and let children put their views and thereafter take decisions. It helps in inculcating democratic values.
Helping children with good reading: Parents must encourage children to read good books and learn from them. Additionally, telling stories about the life of great persons can also help in this regard.
Further, we will discuss the ‘role of the family in socialization’ under 3 headings.
1. Styles of Parenting
It is the behaviour displayed by parents to discipline their children and inculcate values in them.
Parents translate their love and affection for their children into different styles of parenting.
Depending upon the style of parenting, it can be classified into
three types.
1.1. Authoritarian
They believe in restricting the autonomy of their children.
They impose their value system on their children. Hence children of Authoritarian parents are generally.
Either over-compliant or hostile
Less cooperative
More Self Centric
Less Compassionate
Less Empathetic
Biased or partial
In India, most children receive Authoritarian Parenting. The reason for this is the huge power difference between different family members. There is a clear hierarchy of power enjoyed by parents and children.
1.2. Democratic
They deal with their children in a rational & issue-oriented manner.
Unlike authoritarian parents who rely on physical punishment to discipline their children, democratic parents use the threat of withdrawal of love as a principle mechanism to discipline their children.
Democratic parenting requires two outstanding qualities, i.e. (1) Patience and (2) Tolerance. People are very low on these qualities even if educated. It is the reason why democratic parenting is rare, even in the case of educated parents.
If they make use of physical punishment, they explain to their children why they were given physical punishment.
They also provide positive re-enforcement on the display of desired behaviour.
Democratic parenting will develop the following values
Objectiveness
Impartiality
Cooperativeness
Tolerance
Patience
Empathy
Compassion
1.3. Permissive
Permissive parents provide their children with as much freedom as is consistent with the child’s physical survival.
Their parenting will be characterized by neglect, apathy and non-involvement.
Parents have indifferent behaviour towards their children, and as a result, children will develop the following values.
Avoidance
Non Involvement
Indifference
There is a tendency among children that they will identify themselves with negative role models and develop negative values. The reason for this is that parents have the least watch over their children due to complete indifference towards their children.
2. The role played by Mother
There is an emotional bond between the child and his caretakers. This bond is significant because it provides security to the child to explore his environment & becomes the basis for a future inter-personal relationship.
By the time they are one year old, all babies get attached to the mother. But the nature and quality of attachment differ. Based on the demandingness and rewardingness of the mother, attachment can either be secure or insecure.
Secure attachment is characterised by
A warm relationship between the mother and child
When mothering is consistent, and the mother presents herself as a rational role model to the child, then the mother-child relationship is characterised by trust and mutuality.
Insecure Attachment: When a mother is
Impervious to the needs of a child
Places unreasonable demands from the child
The mother-child relationship is characterised by neglect or indulgence, or excessive indulgence.
Secure attachment is important because
It will produce a value of empathy, tolerance, patience, impartiality, cooperation etc., in the children.
The insecure attachment will result in the following things in children.
Absence of bold and confident behaviour
Lack of trust, self-belief and cooperation
Poor achievement orientation & high dependency orientation
Avoidance of responsibility assumption
Hence, Insecure attachment provides none of the values demanded from civil servants like trust, transparency etc.
In most cases in India, the relationship is of an insecure type.
The reason for this is that due to the patriarchal setup of society and the
dependence of the mother on the males for resources, the mother herself is very
insecure.
3. Role of Fathers
Like the mother, the father also influences the child’s value development through Observational Learning & Conditioning (reward and punishment).
Boys, through their identification with their fathers, acquire gender-appropriate values and behaviour.
Likewise, girls, through the identification with their fathers, learn to make heterosexual adjustments.
UPSC (2017): “If a country is to be corruption free and become a nation of beautiful minds, I strongly feel there are three key societal members who can make a difference- the father, the mother and the teacher.” – A. P. J. Abdul Kalam. Analyse.
Role of School
School is the formal agency of socialization.
It steps into the life of a child when a child is 4-5 years old.
It helps children in the development of
Cognitive Skills: Through Curricular Activities
Social Skills: Through Extracurricular Activities
Interpersonal Skills: Through Extracurricular Activities
Psychomotor Skills: Through Curricular Activities
The school acts as a bridge between family and society and prepares the child for adult life.
The school helps the child to interact with those who are neither your friends nor your kin.
Agents that are at play in value development at School
1. Teachers
Teachers are great role models, and their action greatly impacts children at their impressionable age.
The main mechanisms used by them include
Observational Learning
Operant Conditioning (reward & punishment)
Through their unbiased treatment of the class, they help generate Impartiality.
Through their commitment, diligence and timeliness, they generate values of hard work, keeping commitments and observing punctuality.
They help to inculcate the value of rational and objective thinking and scientific temperament.
A teacher can help develop learners’ self-attributional patterns through judicious use of reward and punishment.
2. Curriculum
The curriculum should provide culture-specific inputs that facilitate the child’s adjustment to his socio-cultural milieu.
The curriculum should use anecdotes (storytelling) which can inculcate certain values in children. E.g. Stories of Panchatantra or stories of patriotism of freedom fighters etc.
3. Extracurricular Activities
These
are important to inculcate values of
Teambuilding
Cooperative behaviour
Responsibility assumption
Commitment
Tolerance
Patience
Side Topic: Schools as agents of socialization is failing because
There is a huge divide between text & context. The content is not in sync with the socio-cultural milieu. What is taught at school is challenged at home and vice versa. Hence, when the curriculum is designed, policymakers should be aware of the socio-cultural milieu of the child. Along with that, parents’ reorientation should occur parallel to children.
The scheme of evaluation is rotten, with more focus on fact memorization and reproducibility, and not on practical knowledge.
There is a lack of scientific temper in the content, which is driven by ideological colourization.
