Science and Technology

This article deals with ‘Generations of Wireless Communication .’ This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

• COMPUTER = Commonly Oriented Machine Particularly Used for Trade, Education and Research.
• The computer is an electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user, processes the data, gives the result and saves it for future use.
• Hence, Computer must perform 4 functions

1. Speed (the usual computer can do 3 million calculations per second).
2. Accuracy (if there is any error, it is due to the programmer’s mistake in writing the program. Computer will process data according to the program).
3. High Storage Capacity.
4. Automation (give the program to the computer and it will keep performing the task according to the commands without human intervention).
5. Diligence
6. Flexibility

• Charles Babbage is considered to be the father of the computer.
• Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine which was made in 1812 is considered to be the first Computer.
• Even today, computers are made on that framework.

Based on various stages of development, computers can be categorised into different generations:-

Pre Modern Computer

• Abacus: It is made up of a frame in which rods are fitted and round beads slide on the rod. A person can do calculations fastly using Abacus.  It was developed primarily in Egypt in the 10th Century. Later, it evolved with time and what we know as the abacus today was made in China in the 12th Century.
• Napier’s Bones: It is a type of Abacus made by John Napier. Numbers were printed on Bones (instead of beads in the abacus).
• Pascal’s Calculator: It is an  Adding Machine made in 1640 by Blaise Pascal. 
• Leibnitz calculator: It was made in 1646. It was a mechanical device that can do addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

First Generation

Second Generation

Third Generation

Fourth Generation

Fifth Generation

Sixth Generation

• The computer is a combination of hardware and software.
• Hardware is the physical component of a computer like a motherboard, memory devices, monitor, keyboard etc., while the software is the set of programs or instructions. Both hardware and software together make the computer system to function.

Input Unit

• The input unit is used to feed any form of data to the computer.
• Example: Keyboard, mouse, etc.

Microprocessor / Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• It is known as the brain of the computer.
• The CPU or microprocessor is a programmable multipurpose silicon chip. It is driven by clock pulses.
• It accepts input as binary data and after processing, it provides the output data as per the instructions stored in the memory.

The microprocessor is made up of 3 main units. They are:

Arithmetic and Logic Unit

• ALU performs arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and logical operations.
• The result of an operation is stored in the internal memory of the CPU.

Control unit

• The control unit controls the flow of data between the CPU, memory and Input / Output devices.

Registers (Internal Memory)

• It serves as the main memory, also known as primary memory or semiconductor memory.
• They hold the instruction and data for the execution of the processor.

Characteristics of Microprocessors

A Microprocessor’s performance depends on the following characteristics:-

Types of Micro-processors

Depending on the data width that microprocessors can process, microprocessors can be classified as

1. 8-bit microprocessor
2. 16-bit microprocessor
3. 32-bit microprocessor
4. 64-bit microprocessor

Output Unit

• Output Unit is any hardware component that conveys information to users in an understandable form.
• Example: Monitor, Printer etc.

Memory Unit

• A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions.
• Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data and instructions are stored.

1 . Keyboard

• The keyboard is the most common input device used today.
• It has the keys for letters, numbers and special characters. It also has Function keys for performing different functions.
• Note: Keyboard was introduced with 84 keys. Nowadays, a minimum of 101 keys is present on the keyboard (frequently asked question).

2. Mouse

• The mouse is a pointing device used to control the movement of the cursor on the display screen. It can be used to select icons, menus, command buttons or activate something on a computer.
• The mouse was invented and developed by Douglas Engelbart and was patented in November 1970.
• There are different types of mouse
  1. Mechanical Mouse
  2. Optical Mouse
  3. Laser Mouse
  4. Air Mouse
  5. 3D Mouse
  6. Tactile Mouse
  7. Ergonomic Mouse
  8. Gaming Mouse

3. Scanner

Scanners work like a Xerox machine. They convert any type of printed or written information including photographs into a digital format.

4. Fingerprint Scanner

• Fingerprint Scanner is a fingerprint recognition device that works on biometric recognition technology.
• It is more secure and convenient than passwords as passwords are vulnerable to fraud and are hard to remember. On the other hand, every human has a unique fingerprint that can be used as a password to unlock the device using Fingerprint Scanner.

