Telescopes

by

Last Updated: May 2023 (Telescopes)

Telescopes

This article deals with ‘Telescopes‘. This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology, which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Important Telescopes

Important Telescopes for the purpose of exam include

  • 30 m Telescope ( Hawaii) 
  • National Large Solar Telescope ( Ladakh)
  • Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA)
  • MULTI-APPLICATION SOLAR TELESCOPE (MAST), Udaipur
  • GROWTH India Telescope

It has to be noted that Light Pollution is a severe problem for Astronomers as artificial light from buildings, street lights, and malls makes it challenging to observe and study the stars in the sky. Hence,  Telescopes are set up in remote regions (far away from the cities).

Terrestrial Telescopes

1. Thirty-Meter Telescope

  • It is called Thirty Meter Telescope because its primary mirror is 30m wide.
  • After the E-ELT (European Extremely Large Telescope), it is the world’s highest and second largest telescope.
  • It is located at the Mauna Kea volcano summit in Hawaii (USA).
  • It is the joint project of India, Japan, the US, China, and Canada with $1.5 billion. 
  • India has financed 10% of the cost and will get proportional time for use. 
  • It observes between near UV to mid-infrared wavelengths and corrects the blur caused by the atmosphere by its adaptive optics system.

Controversy associated with Thirty-Meter Telescope

Three controversies are related to this project:-

  1. Mauna Kea is considered sacred by the local Hawaiian people.
  2. It presents a danger to the habitat of the Rare Weiku Bug found there.
  3. The land was given for use essentially rent-free.
Thirty-meter telescope

2. National Large Solar Telescope

  • NLST is being built by the Dept. of Science of Technology in Ladakh.
  • It will be the world’s largest solar telescope.
  • It can work both day and night.
  • It will fill the longitude gap between Japan and Europe. Currently, there is no telescope between these regions. 
  • It will help in understanding sunspots. Thus it will help protect satellite communication as sunspots pose a threat to their working. 

Why is Ladakh chosen?

  • Placement at a higher altitude will fundamentally enhance the NLST capacity.  
  • Prolong region of sunshine, clear sky (high visibility).
  • Low concentration of aerosol and dust particles in the atmosphere. 
  • Lower wind speed.
National Large Solar Telescope

3. Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA)

  • ALMA is the joint venture of the USA, Japan, Canada, Taiwan, South Korea, and Chile. 
  • It is at 5000 meters. This place is most suitable as it is free from background noise, and the atmosphere is clean, dry and cool.
  • It consists of 66 high-precision antennas.
  • Aim: Explain very old and important astronomical anonymities and search for the origin of the Cosmos.
  • ALMA is the most powerful telescope used for observing the cold universe in which scientists study molecular gases and dust.
  • Using ALMA, astronomers have obtained high-resolution images of 20 nearby protoplanetary disks depicting the planet’s birth. 

Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA)

4. Multi-Application Solar Telescope (MAST), Udaipur Solar Observatory

Purpose and Significance

  • For a detailed study of the Solar activity, including its magnetic field. 
  • The observatory is situated on an island in the middle of Fatehsagar lake. 
  • It is Asia’s biggest telescope.

Why is an observatory made in the middle of the lake? 

  • A large water body surrounding the telescopes decreases the amount of heating of the surface layers. 
  • It reduces the turbulence in the air mass and improves image quality. 
National Large Solar Telescope

5. Growth India Telescope

  • It is part of a multi-country joint initiative termed the Global Relay of Observatories Watching Transients Happen (GROWTH). 
  • The US, UK, India, Japan, Germany, Taiwan and Israel are part of this initiative.
  • Location: Hanle (Ladakh)
  • It is a fully robotic telescope and can be controlled remotely. 
  • Aim: Study cosmic events happening over relatively small periods of the cosmological timescale.

Telescopes in the Space

1. Astrosat

  • Astrosat is India’s first dedicated astronomy satellite (like Hubble of West).
  • It was launched in September 2015.
Astrosat

Features

  • It can scan multi-wavelengths from ultraviolet to optical and low- and high-energy x-ray bands for studying distant stars, galaxies and other cosmic objects. 
  • It is situated at the height of 650 Km.
  • It has been of immense benefit to our scientists, who have depended on inputs from other agencies and sources like the Hubble [US-European space telescope]. 
  • It has put India in an elite orbit with the US, Europe, Russia and Japan.

2. James Webb Space Telescope

  • It is the Joint Venture of NASA, ESA & the Canadian Space Agency.
  • It is the scientific successor of the Hubble and Spitzer telescopes. 
  • The primary mirror of JWST consists of 18 hexagonal mirrors of 1.32 m diameter each (compared to Hubble Telescope with one mirror of 2.4 m diameter). Further, these mirrors are made up of beryllium as it is light and strong and coated with gold to increase the mirror’s reflection.
  • It will be placed at L2 (Lagrange Point), 930,000 miles from Earth’s surface. 
  • It has become NASA’s flagship infrared observatory. JWST carries four instruments
    1. Near-Infrared Camera (NIRCam),
    2. Near-Infrared Spectrograph (NIRSpec),
    3. Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI)
    4. Near-Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrograph  
  • JWST will study the following
    1. Search for the very first galaxies that were formed after Big Bang. 
    2. Evolution of the galaxies until now. 
    3. Study formation of stars and their evolution in different phases.
    4. Potential to support life in these systems.
    5. Study solar systems, their planets, along with comets, asteroids and minor planets.