Role of Social Influence and Peer Pressure
Social Influence can be defined as a change in behaviour caused by real and imagined pressure from others (in society).
Peer Pressure involves interaction between coequals (in the above cases, the interaction wasn’t between equals).
The importance of peer group is at its peek during adolescence. It is the phase where an individual goes through emotional, physical and cognitive changes. Hence, adequate intervention by family and school is required to prevent any negative socialization. Peer group influences our life goals, occupational goals, behaviour etc.
The most effective social influence attempts to succeed in changing a person’s attitude and behaviour. But changing someone’s attitude is not necessary for social influence to occur; all that is required is behaviour change.
But the thing is, although social influence doesn’t require a person to change his Values and Attitude, he does change that gradually because if he is working against his values, that process will make him pass through Mental turmoil and conflict each time he does that. Gradually, to avoid this, he alters his values and attitude.
Categories of Social Influence
1. Conformity/Peer Pressure
It involves changing one’s behaviour to match the responses of others and to fit in with those around us.
Why person do this
To make a person socially acceptable
Avoid social rejection
Fear of being different from the group
2. Compliance
Act of changing one’s behaviour in response to a direct request from friends, neighbours, relatives etc.
3. Obedience
A special type of compliance that involves changing one’s behaviour in response to a directive from an authority figure
Obedience is a good & easy way of behaviour change because People usually accept their directives without giving much thought to what they are saying.
Other things related to when a person works in a group
Social Loafing: When a person works in a group, he tends to put less effort than he puts when working individually.
When a person is part of a mob or group, he loses his individuality), and he is at the mercy of the group, whether good or bad. These things result in mob violence because he dares not speak against what others are saying.
Group Think: The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in decision-making in a group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.
Role of Media
Media is the mode of communication. When this media appeals to the masses, it becomes a case of mass media. Hence, mass media is the entire family of technological devices that makes communication with the masses possible.
It is known as the ‘fourth pillar of democracy’ as it helps in ensuring the transparency and accountability of the government. Moreover, it acts as the linking pin between the government and the people.
How Media helps in Socialization
It helps in shaping the perception by educating the masses.
It is also the source of observational learning to inculcate values.
It provides us with topics for discussion.
Media influence our aspirations. The media has increased the aspirations of people for quality of life.
Problems with using media as a Source of Socialization
It has increased
Commodification
Consumerization
Increased feeling of relative deprivation
Disinhibition of various anti-social behaviours
Blurred the distinction between illusion and reality
Aspiration explosion
Paid News: Mass behaviour is not shaped by something neutral but by somebody who is controlling media with money power
Sensationalising of news may promote communal hatred.
Desensitization to violence
Advertisements shown on TV sometimes promotes Stereotyping (E.g., Fair and Lovely Ad) & objectification of woman.
Role of Religious Institutions
Religion can be defined as the collection of belief systems and world views intending to give meaning to life through various symbols, narratives and sacred histories.
Significance of Religion
Children’s level and type of religious socialization depend upon parental religious participation. It is observed that children raised in religious homes have more religiosity in their life.
It is an integrative social force. Religious rituals like weddings, funeral ceremonies etc., promote group solidarity and cohesion.
Provides us identity: Identity increases the sense of security in a person due to belonging to a collective.
Causality: We need religion to explain the causality of things where it is hard to find a scientific explanation of those things. But in cultures where the domain of Supernatural to explain cause is more, there is a low level of education and scientific temper.
Religion also plays a prophetic function. It provides authentic and time-honoured standards upon which institutional norms can be evaluated.
Religion provides society with a positive framework to manage frustration and miseries.
Entertainment: Religion is one of the most important sources of entertainment for people.
Religion helps man to know his creator, thus satisfying man’s intellectual nature.
Overall, religion plays an important role in social cohesion,
keeping the crime under check and upholding the moral fabric of the society.
Role of Workplace
Work is important for a person because it provides a person with an identity. Most researchers have concluded that occupational identity is the most critical identity for an individual.
The workplace provides job satisfaction which has an impact on interpersonal & social relationships.
The workplace provides individuals with work culture, i.e. ethos & values, wrt work. If the work culture is compatible with the individual’s socialization, job satisfaction will be higher. E.g., a Boss or Group leader has to provide Paternalistic touch to his team because Indians are socialized to live in such a society.
Values a person develops from Workplace are
Commitment
Diligence (persistent work)
Excellence
Team Spirit
Appreciation of Diversity
How Workplace can develop certain Value in the Employees?
Reward: It is a good method to
change attitude and behaviour but with three conditions attached
Saliency: Reward must be visible
Valiance: Reward must be something
which person wants (don’t give chocolate to diabetic person)
Contingency: Person must know what he
should do to get the reward
Poor work culture in organizations is because of the
absence of saliency, valiance & contingency in the reward system.
This article deals with the topic titled ‘ Human Values .’ This is part of our series on ‘Ethics’. For more articles, you can click here.
Introduction
Although value systems depend upon society, religion, geography etc., certain values are common to all humans. These values are found in all value systems and cherished by all humans. These are known as Human Values.
Freedom, Creativity, Love & Wisdom form the core of human values, and all other values revolve around them.
These are universal; i.e., even if we go to the earliest recorded human societies, we will find their existence. Hence, human values have played an important role in the evolution of human societies.
In simple words, ‘They remain static and never change with time or region.’
1. Freedom
Freedom is something fundamental in every living being. Every living being who has come on Earth wants to remain free. They always dislike bondage and restrictions.
Our history is full of the quest for freedom of individual & this has been a guiding principle of human civilization. Entire human civilization is based on this constant endeavour for freedom.
There are different perspectives on freedom
1.1 Individual Freedom
By individual freedom, we mean 5 types of freedoms.
Personal Freedom of the Individual: Every person wants to live his life in his way.