5. Track Ball

• The trackball is similar to the upside-down design of the mouse.
• In Track Ball, the user moves the ball directly while the device itself remains stationary. The user spins the ball in various directions to navigate the screen movements.

6. Light Pen

• A light pen is a pointing device shaped like a pen and is connected to a monitor.
• The tip of the light pen contains a light-sensitive element that detects the light from the screen enabling the computer to identify the location of the pen on the screen.

7. Optical Character Reader (OCR)

• OCR is a device that detects characters printed or written on paper.
• With OCR,  a user can scan a page from a book.  The Computer will recognise the characters on the page as letters and punctuation marks and stores them. The Scanned document can be edited using a word processor.

8. Bar Code / QR Code Reader

• Bar code is a pattern printed in lines of different thickness. QR (Quick Response) Code is the two-dimensional bar code that can be read by a camera and processed to interpret the image.
• The Bar code reader scans the information on the bar codes and transmits it to the Computer for further processing.

9. Digital Camera

• Digital Camera captures images/videos directly in the digital form.
• It uses a CCD (Charge Coupled Device) electronic chip. When light falls on the chip through the lens, it converts light rays into digital format.

10. Touch Screen

• A touch screen is a display device that allows the user to directly interact with a computer by using the finger.
• Touch screens are used on a wide variety of devices such as computers, laptops, monitors, smartphones, tablets, cash registers and information kiosks. 

11. Keyser

• Keyser is a device for signalling by hand, by way of pressing one or more switches.
• Modern keyers have a large number of switches but not as many as a full-size keyboard.

1 . Monitor

• The monitor is the most commonly used output device to display the information.
• It looks like a TV.
• It is also known as a visual display unit.
• Pictures on a monitor are formed with picture elements called PIXELS.
• Monitors may either be  Monochrome which displays images in White or can be colour, which displays results in multiple colours.
• There are many types of monitors available such as
  1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
  2. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
  3. LED (Light Emitting Diodes).
• The monitor works with the VGA (Video Graphics Array) card. The video graphics card acts as an interface between the computer and the display monitor. Usually, the recent motherboards incorporate built-in video card.

2. Plotter

• The plotter is an output device that is used to produce graphical output on papers.
• It uses single colour or multi colour pens to draw pictures.

3. Printer

• Printers are used to print the information on papers.
• Printers are divided into two main categories:
  1. Impact Printers
  2. Non Impact printers

Impact Printers

• These are the old type of printers.
• With this type of printer, a character is formed when something strikes the paper and ribbon together.
• Examples: Dot Matrix printers, chain printer and Line matrix printers are impact printers.
  • Dot-matrix printer prints using a fixed number of pins or wires. Each dot is produced by a tiny metal rod, also called a “wire” or “pin”, which works by the power of a tiny electromagnet or solenoid, either directly or through a set of small levers.  It generally prints one line of text at a time. The printing speed of these printers varies from 30 to 1550 CPS (Character Per Second).
  • Line matrix printers use a fixed print head for printing. Basically, it prints a page-wide line of dots. But it builds up a line of text by printing lines of dots. Line printers are capable of printing much more than 1000 Lines Per Minute, resulting in thousands of pages per hour.
• These printers also use mechanical pressure to print on multi-part (using carbon papers).

Non-Impact Printers

• These printers do not use striking mechanism for printing. They use ink spray, toner powder, electrostatic or laser technology to form the character.
• The quality and speed of these printers are better than Impact printers.
• Laser printers and Inkjet printers are non-impact printers.
  • Laser printers mostly work with similar technology used by photocopiers.  It makes a laser beam scan back and forth across a drum inside the printer, building up a pattern. It can produce very good quality graphic images. One of the chief characteristics of a laser printer is its resolution – i.e. Dots per inch(DPI). The available resolution range around 1200 dpi. Approximately it can print 100 pages per minute (PPM).
  • Inkjet Printers use colour cartridges that combined Magenta, Yellow and Cyan inks to create colour tones. A black cartridge is also used for monochrome output. Inkjet printers work by spraying ionised ink on a sheet of paper. The speed of Inkjet printers generally ranges from 1-20 PPM.

4. Speakers

• Speakers produce voice output (audio).
• Using speaker along with speech synthesise software, the computer can provide voice output. This has become very common in places like airlines, schools, banks, railway stations, etc.