James Webb Space Telescope

3. Kepler

  • It was launched in 2009.
  • Aim: Survey the Milky Way galaxy region to discover planets in or around the habitable zone (Goldilocks Zone). 
  • It was orbiting the Sun, nearly 156 million km from the Earth.
  • Kepler is described as the most prolific planet-hunting machine in history. By June 2017, it had discovered more than 4,000 planet candidates and 2,300 confirmed planets.
  • Nov 2018: NASA’s Kepler space telescope has been retired after running out of fuel.
Kepler

Side Topic: Goldilocks Zone

  • Goldilocks region denotes the area at the proper distance from its home star that it is neither at too high temperature nor too cold. 
  • Habitable exoplanets must have such a temperature in which water can exist in its liquid form. 

4. Hubble Space Telescope

  • Hubble Space Telescope was launched in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) in 1990 as a joint venture between NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA). 
  • It used to orbit 550 km above Earth. 
  • Its main payloads include
    1. Wide Field and Planetary Camera (WF/PC), 
    2. Goddard High-Resolution Spectrograph (GHRS)
    3. High-Speed Photometer (HSP)
    4. Faint Object Camera (FOC)
    5. Faint Object Spectrograph (FOS).
  • These scientific payloads have helped uncover many secrets of the universe, including the theory of its expansion.

Hubble Space Telescope

5. Spitzer Space Telescope

  • NASA launched it in 2003.
  • Aim: To study the universe in the infrared. 
  • It was retired in January 2020.

Logistics

by

Last Updated: May 2023 (Logistics)

Logistics

This article deals with ‘Logistics – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Economics’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

What is Logistics?

Logistics means managing the flow of goods between the point of origin and the point of consumption.

It includes

  1. Transportation 
  2. Inventory management
  3. Warehousing
  4. Packaging 
  5. Last-mile delivery 

Importance of the Logistics Sector

Logistics
  • Sunrise Sector: The Indian logistics sector is valued at $215 billion and is expected to grow at a CAGR of 10.5% between 2019 and 2025.
  • Employment: Logistics industry employs 4.5 crores and is growing at the rate of 15%.
  • The growth of the manufacturing sector depends upon it. E.g., getting raw material, taking final goods to markets etc.
  • Boosting Indian Exports: China is an export giant because of its highly efficient logistics.
  • Service Sector: Amazon, Flipkart etc., have become giants due to their efficient logistics.
  • Increasing Farmer’s Income: An efficient logistic supply chain network has the potential to increase farmers’ income manifold, which can lead to a domino effect on the overall economy. 

Challenges

  • High Cost: India’s logistics costs are 4-5 times that of developed countries. It makes our products uncompetitive.
  • Inefficient: Logistics in India is inefficient compared to China. It takes more time to reach a product in the western market—days to send the product to the US – 14 days from China compared to 41 from Delhi.
  • Regulatory Issues: There are obstacles in land acquisition and consolidation, poor coordination among multiple regulatory agencies and a lack of transparency in compliances. 
  • Warehouse Issues: The inadequate size of the warehouse, difficulty in getting land at the desired location, and the majority of warehouses are not leakproof. 
  • Saturated Transport: Railways and roads have been saturated. The railway is operating at 120% of its capacity leading to delays.
  • Ports: Large vessels cant enter Indian ports. Hence, Indian cargo is first taken to Colombo or another port & transhipped from there.
  • Rural market: Logistics industry is least developed to cater to rural areas, which form a large chunk of the Indian market. 
  • Lack of inter-ministerial coordination / Fragmented Policy: It hampers smooth multimodal transport in India. 
  • Shortage of skilled workforce: Non-availability of skilled manpower is attributed to inadequate training and proper leadership and support. There are limited institutes for soft skills and operational and technical training. Also, due to poor working conditions and low pay scale (unorganized nature), it is not a preferred choice among skilled personnel. 

Due to these challenges, India’s rank on World Bank’s Logistics Performance Index is low. 

World Bank's Logistics Performance Index

Steps taken by the Government to improve logistics

PM Gati Shakti

  • The growth experience of advanced economies has highlighted the importance of having a multimodal transport network approach. To introduce holistic planning in the case of infrastructure projects, the government launched PM Gati Shakti. 

How will it work?