Societal Freedom: Freedom to do the type of work one wants to do, marriage partner one wants to have, a lifestyle one wants to have etc
Political Freedom: Every individual has the freedom to think about the political system one wants to live in. One can have his political ideology, political likes and dislikes, and nobody should be compelled to think on a particular line.
Economic Freedom: Freedom to do the type of business, choose the type of livelihood and job.
Religious Freedom: Freedom to have religious beliefs of his own, including the freedom not to believe in god.
The liberating concept behind individual freedom is the uniqueness of the individual, i.e. every individual is unique.
1.2 Intellectual Freedom
It is the freedom of mind and knowledge, the freedom to question the old ideas and create new ones, the freedom to think unthinkable, the freedom to explore the unexplored, and the freedom to reach unreachable.
Tagore has also written about Intellectual Freedom, i.e., “Where the mind is without fear, where streams of human reason are not lost in the sand of dead habits, in that light my country awakes.”
Intellectual Freedom helps the person to question the status quo, thus the road to development. Hence these intellectuals are always thought to be a threat to the rulers. Because of this reason, when the Pakistani army stormed East Pakistan, they targeted first Dhaka University.
Good rulers like Akbar, Chandragupta etc., patronized the scholars and intellectuals. Any society grows with the ideas and philosophies of these intellectuals.
1.3 Freedom of Will
Freedom of will denotes the freedom to choose between alternatives, achieve self-defined goals & bring changes for the betterment of the world.
1.4 Freedom from & Freedom to
Freedom from includes
Freedom from Gender discrimination
Freedom from Economic exploitation
Freedom from Mechanization of life
Freedom from Environmental pollution etc
Gains of ‘Freedom from’ are immense. Entire human civilization and progress rest upon ‘Freedom from’. It gives a real sense of comfort to human life in various ways, but it is very important to have a second type of freedom as well, i.e.’ Freedom to’.
‘Freedom to’ gives positive content. It includes the freedom to think, freedom to decide, freedom to be creative, freedom to actualize own potential, and freedom to live a good life.
Hence, the process which started with ‘Freedom from’
and is accepted now in all countries must be taken to the level of Freedom if
we want to achieve real human progress.
Side Topic: Freedom vs Discipline
We always want freedom. In the name of freedom, we want that we should be free to do anything without any condition.
But freedom comes with certain restrictions. Even our constitution agrees with this concept.
Freedom is not absolute and always comes with the cost of discipline. Hindi word for Freedom is Swadheenta which is the combination of two words, i.e. Swa, meaning Self and Adeenta, meaning control. Hence, Freedom is a thing in which a person is under self-control (not in control of others but not absolutely free).
Hence, freedom and discipline can be said to be two sides of the same coin. Freedom and discipline are correlated; one can’t exist without the other.
2. Creativity
It is important because, through creativity, civilization can grow, and it is the unique endowment of human beings.
Freedom & creativity are interlinked because no creativity can take place without freedom.
Creativity is of three categories
2.1 Intellectual Creativity
It involves the creativity of mind.
It is at play when scientists give new theories and axioms.
2.2 Artistic Creativity
Artistic creativity is more of creativity of the heart.
It is expressed through poetry, drama & other forms of literature and different art forms like painting, sculpture, music and decorative art.
2.3 Practical Creativity
Man has always been in search of creating something useful for humanity that should bring prosperity and comfort to the life of people.
It is expressed when engineers and scientists invent new creations with practical use (like cars, tractors, computers etc.)
The civil servant needs to be creative because the civil servant is expected not only to solve the problem but to anticipate the problem as well.
3. Love
Human Love is the binding force that unites one individual with another individual or with a group of people.
Categories of Human Love
3.1 Parental Love
Usually comes in the form of the mother’s love and the father’s love for the child.
A mother’s love for the child is totally unselfish; hence, it is the noblest kind of human love.
3.2 Love between man & woman
In Indian society, love between man and woman can only be legitimized through the union of marriage.
3.3 Love of God
Bhakti saints such as Mira, Surdas, Chaitanya etc., were so filled with the love for God that they left everything to attain their beloved.
This love is based on total devotion & complete surrender
3.4 Love among Equals
It is the basis of friendship and helps establish perfect harmony in society.
3.5 Spiritual Love
A spiritual person sees everybody in himself and himself in everybody.
4. Wisdom
It is related to the mind (as love is related to the heart).
The full flowering of both wisdom & love is necessary for becoming great. The good life is that which is inspired by love and guided by wisdom.
Wisdom doesn’t come automatically with the accumulation of knowledge. What is required is that there has to be an element of the experience.
The government doesn’t post newly recruited to IAS as head of the department, although he is more energetic. The reason is that a senior person is more experienced and hence wiser than newly recruit.
Wisdom helps us make the right choice when we are faced with two options that can’t be termed wrong, i.e., wisdom helps us make decisions when facing ethical dilemmas.
Wise persons have emotional maturity, aren’t overwhelmed by success and are depressed at failure. This is important in civil services because if a civil servant succeeds, he mustn’t be overjoyed. If he fails, he analyses the causes of failure and tries not to repeat the same mistake.
Last Updated: June 2023 (Ethics in Private and Public Relationships)
Ethics in Private and Public Relationships
This article deals with a topic titled ‘Ethics in Private and Public Relationships .’ This is part of our series on ‘Ethics’. For more articles, you can click here.
Ethics in Worklife
Every employer wants his employees to work efficiently, honestly and at their full capacity. It is a rightful expectation for an employer because he pays a salary to workers & in return, employees must also reciprocate.
The employee must develop loyalty to the organization. Loyalty to the organization means an employee should always work in the organization’s interests over his self-interests.
The organization should also look into the grievance redressal of the employees. Hence, a good organization must have a good grievance redressal mechanism. The grievance can be against salary, work conditions etc.