5. Multimedia Projectors

• Multimedia projectors are used to produce computer output on a big screen.
• These are used to display presentations in meeting halls or in classrooms.

Memory Unit is of two types which are primary memory and secondary memory.

1. Secondary memory is used to store the data permanently. For example Hard disk, CD-ROM and DVD ROM.
2. Primary memory is used to store data temporarily.

Primary Memory

• Primary memory is used to temporarily store the programs and data when the instructions are ready to execute.
• For example : Random Access Memory (RAM).

Random Access Memory (RAM)

• Random Access Memory is available in computers in the form of Integrated Circuits (ICs).  It is the place in a computer where the Operating System, Application Programs and the data in current use are kept temporarily so that they can be accessed by the computer’s processor.
• RAM is a volatile memory, which means that the information stored in it is not permanent.  As soon as the power is turned off, whatever data resides in RAM is lost.
• It allows both read and write operations.

Secondary Memory

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

• Read-Only Memory refers to special memory in a computer with pre-recorded data that cannot be modified.
• ROM stores critical programs such as the program that boots the computer.
• Data on the ROM chip cannot be modified or removed and can only be read.
• ROM retains its contents even when the computer is turned off. So, ROM is called non-volatile memory.

Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM)

• Programmable read-only memory is also a non-volatile memory on which data can be written only once. Once a program has been written onto a PROM, it remains there forever.
• PROM differs from ROM.  PROM is manufactured as blank memory, whereas a ROM is programmed during the manufacturing process itself. A PROM programmer or a PROM burner is used to write data to a PROM chip. 

Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM)

• Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory is a special type of memory that serves as a PROM, but the content can be erased using ultraviolet rays.

Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM)

• Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge.

Cache Memory

• The cache memory is a very high speed and expensive memory, which is used to speed up the memory retrieval process.
• Due to its higher cost, the CPU comes with a smaller size of cache memory compared with the size of the main memory. Without cache memory, every time the CPU requests the data, it has to be fetched from the main memory which will consume more time.

Software is a set of instructions that perform a specific task. Parts of computer which are virtually present and cant be touched are known as Software.

The software can be classified into two types i.e. (1) Application  Software and (2) System Software.

1 . Application Software

• Application software is a set of programs to perform a specific task.
• For example, MS-word is an application software to create a text document and VLC player is a familiar application software to play audio, video files and many more. 

2. System Software

• System software is a type of computer program that is designed to run the computer’s hardware and application programs.
• Examples include Operating System and Language Processor.

India has a well-developed software industry because

• Not much capital required to set up the Software industry (Just a computer will do).
• The English language is understood by the majority of Indians.
• Human Resources are present.

• An Operating System (OS) is system software that serves as an interface between a user and a computer.

• The functions of an Operating System include file management, memory management, process management and device management and many more. Without an Operating System, a computer cannot effectively manage all the resources.
• When a computer is switched on, the operating system is loaded into the memory automatically.
• Famous Operating Systems include
  1. Windows (of Microsoft)
  2. Android (of Google)
  3. Macintosh (for MacBook) and iOS (for iPhone and iPad)
  4. Ubuntu (Linux)

Graphene is a form of carbon consisting of planar sheets (2D structure), which are one atom thick, with the atoms arranged in a honeycomb-shaped lattice. 

• Heat conductivity is 10 times better than Copper
• 200 times stronger than steel 
• 1000 times electrical conductivity than Copper wire 
• Highly flexible and can flex 20% without damage. 
• Transparency is 97% (hence, it can be used to make flexible & unbreakable screens).
• It has a high absorption capacity for Electromagnetic Waves
• It has anti-bacterial properties.
• It is biocompatible, i.e., it can hook up with biological cells.

• Baby whose genetic makeup has been altered using genetic engineering techniques (like CRISPR Cas9) to ensure the presence, absence or enhancement of certain traits. 
• These traits include 
  1. Appearance (like height, skin colour, eyes etc.)
  2. Disease resistance
  3. Intelligence
• Bio-information of physical characteristics is encoded in the genetic material. With the ability to alter this information, scientists try to control some of these features.