  • PM Gati Shakti is a digital platform which connects 22 ministries, such as Road, Shipping, Aviation, Railways, Petroleum, Telecom etc., to ensure holistic planning and execution of projects.
  • The platform has 200 layers of geospatial data, such as roads, railways, forests, rivers, state and district boundaries, etc., to aid in planning projects and obtaining rapid clearances.
  • The Gati Shakti portal will also help government agencies to track the real-time development of various infrastructural projects from a centralized place.
  • It has been developed by the Bhaskaracharya National Institute for Space Applications and Geo-informatics (BISAG-N) and hosted securely on the Meghraj cloud. 
PM Gati Shakti

Benefits

  • Address the silos-based approach of infrastructure development by various ministries.
  • Reduce the logistics cost in India. 

National Logistics Policy (NLP)

  • The NLP policy aims to increase employment opportunities, boost economic growth, and promote the competitiveness of Indian goods in global markets. It aims to bring global standards to warehousing, multimodal digital integration, ease of logistics services, human resources, and skill enhancement. 
  • The targets of NLP are
    • Reduce the cost of logistics: Target is to reduce the cost of logistics to global benchmarks by 2030.
    • Improve India’s Logistics Performance Index ranking: Target will be in the top 25 ranks by 2030.
    • Create a data-driven decision support mechanism for an efficient logistics ecosystem.
  • It will be achieved via a Comprehensive Logistics Action Plan (CLAP) consisting of
    1. Unified Logistics Interface Platform: It will bring all digital services related to transportation to a single portal.
    2. Standardisation of physical assets and benchmarking of service quality standards
    1. Development of Logistics Human Resources 
    2. Facilitation of Logistics Parks
    3. Development of Export-Import (EXIM) Logistics

Infrastructure Lending Status: 

Logistics sector has been given Infrastructure Lending Status. Due to this, loans for logistics have become eligible for the following benefits.

  • Logistics projects can get long tenure loans.
  • Loans will be cheaper (at least 50 basis points) 
  • Such projects will now be eligible to borrow from specialized lenders like IDFC, IIFCL etc., which fund only infrastructure projects.
  • Attracting investments from debt, pension funds and international lenders (ECBs) into recognized projects. 

Other Steps

  • GST Tax Reforms: The taxation system has become simple and has created a single market. 
  • Dedicated Freight corridors will smoothen the transportation and logistics. 
  • Sagarmala and Bharatmala projects have been started to upgrade port and road infrastructure.  
  • India has signed the Trade Facilitation Agreement of WTO and taken steps to make customs procedures smooth and paperless. 
  • Creation of Logistics Division: The Logistics division in the Department of Commerce has been created. Further, the Logistics division has planned to create an IT backbone and develop a National Logistics Information Portal. This online Logistics marketplace will bring together the various stakeholders on a single platform. 
  • Logistics Ease Across Different States (LEADS) Index: LEADS Index is an attempt to establish the baseline of performance in the logistics sector based on the perception of users and stakeholders at the state level. 
  • Logistic Enhance Efficiency Program: It was launched to manage and develop logistic parks and reduce the cost of logistics.  

What more can be done?

  • Formulation of National Integrated Logistics Policy to bring greater transparency and enhance efficiency
  • Faster clearances for setting up of logistics infrastructure like Multimodal logistic parks (MMLPs), Container Freight Station (CFS), Air Freight Station (AFS) & Inland Container Depot (ICD)
  • Promote the introduction of high-end technologies like high-tech scanning equipment, RFID, GPS, EDI, and online Track & Trace systems in the entire logistics network. 

Multimodal Projects

Integrated Multimodal Transportation System (IMTS) serves to interconnect different modes of transport – road, rail, air, and water – seamlessly and therefore improve the efficiency and speed of goods and passengers movement.

Multimodal Projects

In 2022, the Government awarded the contract for setting up India’s first multi-modal logistics park (MMLP) near Chennai to Reliance Industries (RIL).  India is planning to build 35 MMLPs

Benefits

  • In difficult terrain, Multimodal Transport is better suited. E.g. Kaladan Multimodal Project uses Road, Inland Transportation and Sea. 
  • Ease in the movement of goods => Embedded cost of transportation in goods can be cut down.
  • The multiplier effect on the economy: They lead to the development of ancillary industries like Steel, Shipbuilding, Railway building etc.
  • International Relations: Our trade in South East Asia can grow with the development of Multimodal Projects in those areas. 
  • Provides faster transit of goods
  • Reduces the burden of documentation and formalities
  • Establishes only one agency to deal with.

Challenges

  • Coordination Issues: Different Ministries and agencies, both of Union and state, need to come on a single platform  
  • Land acquisition issues
  • Maintenance of all the modes of transportation simultaneously is an issue.
  • Finance Issues: It requires huge investment. 

Scheme: Multi-Modal Logistics Park  (MMLP)

  • Multi-Modal Logistics Park (MMLP) is a modal freight handling establishment comprising warehouses, dedicated cold chain facilities, freight or container terminals and bulk cargo terminals, which eases and optimizes merchandise movement via road, rail, waterway and air, and consequently, rationalizes the cost of logistics and improves the competitiveness of logistics.
  • India is developing 35 MMLPs across India over the coming years. The first MMLP will be constructed in Assam at a cost of $407 million.

e-Commerce

by

e-Commerce

This article deals with ‘e-Commerce – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Economics’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

Selling and buying goods using ICT is known as e-Commerce.