The employee must have a sense of responsibility. When a person is promoted, it means that the person’s responsibility has increased. But the irony of the situation is when a person is promoted, he only looks at the salary & authority and forgets responsibility.
The arrogance of power should be guarded against. Whenever we rise in an organization, various powers and authorities are vested in us. Typically, people develop arrogance of power in this process. Hence, this is the one area that one should look into.
Senior members should also display honesty and integrity because they are the torchbearers of the organization and act as role models for their juniors.
Worklife also has some minor virtues, which include
One should be cheerful.
One should be polite.
One should be courteous.
One should be punctual.
Ethics in Public Relationships
It refers to the moral principles that a person may follow when interacting with others and conducting business in their professional life.
Public life has to be in an ethical framework. When somebody enters public life, whether as MLA or MP, i.e. through the election system or as Civil Servant, i.e. through Selection System, he can’t say that they will conduct their life normally. There has to be some special ethics for such persons. Hence, a special ethical framework is prepared for the people in public life. They are supposed to be strictly guided by that ethical framework.
Principles in Public Relationships
Selflessness: Holders of public office should act solely in the public interest.
Integrity:Holders of public office shouldn’t obligate themselves in any way, whether financially or otherwise, to outside individuals or organizations
Objectivity: Public officials should take decisions based on merit
Accountability: Holders of public office should be accountable for their actions taken by them.
Openness: Holders of public office should be as open as possible
Honesty: Holders of public office must declare any private interests relating to their public duties
Loyalty to the Organization
Spirit of Service
Fairness & Justice
But in previous years, moral erosion of public servants has been observed. Reasons for moral erosion are
Lack of accountability and responsibility: If anything goes well, there is no shortage of people to claim that they are behind that. But if anything goes wrong, nobody is ready to take responsibility.
Sacrificing ethics, values, integrity and spiritualism: These things are sacrificed in comparison to materialism & worldly success.
Social Acceptance: Society as a whole has started to accept corrupt people.
Failure on the part of family, schools, society and institutions to inculcate values
Mega Administration, slow methodology and decision-making delay: Each department and institution has grown vertically and horizontally. It has created confusion in the hierarchy leading to delays in decision-making.
Soft Society, tolerant public opinion and politico-business-bureaucracy nexus: The public doesn’t resent wrongdoings. It gives decision-makers more liberty to commit such crimes in future.
Ethics in Private Relationships
It refers to the ethical principles that a person adheres to when dealing with other people and situations in daily life. It primarily involves relations with family & friends.
They are informal in nature since they are built on emotional ties rather than any formal procedures that govern them.
Principles in Private Relationships
Although
private ethics differ from person to person, some common principles are
shared and accepted by society. For example –
Honesty: Being truthful and transparent in your personal relationships is important.
Respect: Respecting the boundaries, beliefs, and opinions of others is essential in maintaining healthy relationships.
Fairness: Treating others with fairness is important.
Confidentiality: Maintaining confidentiality and privacy in personal relationships and not sharing personal information without their consent.
Empathy: Demonstrating empathy and compassion towards others by listening to and understanding their concerns.
Communication: Effective communication is essential in maintaining healthy relationships.
Loyalty: Loyalty to the partner and family members is essential.
Relation between Private Ethics & Public Ethics
The distinction between private and public ethics is dubious because, in public and private lives, a person lives by the same ethical values in general. Moreover, no sharp line can be drawn between where private life starts, and public life ends for a Civil Servant. The very philosophy of Civil Service says that when a person becomes Civil Servant, he loses his individuality and becomes part of larger order.
Furthermore, one cannot expect someone who lacks moral character in public life to be ethical in their private life and vice versa. How a civil servant treats women in his family is reflected in how he handles female co-workers.
There should be no conflict between personal and professional ethics as it may lead to frustration, guilt, confusion & dissonance in the mind of some persons.
But at the same time, Ethics in public life places a greater responsibility & a person cannot always follow his personal ethics. For example, personally, one may feel abortion is morally wrong, but as a doctor, he needs to do an abortion according to professional ethics. When performing a role in public, one must separate his personal life and strictly follow a professional code of conduct.
A person’s private life can act as a motivating factor but many times can be depressing. The environment from which a person comes to the office daily certainly influences his behaviour for the rest of the day.
His personal affiliations, the ideology of his family and his convictions can stop him from taking rational decisions
How to ensure that both lives remain separate
Take decisions rationally and objectively based on facts and merits only.
Go by the code of conduct when faced with dilemmas.
Be impartial always and ensure that your actions aren’t only impartial but look to be impartial too.
When with family, spend quality time with them and don’t bring your office between you and them. Make them feel that you are not ignoring them, so they are helpful when you are in important public concerns and do not bother you.
This article deals with the topic titled ‘Temple Architecture .’ This is part of our series on ‘Culture’. For more articles, you can click here
Introduction
Earlier Hindu temples were rock cut temples . When construction of stupas started , construction of free standing hindu temples also started
Basic structure of Hindu temple – Consist of following four parts
Garbhagriha
– Garbhagriha literally ‘womb-house’ – Main icon of the presiding deity of temple was placed in it. – It was a small cubicle with a single entrance in Early Temple . Later, it grew into a larger chamber
Mandapa
Entrance to the temple which may be a portico or colonnaded hall
Shikhara /Vimana
– From the 5th century CE onwards, freestanding temples started to have a mountain- like spire. They are of two types 1. Curving Shikhar in North India 2. Pyramidal tower, called a Vimana, in South India
Vahana
– Mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity It is placed axially before the sanctum (like Nandi Bull in Brihadeshwar Temple)
And the entry of temples was East-facing
Different styles of Temples
Nagara Style
Tower is SHIKHRA : shaped like beehive & made up of layer upon
layer (curvilinear)
Dravida style
Tower is VIMANA : progressively smaller storeys of pavillions
Vesara style
Has both Nagara & Dravida components
Images in Temples
Every region and period
produced its own distinct style of images with its regional variations in
iconography. The temple is covered with elaborate sculpture and ornament
that form a fundamental part of its conception.