Pros of allowing this technology

• It reduces the risk of genetic diseases. Thus, it prevents the next generation of the family from getting characteristic diseases.
• It has the potential to increase the human life span by up to 30 years.
• Designer babies have a greater probability of success in life.
• Development in the field will help in a better understanding of genetics.

Cons of allowing this technology

• It will create a social gap as the designer babies will have better looks, intelligence etc. and thus more chances of success. 
• The genetic engineering technology used is not 100% safe yet. 
• It has the possibility of damaging the gene pool.
• It is not an inclusive technology as it is expensive, and only the rich can afford it.

2019: A Chinese scientist claimed that he made the world’s first “genetically-edited” babies in whom a gene linked to HIV was removed using the CRISPR technique.

• Euthenics is the science of improving the well-being of humans by improving the external factor of their environment.

• In contrast to Eugenics which is a capitalist ideology, Euthenics belongs to socialist ideology. It emphasises that instead of changing the genes, governments should provide a better environment for the people to develop.

• The term ‘Genetic Engineering’ was coined in 1951 by Jack Williamson. 
• It is the process of direct human manipulation of the organism’s genome.  
• It involves introducing the foreign DNA into the organism of interest to add one or more traits that aren’t found naturally in the organism. 
• The organism thus produced is known as GMO or Transgenic organism.

• Genome is relatively resistant to change. To deter any changes from being inadvertently made to DNA, cells have inherent mechanisms to proofread and repair their genetic code. Remarkably, researchers have taken advantage of the cell’s DNA repair mechanisms to achieve genome editing. 
• To accomplish this, scientists can use 
  • Artificially engineered enzymes called nucleases act as molecular scissors and are used to crack open DNA strands.  
  • Once the break is introduced in DNA, the cell will detect the problem & quickly activate repair machinery. 
  • DNA sequence designed to be inserted is also sent along with a nuclease, such that when a cut is made in the DNA, the cell’s own repair mechanism can use the DNA sequence supplied to replace an existing DNA sequence. 
• This method allows scientists to change the genetic makeup of cells directly.  

Genetic material can be inserted from the same species as well as other species. Accordingly, they are known as Transgenic and Cisgenic GMOs.

1. Gene delivery tools

• Genes are inserted into the body using vectors which are usually viruses.
• Viruses can produce other problems like
  • Toxicity
  • Immune response
  • Inflammatory response
  • Gene control and  targeting issues

2. High costs

• The whole process is quite expensive and hence not inclusive. It will create the division in society between haves and have-nots.

3. Ethical Dilemma

• Principal concerns include morality, eugenics helping the fittest to survive, ongoing clinical debates about informed consent, religious debate, the possible rise of clones, designer babies, and possibly super-humans.

4. Informed consent

• In the case of germline therapy, it is impossible to obtain informed consent as the patients affected by the editing are the embryo and future generations.

5. Limited knowledge of the functions of the genes

Scientists know functions of limited genes, and worst is in some cases, scientists don’t know whether a particular gene is performing more than one function

6. Others

• It might lead to designer babies & the commodification of children.
• It can be used in biological warfare.
• Recreation of extinct species can lead to disasters.
• If a wrong DNA segment is inserted and if it gets expressed, it can cause new diseases in human beings.

Side Topic: Gene Knock Out

A gene ‘knock out’ is a genetically engineered organism that carries one or more genes in its chromosomes that have been made inoperative.

Currently, four families of engineered nucleases (Molecular Scissor) are used: 

• Mega nucleases
• Zinc finger nucleases
• Transcription Activator like  Effector based Nucleases (TALENs)
• CRISPR- Cas System (Most advanced & important)

CRISPR/Cas9 System of Germline Editing

• CRISPR Cas 9 technology works like a cut-and-paste mechanism on DNA strands. The DNA strand identifies the specific location of the genetic codes that need to be changed or “edited” and then, using the Cas9 protein, which acts like a pair of scissors, that location is cut off from the strand. Once the DNA strand is broken, it has a natural tendency to repair itself. During the auto-repair process, Scientists intervene by supplying the desired sequence of genetic codes that binds with the broken DNA strand.
• Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 2020 was awarded for discovering the CRISPR Cas9 scissor.
• It is a revolutionary technique for Gene Editing with very high efficacy 
  • CRISPR: It is the mechanism that Bacteria uses to protect themselves from viruses. In this system, DNA is plucked out of Virus and inserted in little bits into the bacterium’s chromosome. In this way, Bacteria records the viruses it has been exposed to so that cells are protected from those viruses in the future. 
  • Cas 9 is a cutting enzyme. 