E-Commerce Sector is growing at an incredible pace

e-Commerce

The e-Commerce sector has generated a multiplier effect

  1. Huge creation of jobs 
  2. Reduction of market prices for consumers 
  3. Huge investment in logistics and infrastructure 
  4. Help Artisans exploit new markets. E.g. Karigar ke Dwar (Flipkart)  
  5. Help in promoting tribal art. E.g., Amazon and Trifed signed a contract to sell Indian Tribal Products globally under the brand ‘TRIBES INDIA

Two Models of e-Commerce

There are two models of e-Commerce

1. Market-Based Model

  • Market-based Model is followed by Amazon & Flipkart, in which the company provides the IT platform to facilitate the transaction between buyer and seller and takes their fees for providing the platform.
  • FDI Norms: FDI is allowed
Market-Based Model

2. Inventory-Based Model

  • In this Model, the seller manufactures and sells its product online—for example, the online store of Samsung, where Samsung sells its phones and other accessories.  
  • FDI Norms: FDI is not allowed
Inventory-Based Model

Other way to define

B2B Business to Business
B2C Business to Customer

e-Commerce Policy

Need for e-Commerce Policy

  1. Taking Market Based License but then acting as an Inventory based company. E.g., WS Retail, the biggest seller on Flipkart, is owned by Flipkart, and Cloudtail and Appario, which are the biggest sellers on Amazon, are owned by Amazon. Apart from that, Amazon sells its in-house products like Kindle in its marketplace.
  2. A large amount of customer data is under the control of e-commerce companies which can be misused.
  3. Importance of sector due to its revenue and job-creating potential. Hence, it should be properly regulated as any mishap can result in a catastrophe.
  4. Monopolistic market: e-Commerce giants such as Amazon are trying to set up a Monopolistic market by making the brick and mortar stores go out of the market through their policies such as making exclusive deals with mobile companies to sell their phones on their platform only and by giving large discounts.
  5. Silo-based regulation: e-Commerce in India is regulated by the IT Act, Consumer Protection Act etc. The government needs to consolidate it via a comprehensive act.

Draft e-Commerce Policy

  • FDI: Clearly demarcate a marketplace model & an inventory-based model and encourage FDI in the ‘marketplace’ model alone. (Earlier issue: Companies like Amazon show that they follow Marketplace Model but sell their inhouse products (like Amazon Kindle etc.) 
  • Data: Policy acknowledges data as a ‘national asset’/’societal common’ and seeks to establish a legal & technological framework to restrict the cross-border flow of data generated in India (Earlier issue – Companies take Indian data outside and mine it to target advertisements or sell data about their preferences).
  • Taxation Issues: The concept of ‘significant economic presence‘ should be adopted for the purpose of taxation. (Earlier issue – Companies like Amazon don’t pay tax, arguing that they are based in Luxemburg).
  • Infrastructure Development: ‘Infrastructure status’ will be given to digital infrastructure like data centres, server farms for data storage etc.
  • Small enterprises and start-ups attempting to enter the digital sector can be given ‘infant-industry’ status. 

Q-Commerce

  • Supply chain disruptions triggered by the pandemic led to a new sub-vertical of the online grocery segment is — Quick Commerce, or q-commerce — where the promise of deliveries within 10-30 minutes of ordering is the unique selling proposition. The focus of most of these ventures is on setting up micro-warehouses located closer to the point of delivery and restricting the stocks at these ‘dark stores’ to a focussed set of under 2,000 high-demand items, as against the traditional formula of well-stocked large-format warehouses located on the outskirts of towns and cities.
  • Examples: Instamart, Zepto, Grofers etc.

Inland Waterways

by

Last Updated: Feb 2025 (Inland Waterways)

Inland Waterways

This article deals with ‘Inland Waterways– UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Economics’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

  • India has one of the longest navigable inland water networks. But out of the total 15,000 kilometres of a navigable river, India is currently using just 2000 km. 
  • West Bengal has the longest navigable length of rivers, followed by Assam and Bihar.
  • Inland waterways Transport constitutes just 0.5% of the total cargo transport. In China, 47% of goods and passenger traffic is transported through inland waterways. Whereas in India, domestic transport through water is 3.5%, out of which 0.5 % is inland & 3% is coastal.
Inland Waterways
  • According to a government study, one litre of fuel moves 24 tons/km on the road, 95 tons/km on rail and 215 tons/km on inland waterways.
Efficiency of Inland Waterways

Benefits of Inland Waterways

  1. It is cheaper than Road and Railways and costs 1/5th compared to road transport. 
  2. The Carbon footprint is also lower than road and rail systems.
  3. Land acquisition requirements are almost negligible compared with roads and railways. 
  4. The infrastructure that needs to be developed is minimal.
  5. There is also little scope for transit losses.
  6. It will open up considerable investment in the areas like water-based tourism, dredging of rivers, and operation of terminals generating millions of new jobs.