The placement of an image in a
temple is carefully planned: for instance,
river goddesses (Ganga and Yamuna) are usually found at the entrance of a garbhagriha in a Nagara temple,
dvarapalas (doorkeepers) are usually found on the gateways or gopurams of Dravida temples, similarly, mithunas (erotic images), navagrahas (the nine auspicious
planets) and yakshas are also placed at entrances
to guard them.
Various forms or aspects of
the main divinity are to be found on the outer walls of the sanctum.
Subsidiary shrines around the
main temple are dedicated to the family or incarnations of the main deity.
1 . Nagara School of Architecture
Became popular in North India & central parts (except Peninsular India).
The entire temple built on a stone platform with steps leading up to it.
Unlike in South India, it does not usually have elaborate boundary walls or gateways.
Tower (sikhara) gradually curves inward and is capped by a spheroid slab with ribs round the edge (Amalaka) ending with Kalasha give the elevation. This Shikhar was representation of Hill especially Mt Meru .
Earliest temples had just one tower, or shikhara, later temples had several. The garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest tower.
Absence of tank in temple (unlike Dravida Style).
Raised but no outer wall (southern temples have wall around them)
Plan maybe square or rectangular.
Nagara School
3 sub-schools were gradually developed under Nagara Style
Odisha School/ Kalinga School (some consider this as a separate school while others as sub-school of Nagara)
Khajuraho School
Solanki School
and many other minor sub-schools like that which developed in Hills, Assam, Bengal etc.
1.1 Kalinga School of Architecture
Main features
Two main
parts
Deul
Main Building with Tower
Jagmohan
Hall
Both are lavishly sculpted with architectural motifs
& figures
Deula means shrine in odiya & there are
three types
Rekha Deula
– Tall building + different parts in it are in line(rekha= line) – Eg : Lingaraj Temple
Pidha Deula
– Square building with pyramid shaped roof – Mainly Jagmohan of temple are made like this.
Khakra Deula
– Rectangular building with truncated pyramid shaped roof like gopuras – Closely resemble with Dravidian Gopuram style – Temple of feminine deities are made like this . – Eg Gauri temple in Bhubaneswar & Baitala deula in Bhubneshwar dedicated to Chamunda
Mostly plan
of temple is square except Khakhra Deula where it is Rectangular
They have outer boundary
Characterised
by Kalash
Main temples
Shatrugangeshwara temple
– Oldest surviving structural temple in Odisha – Dedicated to Pashupata sect of Shivaism – Noted for Bho feature (=temple feature that consist of Chaitya Arch with Kirtimukha above )
Mukteshwar Temple, Bhubneshwar
– Built in 10th century – Represent full development of Kalinga architecture – Small with deula less than 35 feet ( will keep on getting higher in gradual phases) – Structure is profusely carved Nagas & naginis can be seen with their long serpent tails (favourite theme of Odiya sculpture )
Rajarani temple, Bhubneshwar
– Built around 1000AD – Unique as this temple led to development of architecture of other temples especially at Khajuraho – Called love temple because of erotic carving of maidens & mithuns – Jagmohan has pidha roof & deul has many clusters of tower built around it – Entrance of jagmohan has nagas & naginis and Yaksha & Yakshinis
Lingaraj Temple, Bhubneshwar
– Built in 12th century – It represents zenith and deula is 150feet high + balance & proportion of various parts is perfect – Originally presiding deity of Temple was Linga (aniconic form of shiva) & was built by Somavanshi dynasty but when Vaishnavite Ganga Dynasty came, they remodelled it & present deity is Harihara (Hari=Vishnu& Hara=Shiv) – Built in Rekha Deula style with all components in line ( ie vimana+ Jagmoham+Natamandira(festival hall)+ Bhogamandapa(offering hall) )
Sun Temple,Konark
– Made in 13th Century – Also called Black Pagoda – World heritage site – Built by Narsimhadeva I of Ganga dynasty. – Very special design . Deul & Jagmohan was designed to be Chariot of Sun & has 24 wheels& 7 horses in front – Main High Deul behind Pidha Deula is already broken now . Earlier it was present. Hence, it is very much similar to other Temples of Kalinga School – Three types rocks used ie Chlorite+Laterite + Khondalite(all transported here by rafts on water)
1.2 Solanki School of Architecture
Sub-type of Nagara School of Architecture but has certain regional features too. Prominent among regional features was use of white marble because that was easily available in Rajasthan.
In Gujarat & bordering districts of Rajasthan
Solankis were Branch of Chalukya Rulers (10th to 14th Century)
Features
Massive rectangular stepped tank . On steps there
are small temples
Influence of the
woodcarving tradition of Gujarat is evident in the lavish carving and sculpture
work.
However,the
walls of the central small shrine are devoid of carving and are left
plain as the temple faces the east and, each year, at the
time of the equinoxes, the sun shines directly into this central shrine
Most of these temples are dedicated to Jain
Tirthankaras . Hence, erotism is
missing in this school.
Eg : Vemela Temple at Mount Abu (11Century) , Somnath
Temple in Kathiawar (12th Century)
Examples of temples
1.2.1 Dilwara Temple at Mt Abu (Raj)
Five legendary marble temples of Dilwara
Sacred pilgrimage place of the Jains.
Marble temples have an opulent entrance-way but simplicity in architecture reflecting Jain values like honesty and frugality.