Stage 1

Guide RNA is shepherded with Cas 9 System 

• RNA is used to guide Cas 9 to the targeted position.
• Cas 9 is used to make a cut. 

Stage 2

• Cas 9 locks onto DNA & unzips it (both strands are divided).

Stage 3

• Cas 9 snips the DNA, creating a break in both strands.

Stage 4

• The DNA will repair itself using an inbuilt repaid mechanism using a piece of single-stranded DNA injected into the cell that binds itself with the broken DNA strand.

Why it is revolutionary

• It is cheaper (than already existing gene-editing technology).  
• It has very high efficacy.

Uses and Problems now

Its applications are immense, and it has made the designer baby a reality. Since it will have a wide range of ethical and social implications, inventors Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier have called for Moratorium until proper consensus on its use is made. 

• Cure to diseases: CRISPR Cas-9 technology is used to treat many incurable diseases. It includes the cure for Sickle Cell Anaemia, diabetes, inherited eye diseases, and various types of cancers.
• Controlling number of mosquitos: Scientists have used the CRISPR technique to produce sterile male mosquitos of species that are responsible for spreading diseases such as malaria, dengue, zika etc. 
• Some scientists call for bringing extinct species back to life using this technology, like the Oxford Universities project on reviving Mammoth.
• Designer Babies: Bioethicists fear abuse of gene editing by the private sector, preying on a parent’s desire to create a perfect child. In 2018, a Chinese researcher disclosed that he had altered the genes of a human embryo to prevent the infection of HIV. It was the first documented case of creating a ‘designer baby’, and it caused widespread concern in the scientific community.
• Issue of Informed Consent: Bioethicists have also raised the concern that it is impossible to obtain up-to-date consent for germline therapy because the patients affected by the edits are the embryo and future generations.
• Inclusivity Issue: Only wealthy people will be able to afford this technology, increasing existing disparities and creating another class of haves and have-nots.

The stem cells are the class of undifferentiated cells that have the ability to differentiate into specialized cell types.

Stem cells should be:

1. Undifferentiated cells having the ability to divide & differentiate themselves into specialized cells
2. It has the capability of self-renewal, i.e. reproducing itself

1. Embryonic Stem Cells

• They are derived from the embryo.
  • Humans reproduce sexually, i.e. need sperm and eggs.
  • The sperm fuses with the egg to form a fused product called Zygote. This cell divides itself to form different organs like eyes, heart, lungs etc., i.e. one cell is capable of producing an organism.
  • Hence, embryonic cells have the ability to differentiate themselves into different specialized cells.
• They are Totipotent, i.e. can become any specialized cell & organ.

2. Non-embryonic /Somatic/ Adult Stem Cells

• Adult Stem Cells exist throughout the body after embryonic development. They are found inside the different tissues such as the brain, bone marrow, blood, blood vessels, Skeletal muscles, skin & liver.
• They remain in a quiescent or non-living state for years until activated by disease or tissue injury.
• They can divide or self-renew indefinitely, enabling them to generate a range of cell types from the originating organ or even regenerate the entire organ.
• Generally, adult stem cells are limited in their ability to differentiate based on their tissue of origin. 
• Adult stem cells are rare in mature tissues. Hence isolating these cells from adult tissue is challenging, and methods to expand their numbers in cell culture have not yet been worked out.

3. Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs)

• Adult cells that have been genetically reprogrammed to an embryonic stem cell-like state.

• Stem cells are generally derived from embryos, as adult stem cells are difficult to extract. But human rights advocates view this as equivalent to murdering a child.
• It was also against the conservative Christian beliefs and was vehemently opposed, especially in the USA. Republican governments were totally against this as they favoured promoting Christian ethics.

Converting ordinary cells to Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells – Gurdon & Yamanaka

• A single cell in the form of a Zygote formed after fertilization of egg and sperm differentiates to specialist cells like heart cells, liver cells, skin cells etc. Earlier, it was thought that this natural process was irreversible.
• But Gurdon and Yamanaka identified the genes to make any cell pluripotent and also showed that cells can be programmed to any specific cell like Bone Marrow or heart cell.
• It solved the issue of killing embryos to get Stem Cells.