Main Challenges

  1. Dredging: Inland navigation requires a water depth of 3 m & in most of the stretches of Ganga designated as NW1, it is not more than 2 m. Hence, regular dredging and repair are needed.
  2. Variability of water during the lean season impacts the operations.
  3. Oil spills & noise pollution can harm river ecology. E.g., the NW-1 project harming Gangetic dolphins. 
  4. Several rivers meander, increasing the distance to be travelled compared to road and rail.  
  5. On many rivers, bridges with low vertical clearance impede the passage of bigger vessels.
  6. To be viable, the water transport projects will need to have assured two-way commodity traffic. Bulk goods, like coal, minerals, foodgrain and fertilizer, are usually unidirectional, requiring the vessels to return empty or under-loaded. 

National Inland Waterways 

National Waterway Act, 2016

  • Inland Waterways, Shipping and Navigation, are covered in Entry 24 of the Union list. Hence, Parliament is empowered to legislate on this.
  • This act repealed all earlier Acts for individual waterways, and 111 National Waterways have been notified under the provisions of this act. 
  • 13 National Waterways are working
    • National Waterway 1: Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly River System (longest with length of 1620 km)
    • National Waterway 2: Brahmaputra River from Sadiya to DHubri
    • National Waterway 3: Kollam-Kottappuram stretch on Champakara canal and Udyogmandal canal
    • National Waterways 4: Kakinada-Puducherry stretch of Canals (on Godavari and  Krishna and Canals)
    • National Waterway 10: Amba
    • National Waterway 68: Mandovi
    • National Waterway 73: Narmada
    • National Waterway 83: Rajpuri Creek
    • National Waterway 85: Kundalika
    • National Waterway 91: Shastri
    • National Waterway 97: Sundarbans Waterways
    • National Waterway 100: Tapi
    • National Waterway 111: Zuari
National Inland Waterways 

Jal Marg Vikas Project

  • This project aims to develop infrastructure to enable National Waterway 1 for commercial navigation on the Varanasi-Haldia stretch of river Ganga.
  • In 2018, the Varanasi freight terminal became operational when the cargo ship ‘MV Rabindranath Tagore’ arrived in Varanasi from Kolkata.

Ways to Finance

  • The government is using the corpus of the National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF) and Central Roads Fund  (CRF) for upgrading the Inland Waterways.
  • Apart from that, the market borrowing route is also used. 

Inland Vessels Act, 2021

The bill replaced the Inland Vessel Act of 1917.

The act has brought all inland vessels & waterways in India under uniform union government regulation. Earlier, there were different regulations across different states.

Provisions of the Act include

  • State governments may declare by notification any inland water area as a “Zone”. Any mechanically propelled vessel would have to obtain a certificate indicating the zone in which the vessel can be operated.
  • The government would maintain a central database of inland vessels.
  • Mechanical vessels must have certain equipment and signals to ensure safe navigation. In case of an SOS signal is sent by the vessel, the nearest vessel must respond to the call and failure to respond can result in a fine up to Rs. 10,000.
  • In case of an accident, the nearest police station will hold the jurisdiction for the inquiry.
  • The Centre will prescribe the rules for the minimum qualification of the crew.

Other Initiatives

Kochi Water Metro

  • Launched in 2023, it is India’s first water based metro.
  • Aim:  reduce traffic congestion,  improve the connectivity in city and promoting eco-friendly transportation. 
  • The boats use Lithium Titanate Oxide (LTO) batteries (not fuel based).

Ro-Ro (Roll-on, Roll-off) Ferry Service

  • For movement of vehicles and passengers across waterways.
  • The services are available in various locations such as Mumbai, Goa, Kerala, and the Brahmaputra River in Assam.

Harit Nauka Initiative

  • It is an initiative to adopt green fuels in Inland Waterway Vessels.
  • India’ s first Hydrogen Cell powered waterway vessel launched in 2024 under this initiative.

Ganga Vilas

  • It is world’s longest river cruise service covering 3200 km in 5 Indian states and Bangladesh.

Bodies related to Inland Waterways

Inland Waterways Development Council (IWDC)

  • It was launched in 2023 to enhance Inland Water Transport (IWR) in India.
  • It is chaired by Union Minister of Pots, Shipping and Waterways with participation from States and UTs.

Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) 

  • IWAI was created in 1986.
  • Function: Regulatory body for Inland waterways
  • Headquartered in Noida.

Central inland Water Transport Corporation Ltd (CIWTC)

  • CIWTC was incorporated in 1967 by taking over all the assets of the erstwhile River Steam Navigation Co. Ltd.
  • It regulated the Inland Water Transport between India and Bangladesh.
  • Headquartered in Kolkata.