These Jain temples were patronized by two Generals of Chalukyas ie Vastupal & Tejpal
1.2.2 Sun Temple at Modhera (Guj)
Dedicated to Sun God
1.3 Khajuraho School of Architecture
Subtype of Nagara School
Ancient time= Kings didn’t directly patronised any temple building
Medieval times= Kings started directly building temples to commemorate victory or fulfil order of deity
Bhundelkhand/Jejabhukti has long history of temple building with Barhut stupa & temples at Deogarh . In Medieval India , two dynasties ruled here –Chandelas & Kalachuris & both were constantly in touch either as friends or foes
In 10th & 12th century, there was peace in this region. Hence, art & culture flourished here
Main features
Standard type of Khajuraho temple has a shrine room, an assembly hall, and an entrance portico. These entities were treated as a whole, whereas in the Odishan style they were concieved as separate elements joined by vestibules.
Shikhara is curved for its whole length, and miniature sikharas emerge from the central tower. The halls and porticos of the temple are also crowned with smaller towers which rise progressively to lead the eye upto the main tower, and give the impression of a mountain range.
Both interior & exterior walls were lavishly decorated . Sculptures were based on erotic themes of Kamasutra
Most of them follow Panchyatana Style (note – Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh is nearby)
Why so many temples at same place?
Almost all temples are strikingly homogeneous & built over small time
Speaks of dynasty’s desire to create grand center of worship & learning at Khajuraho
Erotic element
Khajuraho’s temples are also known for
their extensive erotic sculptures
Erotic expression is given equal importance in human experience as spiritual pursuit, and it
is seen as part of a larger
cosmic whole. Sex was not seen as taboo but as part and parcel of life in that age
These brahmanical religions
were trying to survive in that age & avoid people from adopting Brahmacharya and Shrmana traditions. If whole society would have
become monk by giving up peasures of life, it would have brought end to
the social structure. Hence, kings were very much concerned to bring
people back to fold of life (we can observe that such eroticism was
absent in Buddhist & Jaina monastries because they wanted people to
give up everything and become monk in search of truth)
It is also worth noting that only 10% of the carvings contain sexual themes and rest depict every day life of common persons
Main temples
1 . Chausath (64) Yogini temple
Built by Harshvardhana(not Chandelas) & first temple to be built here in Khajuraho
Dedicated to Goddess Durga & she is attended by 64 yoginis
Associated with the rise of Tantric worship
Lava stone used & plundered by Muslim invaders
2. Lakshman Temple
Dedicated to Vishnu Chaturmurti & Built by Dhanga in 930 to 950
Grandest of
all.
Panchayatan style
Apsaras &
Nayikas have won universal admiration for their grace & charm
3. Kandariya Mahadev Temple
Largest & most ornate temple of Khajuraho
1017 to 1029 AD & dedicated to Shiva
Towering Shikara (which is almost 100feet high) & its subsidiary replicas present grand analogy to Mt.Kailasha(shivas abode)
Panchayatana style & layout similar to Kalinga
4. Chaturbhuja Temple
Situated 5
kms from Khajuraho
Modest
platform with mandapa & paridakhshinapatha & has only sanctum
In this
temple, Lord Vishnu is depicted like earlier statues of Buddha
1.4 Other Schools in Nagara Style
1.4.1 Ahom Style
Ahom Style developed in and around Guwahati.
Kamakhya temple, a Shakti Peeth, is dedicated to Goddess Kamakhya and was built in the seventeenth century is good example of this architecture
Main characters
Main material used is terracotta
Shikhara has influence of buddhist Pagoda in them
Roofs adapted for heavy rainfall
1.4.2 Hilly Areas
Brahmin pundits and Buddhist
monks frequently travelled there and as a result, Buddhist and Hindu
traditions began to intermingle and spread in the hills.
The hills also had their own
tradition of wooden buildings with pitched roofs. At several places in the
hills, therefore, you will find that while the main garbhagriha and shikhara are made in Nagara
style but mandapa is of an older form of wooden
architecture. Sometimes, the temple itself takes on a
pagoda shape.
2. Vesara Style /Chalukya Style
Developed
under the patronage of Chalukya dynasty during 7-8th Century CE around Aihole, Badami & Pattadakal .
Vesara
/Hybrid/Karnataka Style of Temple
architecture combines the Nagara
& Dravida styles .
In this ,
both styles competed with each other for influence to make new type in
each temple but at the same time,
none overpowers other . In every temple, level of influence of both
schools is in different proportion . Hence, each temple is unique in
itself as far as architecture is concerned.
Found in Deccan region
Attained its ripest expression under the Hoysalas of
Dwarasamudra
(Halebid) . During Hoysala Period star shaped plans were executed on
platforms.
Time Period –
8th to 14th Century
Stones were
perfectly joined without the use of mortar
Several cave
temples related to Jains , Buddhists & Hinduism were constructed
Vesara Style
passed through three phases
First Phase
at Aihole and Badami by Chalukyas
Second phase
at Pattadkal
Third Phase
under Western Chalukyas
& Hoysala Dynasty
2.1 1st Period- Famous Temples
Temples at Aihole
Aihole is often called City of Temples
Ladkhan temple, Aihole
– Earliest temple built in 5th century – Not knowing how to built a temple, mason made it in Panchayat hall kind of design with large hall & 12 pillars – It has inclined roof to allow water runoff & is imitation of wooden frame structure – Dedicated to Durga & Shiva linga also present – Lad khan is the name of Muslim Prince who later converted this into his residence
Ravana Phadi Cave
– In Aihole & built around 550 AD – Dedicated to Shiva Earliest rock cut temple in Aihole (later 70 more built )
Durga Temple
– Dated to 6th Century CE & Influenced by Buddhist Chaitya style – Not dedicated to Durga but Durga word denote FORT. It was in vicinity of fort and hence called Durga Temple . – Dedicated to Vishnu – Standing on high platform with Shikhara which is broken now . – It is the most elaborately decorated temple in Aihole.