• Ethical concerns: Ethical dilemmas in using stem cells involve the destruction of human embryos to obtain stem cells. In the USA, Christian values against the destruction of embryos stymied the research in stem cells.
• Efficacy of Stem Cell Therapy: iPSCs don’t have 100% efficacy, and in many cases, reprogrammed cells can result in cancerous cells by rapid division
• Inclusivity issue: Stem Cell therapy is costly, and the poor can’t afford it. Hence, it is not inclusive.

• Western Countries have strict regulations and restrictions on the use of Stem Cells, but no such regulation was earlier present in India. Due to a lack of regulations and cheap treatment, many terminally ill patients were coming to India for treatment.

• In 2018, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare proposed to amend the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940, to bring Stem Cell and Stem Cell-based products under legal regulation. Under the amendments, Stem Cells and substantially altered products will be treated as drugs. Therefore, they will have to seek the regulator’s approval (Drug Controller General of India) before being marketed.

• Various ICMR Guidelines
  1. ICMR’s National Guideline for Stem Cell Research in 2017.
  2. Stem Cell Use Ethical Guidelines by ICMR  

• MoUs
  1. Indo– Japan Stem Cell Research Collaboration
  2. India – UK Stem Cell Research
  3. Research Centre: DBT Centre in Bangalore is dedicated to Stem Cell Research (In-STEM).

• GMOs are organisms whose DNA or genetic makeup has been altered using various techniques of genetic engineering. 
• In 1982, the first genetically modified crop, i.e. GM Tobacco, was produced. GM foods have been sold in the market since the early 1990s. 
• Genetic Modification develops specific traits in crops like:
  1. Herbicide resistance 
  2. Viral resistance 
  3. Pest resistance 
  4. Fungal and bacterial resistance 
  5. Slow ripening 
  6. Quality improvement – protein and oil
  7. Value addition – vitamins, micro and macro elements 
• GM plants are developed by private companies and public research institutions like International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (public research institution) and Monsanto (an American private company).

Herbicide Resistant Crops

• GM varieties of crops like soybean, maize, canola etc., have been developed, which are resistant to herbicide Glyphosate. Hence, it simplifies the weed control by Glyphosate application. (Note: Glyphosate herbicide is produced by Monsanto (of USA) under the trade name ‘Round up’.)
• Gene has been inserted into DMH-11 (Mustard) which makes it resistant to herbicide named Basta. 

Insect Resistant Crops

• GM crops such as Bt Cotton and Bt Brinjal are insect resistant because Bt genes can produce insecticidal toxins to the larvae of moths and butterflies, beetles, cotton bollworms, Lepidopberan insects (damages brinjal) and gadflies.

Flavr-Savr tomato

• It was the first GM crop that was granted permission for human consumption. 
• It was produced by an American MNC named Calgene.
• Through genetic modification, the ripening process of the tomato was slowed down, thus preventing it from softening and increasing the shelf life.

Biofortification

• Golden Rice is the Genetically Modified Variety of Rice that can accumulate -carotene in the endosperm. Beta-Carotene is the precursor of Vitamin-A. It can be used in areas with Vitamin-A deficiency (which leads to night blindness).

GM Rubber

• GM Rubber was developed at Kerala based Rubber Research Institute of India (RRII) and was planted in the outskirts of Guwahati. It has additional copies of gene MnSOD which is expected to handle severe cold conditions during winter in North-East India.

Others

• CSIR has developed (truly) Blue Rose using the gene from pansy (variety of flowers).
• The University of Texas has produced cotton with edible seeds by reducing its toxicity levels, thus converting cotton into an important food source. 
• Tearless Onions have been produced by removing genes that synthesize sulphur compounds which act as tearing agents.

Note: Indian government has allowed the commercialisation of only one GM crop, the Bt cotton with the Cry 1 Ac gene (Bollgard I).

Monsanto 

• It is an American MNC working in the field of applying biotechnology to agriculture.
• It is the leading producer of herbicide Glyphosate (Round-Up).
• Monsanto was the first company that create a biotechnology business model revolving around the company’s patent rights. 