Shipping

by

Last Update: Feb 2025 (Shipping)

Shipping

This article deals with ‘Shipping– UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Economics’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

  • Shipping is the world’s most efficient means of transportation.  
  • In India, the sector works under the Ministry of Shipping.  
  • In Schedule 6 of the Indian Constitution, Port development in India is a concurrent subject. Hence
    • Major ports are regulated by the central government  
    • Non-major ports are regulated by state governments 

Statistics

Coastline 7500km (including Andaman & Nicobar, Lakshadweep)
Major Ports – There are 12 Major Ports in India (6 West + 6 East)
– These ports handle around 60% of traffic
Minor Ports – There are more than 180 minor ports in India.
– These handle 40% of traffic.
– But presently, with the entry of private players (like Adani Group), these are witnessing tremendous growth.
Ship-Breaking Industry India is ranked number one in shipbreaking. (Alang in Gujarat is the biggest in the world)
Shipyards Cochin Shipyard Limited is the largest shipyard in India. 
Ships As of September 2019, India has a fleet of 1,419 ships (one of the largest among developing countries)

Indian International Trade by Volume and Value carried by ships

Shipping

Ports of India

According to India Yearbook & Sagarmala Concept Paper, India has 12 Major Ports.

Major Ports of India

Major ports on the West Coast

1. Mumbai (Maharashtra)

  • It is situated in Maharashtra and is one of India’s most important major ports.
  • It has the largest oil terminal.

2. Jawahar Nehru Port, Nhava Shewa (Maharashtra)

  • It was commissioned in 1989 to ease pressure on Mumbai port.
  • It’s the largest container port in India.

Note: Vadhavan Port, an offshore deep seaport,  is being built in the nearby Palghar district of Maharashtra. It is being constructed by Vadhavan Port Construction Ltd., a special-purpose vehicle with a 74% stake of JNPT and a 26% stake of Maharashtra Maritime Board.

3. Deendayal Port, Kandla (Gujarat)

  • Kandla is a tidal port which was developed in the 1950s because Karachi port was lost due to partition.
  • It was the first Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) in India and Asia.

4. Mormugao (Goa)

  • Mormugao is a tidal port situated at Zuvari estuary
  • It is important for iron-ore export.

5. New Mangalore (Karnataka)

  • It is a deep water all-weather port. 
  • It was operationalized in 1975.

6. Cochin/Kochi (Kerala)

  • It is situated on Willingdon Island.
  • It was developed by Sir Robert Bristow by Britishers.
  • It is known as the Queen of the Arabian Sea.

Major ports on the East Coast

7. Haldia | Kolkata (West Bengal)

  • It is the only major RIVERINE port in India.
  • Haldia port is the oldest major port of India.  
  • It has twin dock systems viz., Kolkata Dock System (KDS) on the eastern bank and Haldia Dock Complex (HDC) on the western bank of river Hooghly. 
  • Port needs constant dredging to keep depth.

8. Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh)

  • Vishakhapatnam port is situated in Andhra Pradesh.
  • It is a landlocked port connected to the sea by channel.

9. Paradeep (Odisha)

  • It is situated on a manmade lagoon. 
  • JL Nehru laid its foundation in 1962 at a point where Mahanadi meet the Bay of Bengal.
  • Initially, it was owned by Odisha State government, but the ownership was transferred to the Union Government in 1965.

10. Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu)

  • It is a major port situated in Tamil Nadu (Gulf of Mannar).

11. Chennai (Tamil Nadu)

  • Port of Chennai is an all-weather port situated in Chennai.

12. Ennore (Tamil Nadu)

  • It is a private major port made under the Companies Act.
  • It is primarily dedicated to handling the coal for requirements of Tamil Nadu Electricity Board.

(Newly proposed) Enayam Port (Tamil Nadu)

  • The proposal to establish Enayam port was accepted in 2016.
  • Currently, around 78% of the marine traffic from ports of India is trans-shipped to Colombo, Singapore and Klang (Malaysia), as most of the Indian ports don’t have a draught (depth of water needed for a ship to float) to match global cargo handling. Enayam will solve this problem. The Enayam port has a natural deep draught of about 20 meters which makes it feasible for the largest vessels in the world. 
  • But this port is very close to Vizhinjam (Transhipment) Port of Adani’s in Kerala. 

Private Ports by Adani Group & others

  • In recent years, there has been an attempt to increase the country’s port capacity, but the real successes have been in the private sector, mainly by the Adani Group.
    • Sikka & Mundra port of Adani Group in Gujarat has overtaken Kandla to become the country’s largest. 
    • Dhamra (in Odisha) of Adani Group has become as big as Haldia. 
    • Adani will become the champ of the country’s port business once he builds the deep-water port at Vizhinjam in Kerala, designed to take some of the transhipment traffic away from Colombo.
  • Meanwhile, Krishnapatnam port on the southern Andhra coast is being developed by local entrepreneurs, and claims to handle as much traffic as the long-established Chennai.

Side Topic: Dry Ports

  • They are inland terminals, directly connected to a seaport by rail or road, which provide similar services as that of a seaport, such as handling, temporary storage, inspection and customs clearance for international freight etc. 
  • They are beneficial as they reduce the seaports’ capacity constraints and, simultaneously, develop the hinterland.
Shipping

Problems of Indian Shipping

Colombo can handle more container traffic than all of India’s ports put together — with  75% of that being transshipment of containers from India because India’s ports are too shallow to accommodate big container vessels.