Hacimali Gudi
Similar to Durga Temple but smaller than that
Meguti Temple
Unfinished Jain temple
Temples at Badami
Built by carving red sandstone cliffs present there
Total of 4 temples present there
3 Brahmanical Temples
1 Jain Temple
2.2 2nd Phase – Pattadakal
Due to frequent raids by Pallavas as a result of ongoing feud, Chalukyan capital was shifted to Pattadakal from Aihole.
10 temples
are present here out of which 4 are
in predominantly Nagara Style and 6 in predominantly Dravidian Style
Papanatha Temple
– Started in Nagara Style but later changed to more balanced Dravidian Style – Sculptures speak of scenes of Mahabharata & Ramayana – This temple has many similarities with Navabrahma temples in Alampur built by same dynasty
Virupaksha Temple
– Dravidian Style Built by Queen Lokamahadevi in 745 AD to commemorate her husband’s victory (Vikramaditya II) over Pallavas of Kanchi . It resembles the Kailashnatha temple in Kanchi (made what victors saw there) – Rich in sculptures like those of Lingobhava , Nataraja , Ravanugraha & Ugranarsimha – Has wonderful Nandi porch in front
Sangameshwar Temple
Dravidian
Style
2.3 3rd Phase – Western Chalukyas and Hoysalas
2.3.1 Western Chalukyas
Their
buildings are wide spread unlike earlier Chalukyas of Badami
Mixture of
both Nagara & Dravidian architecture (ie Vesara or
Central Indian style)
Most temples
dedicated to Shiva & some to Vishnu & Jain tirathankars
Ornate columns present (
called Gadag style as most commonly found in temples of Gadag )
Temples were
either Ekakuta or Dvikuta
Ekakuta
One Mandapa of one shrine
Dvikuta
One Mandala(common of two shrines)
Earlier
Grabagrihas were simple square shaped but this period saw departure &
more complex star shaped came to existence(zenith during Hoysala time)
like 6 edged ,12 edged & most complex 24 edged were also found
Important Temples
Truketshwara Temple, Gadag
– Recognised by ornate columns – Ornate columns style is known as GADAG STYLE because such temples are found in Gadag – Dedicated to Shiva & three lingas on one stone is present here
Kasivisvesvara Temple
– One of the most ornate temple – Dvikutta Temple – Initially built by western Chalukya but later additions by Hoysalas
Mahadeva Temple ,Itagi
Fine example of Dravida articulation in Nagara style
Doddabasappa temple , Dambal
Difference from previous that previous that it is 24 interrupted star shaped temple (earlier 6 or 12 only)
2.3.2 Hoysala Dynasty
Star shaped platforms became prominent
The temples have highly ornamental porches , additional open Mandapa , very artificially carved doorways , scenes on panel shown densely carved images of gods, animals & demons.
Shikharas aren’t very high
Minute carvings are well integrated into architecture
Examples – temples at Somnathpur, Belur & Halebid.
Important Temple : Hoysaleshwar temple, Halebid
Built by
Vishnuvardhana
Halebid =
Capital of Hoysalas
Ornate style
& Dvikuta temple
3. Dravida School of Architecture
It is the oldest school of architecture
This style developed under Pallava Patronage and continued to flourish under Imperial Cholas .
Plan include a small sanctum sanctorium within a square enclosure serving as Pradakshina . Other features include pillared halls, corridors & majestic gopurams (later additions)
The shape of the main temple tower known as vimana in Tamil Nadu is like a stepped pyramid that rises up geometrically rather than the curving shikhara of North India. In the later period , Vimana became so compressed that they almost appear hidden under the preceding one.
In the South Indian temple, the word ‘shikhara’ is used only for the crowning element at the top of the temple which is usually shaped like a small stupika or an octagonal cupola— this is equivalent to the amlakha and kalasha of North Indian temples.
Shikhar is crowning element at the top of temple . It is shaped like an octagonal cupola (Vimana de uppar jehda gola a , oh Nagara Style de Gole to alag a, observe below ) . It is equivalent to Amalak & Kalash of Nagara style
Entrance of temple‘s Garbhagriha has sculpture of Dwarapalas guarding the temple (whereas in Nagara style there are images of Mithunas & river Goddess Ganga & Yamuna)
There is only one Vimana in Dravidian School ( whereas in Nagara School there are multiple Shikharas also on subsidiary shrines )
Gopurams (entrance gate) are the principal features in the quadrangular enclosures that surround the more notable temples.
Pillared halls used for various purposes
Plan of Dravida Temple (taking example of Brihadeshwar Temple)
3.1 Pallava Architecture
Dravida style developed under the royal patronage of Pallava kings and continued to flourish under Imperial Cholas
There are 4 stages of its early development
Stage 1 : Mahendra Group
Built under patronage of Mahendravarman I (600-625 AD)
Influenced by Cave style architecture
But Pallava caves and shrines are less complex and smaller than those at Ajanta & Ellora & relatively plain
The cave façade is generally plain with Dvarapalas usually marking the ends
Example :Mandagapattu temple Villupuram,TN
Rock cut temple & built by Mahendravarman
Built by cutting single rock & no metal or wood is used
First to have icons of Dwarapalas which later became tradition in south indian temples
Stage 2 : Narsimha Group
Narsimhavarman I (625 – 670 AD) / Mahamalla
Several Rathas or small monolithic temples & more elaborate caves were carved out
More elaborate Pallava caves are located in Mamalapuram (aka Mahabalipuram) named after Pallava king Narsimhavarman I aka Mahamalla (the great hero)
Some caves like Adi varaha caves are preceded by Tanks
Rockcut caves at Mahabalipuram have many mythological scenes carved in relief including Vishnu rescuing the earth , Vishnu taking three strides , Gajalakshmi and Durga , Mahishasuramardini in Durga cave and Krishna lifting Govardhana Mountain (Pancha Pandava Cave)
The main figures are slender, delicate and elegant . Their headdress and crowns are quite plain and they wear little or no jewellery
Panchratha
Temples
At Mahabalipuram , there are 9 rock cut temples of which 5 are clustered together . The name of great Pallava builder king Mamalla was in later time misunderstood as referring to 5 Pandava heroes and these temples came to be associated with 5 Pandavas and Draupadi.