MAHYCO

• MAHYCO = Maharashtra Hybrid Corporation
• It was started in 1964 and is headquartered in Jalna (Maharashtra).
• MAHYCO has developed a large number of high-quality hybrid seeds.
• MAHYCO also collaborates with academia and industry, and its association with Monsanto to produce BT cotton seeds using BT Technology of Monsanto since 1998 is such an example. 

• In 2018, FSSAI released Food Safety and Standards (Labelling and Display) Regulations, making it mandatory to clearly state on the label if the packaged food contains GM ingredients. 
• Any food will be considered GM food if it contains 5% or more GM ingredients. 

• Terminator Gene is the genetic code inserted in the DNA of the seed that makes the seeds harvested in the yield sterile. Hence, the farmer can’t use the harvested crop as seed and can buy new seeds every season. 
• CoP-8 of the UN Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) has prohibited the use of terminator genes. Consequently, India has passed a law banning this technology. 

In genetic engineering, the use of an external chemical to switch a plant’s genetic traits on or off. Seed companies use it to force farmers to use a particular pesticide or insecticide to get a large output.

What is BT (Bacillus Thuringeinsis) ?

• Bt refers to Bacillus Thuringenesis. It is a gram-positive soil-dwelling bacterium.  This bacteria produces more than 200 toxins that have insecticidal properties wrt the larvae of moths and butterflies, beetles, cotton bollworms and gadflies but are harmless to other life forms.

• When specific genes from Bacillus Thuringenesis are introduced into the native cotton and brinjal varieties, it starts to produce toxins that destroy the digestive system of bollworm and stem borers. 

Analysis: Bt Cotton in India

Positive Effects

The government approved to grow Bt Cotton in 2002 & as a result, India witnessed a great revolution in the cotton sector, not seen for another crop.

• The yield of cotton increased due to the effective control of bollworms. After the introduction of Bt Cotton, India saw a rise in cotton production by 178%. India has emerged as the most significant global cotton player and is presently the largest cotton producer (surpassing China).
• A significant reduction was witnessed in the use of insecticide in the cultivation of Bt cotton. 
• The cost of cultivation was also reduced as artificial insecticides were not required. 

Issues

• The issue is increasing farmer suicides in Karnataka and Vidarbha region.  Farmers are using expensive GM seeds in drought-prone areas.
• There are other problems too – 
  1. High input cost of seeds, 
  2. Genetic erosion of local varieties, 
  3. Farmer’s dependence on private seed companies whose sole aim is profit maximization. 
• Recently, cotton plantations in various parts of the country have been hit due to the infestation of Pink Bollworm (PBW). Following reasons are responsible for this : 
  1. Absence of crop rotation.
  2. Not growing 20-30% regular cotton along with BT Cotton.

• DMH-11 Mustard is produced by the Delhi University’s Centre for Genetic Manipulation of Crop Plants. 
• DMH-11 is a GM Mustard Hybrid.
• In 2017, Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee had cleared GM mustard for environmental release and use in farmers’ fields. However, the approval is contingent on a final nod from Environment Minister. 

Justifications for allowing DMH-11

• In an ordinary situation, hybrids can be obtained by cross-pollination of two varieties of the same species. But the case of Mustard is different as natural hybridization isn’t possible in Mustard because its flowers contain both female (pistil) and male (stamen) reproductive organs. Hence Genetic Modification is the only way to make High Yielding Variety (HYV).
• Moreover, India is importing 15 million tonnes of edible oils. Hence, there is a need to raise domestic crop yields.  
• Cotton-seed oil from Bt cotton is already used in India and is perfectly safe. Cotton-seed oil is the second largest produced edible oil in the country (1.4 million tonnes) after Mustard (2 million tonnes).
• India is already importing GM oil: India imports 3 million tonnes of soyabean oil annually, predominantly Genetically Modified.  
• The developer is a government-funded institution (Centre for Genetic Manipulation of Crop Plants at Delhi University), as opposed to BT cotton, which is the intellectual property of multinational, namely Monsanto.

Issue

• Another gene has been inserted into DMH-11 which makes it resistant to herbicide named Basta. It will compel farmers to use specific herbicides and be dependent on one company (i.e. Bayer) having a monopoly over pesticides.