Problems related to Ports

  • India doesn’t have world-class ports. Third-generation ships can’t enter Indian harbours & as a result, goods are offloaded in Sri Lanka & sent to India via smaller ships. 
  • Port charges are high as compared to other developing nations.
  • Port congestion
  • Poor mechanization and manual handling of critical processes. E.g. in Paradip port.

Governance Issues

  • A dual institutional structure has led to the development of Major and Minor ports as individual projects.
  • Ports in India are operating on the “Trust Model”, where the government is the owner and operator of the port. 
  • Procedural bottlenecks as there is a lot of paperwork to load -unload cargo.
  • Poor performance of Government ports: It takes up to four times as long to fill or unload a cargo ship at Jawaharlal Nehru Port than at a private rival due to lower mechanization and unskilled labour.

Lack of Evacuation from Ports

  • There is inadequate road & rail connectivity to ports.

Fleet = Ageing + Low number

  • Ageing fleet: There is an urgent need to replace our ageing ships with new ones.
  • Indian ships account for a tiny part of the country’s trade, i.e. about 15%, compared to the international norm of 40%.  

No Shipyards

  • India has no civilian shipyards to compare with the world’s best. The two or three private ones that look to build commercial vessels are deep in debt and short of orders; most Indian ship-owners prefer to look to foreign yards because of better quality and assurance on delivery schedules. 

Low Penetration of Inland and Coastal Shipping

  • Coastal and inland shipping hasn’t developed in India due to limited facilities, higher costs and policy constraints.

In short, India’s maritime business needs a booster shot.

What govt is doing to boost Maritime Sector

The government is taking various steps to boost the Indian Maritime Sector, which includes

  • Sagarmala Project
  • Maritime India Summit
  • National Waterways Bill
  • Enayam Deep Sea Transhipment Port
  • Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA)
  • Major Port Authorities Act

Projects regarding Shipping Ministry

1. Sagarmala Project

Sagarmala is an initiative for port-led development whereby India’s coastline will become the gateway to India’s prosperity.

Key Components

Sagarmala Project
  • Port Modernisation: It aims to transform existing ports into world-class ports by modernization of port infrastructure and existing systems & developing 6 to 8 new world-class ports (New Development: Vadhavan Mega Port is being developed near JNPT and Tuticorin port is being expanded) 
  • Efficient Evacuation Systems / Port Connectivity: Develop efficient rail, road and inland waterway networks connecting ports to the hinterland.  
  • Coastal Economic Development: Encourage coastal economic activity in coastal regions by:
    • Development of Coastal Economic Zones (CEZ), port-based SEZs etc. 14 CEZs are to be made under Sagarmala.
    • Promotion of coastal tourism.
  • Coastal Community Development: This will be achieved via
    • Skill Development 
    • Uplifting fishermen and other local communities
    • Island development

Sagarmala could boost India’s merchandise exports to $110 billion by 2025 and create an estimated 1 crore new jobs. 

2. Sethu Samudaram 

  • The project aims to create a shipping canal connecting Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar. 
  • It will reduce time and fuel consumption. 
  • But it has been struck because of opposition on account of religious sentiments about Ram Setu and the threat it poses to marine biodiversity.
Sethu Samudaram

3. National Maritime Heritage Complex, Lothal

  • The government is developing the National Maritime Heritage Complex in Lothal to revive Lothal, an Indus Valley Civilization’s port city.
  • Key features of the complex include
    • 14 Maritime Galleries: These galleries trace India’s seafaring history from the Indus Valley Civilization to modern naval advancements.
    • Tallest Lighthouse Museum

Major Port Authorities (MPA) Act, 2020

  • It has replaced the Major Port Trust Act of 1963.  
  • The composition of the Board of Authority has been simplified, and it will now comprise 11-13 members instead of the earlier 17-19 members. 
  • Each port will have a separate Board of Major Port Authority members from the State Government, Railways Ministry, Defence Ministry, Customs Department etc.
  • Model of Ports
    • Under the earlier Act: Ports used to operate on the “Trust Model”, where the government is the owner and operator of the port.
    • Under MPA Act: Ports operate on the ‘Landlord-Tenant Model’ where Major Port Authority will be the owner and regulator. 
  • Earlier, Ports’ user fees were decided by National Tariff Authority for Major Ports. In the MPA, the Board of Major Port Authority will set up Committees to determine their user fees. 
  • The Board of Port Authority has been given full powers to enter into contracts, plan and develop except in national interest, security and emergency arising from inaction.

Other Points to Remember

  • Polar Code: It is an international code for the safety of ships operating in Polar Waters (Prelims 2022).

Marine Pollution

by

Marine Pollution

Last Updated: Dec 2024

This article deals with ‘Marine Pollution – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Environment’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles on Environment, you can click here.

Introduction

Marine Pollution is the spread of chemicals, particles, industrial, agricultural & residential wastes, and noise or invasive organisms in the marine environment. 