They have no religious significance either, as they remained unfinished and unconsecrated; the uncut rock parts at the base and top of the rathas are still visible.
Work on these five rathas was discontinued following the death of Narasimha Varman .The purpose of their construction is not known as the structures were not completed
Stage 3 : Rajsimha Group
Narsimhavarman
II Rajasimha (700-728 AD)
Development of real structural
temples (rockcut replaced by
structural temples)
Shore
Temple , Mahabalipuram
Assigned to
reign of Rajsimha but additions may have been made in later times too
This has
three shrine areas containing a stone Shiva Linga , Somaskanda (Shiva with
Uma & Skanda , a popular theme in the Pallava period) and Vishnu
The relief
sculpture of the temple are very eroded due to the effects of the sea
breeze and sand
Kailashanatha
Temple at Kanchipuram
Within a
large rectangular enclosure is a complex consisting of a square sanctum
enshrining a linga
The Shikhara
is in the typical southern style .
The enclosure
walls of the complex are heavily ornamented with sculptures
Has large
number of Lion sculptures (lion was the insignia of Pallavas)
Stage 4 : Nandivarman Group
Development
of small temples
Dravidian
style continued
3.2 Chola Architecture
Dravidian style got fully
developed during
Chola period
Early chola
temples were made on banks of Kaveri river which are smaller & brick
made while Imperial Cholas had colossus buildings (post 850 AD)
Ganas among
temples are most memorable figures
Brihadeshwara Temple, Tanjore
Magnificent Shiva temple of Thanjavur, called the Rajarajeswara or Brihadiswara temple, was completed around 1009 by
Rajaraja Chola, and is the largest and tallest of all Indian temples.
Biggest of all Dravida Temples
Multistoreyed Vimana 200 ft
tall
Monolithic Shikhara
Two large gopurams at
entrance (first temple to have Gopurams)
Huge Lingam in two storeyed
Sanctum
Nandi is
carved out of single rock is placed in Nandi Mandapam
Was dedicated to Lord Shiva by Rajraja Chola I ,when he triumphed ILAM(Sri Lanka)Island
Wonder is that the vimana has withstood six recorded earthquakes – in 1807, 1816, 1866, 1823, 1864 and 1900
3.3 Vijayanagara Architecture
Last bastion of Hindu Empire
after Sultanate attacked India.
Rulers built magnificent
cities & beautified them with temples & splendid houses ,grand
palaces, public offices, irrigation works. This was testimony of wealth
& prosperity of the times
Numerous temples built which
stand as testimony to general conscious of rulers as custodians of Hindu
religion & culture
Temples were also the
institutions through which significant political control was established
& played important role in legitimising & sustaining kingship
Temple enclosure became more
spacious
Temple walls had painted
relief panels from Mahabharata & Ramayana
Puranic themes were used for
decorating the Gopurams
Gopurams grew in size and
number both
Major elements of the temples included impressive
Gopurams , Kalyanamandapas , Garbagrihas & Amman Shrine
Kalyanmandapam
– Ornate pillared pavilion with an elevated platform in the centre , used for placing the image of diety & his consort for ritual purposes on ceremonial occasions . – In this, deity moved from garbagriha to this place and worshiped . – Marriage also take place here
Garbagriha
Sanctum Sanatorium
Amman
Shrine
Subsidiary temple for the consort of deity of Garbagriha
Gopuram
– Vijayanagar rulers are famous for Gopurams(Colossal Towers) formed at the entrance to temple . – It added to picturesque grandeur of temple . – Most famous gopuram is of Ekambarantha Temple (188 feet high & 10 storeys with exquisite sculpture on it)
Monoliths
– Huge monoliths of Hanuman & Narsimha are architectural marvel – Resembles Nandi bull of Cholas
Use of Pillars increases
Horse is the most popular animal to be depicted (because of extensive horse trade
happening here)
Secular buildings have Indo-Islamic
features like the
use of dome which was present on every elephant stable.
Example – Ruins at Hampi having
Hazaraswamy Temple
Krishnaswamy Temple
Vitthalswamy Temple
Parvati Temple at Chidambaram
Talkanteshwar Temple at Vellore
Vardaraja & Ekambarnath temple at Kanchipuram
Krishnadeva Raya built temple city of Nagalpura in the honour of his mother Nagamba
Important Temples
Virupaksha
Temple
– Oldest & principle temple of Hampi – Three towers & eastern tower reaches to height of 160feet & is 9 tired – Dates back to 15th century & was renovated in 16th century by Krisna Deva Raya – Principle Deity is Shiva also called Virupaksheshwara – Gopuram is massive
Vittalaswami
temple
– Fine example of magnificence in floral sculpture – Patronised by Vijayanagar court – Resembles Konark temple on small scale
Hazara
Rama Temple
– Its walls & pillars illustrates main events from Ramayana
Elephant
Stable
– Most noticeable part is dome over it – Islamic architecture started to mix due to Sultanate impact
About City Of Vijayanagar
Studded with number of grand
palaces , public offices & irrigation works
Royal palace according to Paes (travellor) was even greater than Palace of Lisbon
Lotus Mahal – example of Indo Saracenic Temple
Krishna deva raya built huge
tank for water supply to city & irrigation
Unfortunately most of city was
destroyed in acts that followed after Battle of Talikota . Today city of
Hampi which is also a UNESCO world heritage site remains merely a vast
open museum