Effects of Marine Pollution

Marine Pollution
  • Bioaccumulation of toxins in zooplanktons & phytoplanktons 
  • Eutrophication
  • Ocean acidification 
  • Coral bleaching

Causes

Causes of Marine Pollution
  • Oil Spills: From ships carrying oil or from accidents in the deep ocean oil extraction facilities. 
  • Eutrophication: It results due to the fertilizer runoff from the farms. Eutrophication has created dead zones in several parts of the world, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Baltic Sea. 
  • Disposal of sewage and solid garbage
  • Spread of invasive organisms: Invasive species multiply rapidly due to the absence of natural predators and damage the original ecosystem. E.g. zebra mussel in Great Lakes from the Black Sea in 1988. 
  • Increasing levels of atmospheric CO2 make the oceans more acidic, affecting calcifying organisms.

Steps taken by the International Community

  • United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS): The convention acts as an effective international law regarding seas and oceans. 
  • London Convention: To prevent deliberate Marine Pollution by dumping wastes (India is not a member of the London Convention). 
  • International Maritime Organisation  (a UN specialized agency) has developed a number of legal frameworks related to the marine environment.
  • Bunker Convention for effective compensation for damage caused by oil spills
  • Ballast Water Management Convention

Indoor Air Pollution

by

Last Updated: Nov 2024 (Indoor Air Pollution)

Indoor Air Pollution

This article deals with ‘Indoor Air Pollution – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Environment’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles on Environment, you can click here.

Introduction

Apart from outdoor pollution, the peculiar situation in India is that it also suffers from indoor contamination caused by smoky chulhas. Such exposure to the smoke of Chulhas is equivalent to inhaling carcinogens from two packs of cigarettes a day. Moreover, they impact the health of pregnant women and newborns adversely.

Causes of Indoor Air Pollution

  • Charcoal & Wood Burning lead to an increase in the concentration of VOCs and PM 2.5 & 10. According to the Economic Survey of India, there is a lack of access to better forms of energy. 51% of households still use firewood for cooking.
Indoor Pollution
  • Poorly Ventilated Dwellings (especially in slums) 
  • Asbestos released from the construction material
  • Tobacco Smoking within the household. 
  • Biological Pollution which includes pollen from plants, hair from pets, fungi etc.

Impacts

1. Health Impacts

  • It results in acute and chronic respiratory conditions, lung cancer and cataract. 
  • It results in Sick Building Syndrome (a situation in which the occupants experience acute health issues due to time spent in the building).

2. Gender issues

  • Women are disproportionately impacted because they work on chulhas.

3. Children

  • The impact on children is more because their coping capacity is low.

Steps taken by the Government

  • The government has launched Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) to provide LPG connection to BPL households (by the Petroleum Ministry and part of Swatch Bharat Abhiyaan). 
  • Scientists have developed a graphene-based sensor to detect air pollution in homes. 
  • Neerdhur: National Environmental and Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) has developed ‘Neerdhur’, a novel multi-fuel domestic cooking stove. 
  • National Efficient Cooking Program (NECP): Launched in 2023 to revolutionize cooking practices in India by deploying 20 Lakh induction-based cook stoves across India.
  • Unnat Chulha Abhiyan Program (2014): For the promotion of improved biomass cookstoves in the country to reduce consumption of fuel wood with higher efficiency and low emissions. 
  • HEPA Filters (High Energy Particulate Arrestor): HEPA Filters are used as Indoor air filters. But they are just for particulate matter. 
  • WAYU (Wind Augmentation Purifying Unit): WAYU is made by CSIR-NEERI. It has filters for removing Particulate Matter along with activated carbon (charcoal) and UV lamps for removing poisonous gases.  
  • SDG 7 aims to ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.
Indoor Air Pollution

Asian Development Bank

by

Asian Development Bank

This article deals with the ‘Asian Development Bank .’ This is part of our series on ‘Economics’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

Established 1966
Motto “Fighting poverty in Asia & Pacific”
Headquarter Manila , Philippines
Type Regional organisation, multilateral development & finance institution 
Members 67 (48 from Asia and pacific  + 19 from outside)
India’s membership India was the founding member of ADB
President Masatsugu Asakawa , Japan (2020- present)
Vice – President Ashok Lavasa (2020 – present ) (He was Election Commissioner and would have become Chief Election Commissioner)

Biggest Shareholders of Asian Development Bank

Asian Development Bank

Principles of ADB

  • To make loans & equity investments for its developing members’ economic & social development.
  • Provide technical assistance for the preparation & execution of development projects & programs & provide advisory services.

Indian Position in ADB

Indian Position in ADB
  • India’s subscription to Bank’s capital stock is 7.2% & a voting share of 6%.
  • India started borrowing from ADB’s ordinary capital resources in 1986. The Banks lending has been mainly in Energy, Transport & Communications, Finance, Industry & Social Infrastructure sectors.
  • India holds the position of executive director on the Board of Directors of the Banks => its constituency comprises India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Lao & Tajikistan.
  • India is represented by 
Finance Minister Governor
Secretary Alternate Governor

Wildlife Protection Schemes

by

Wildlife Protection Schemes

This article deals with ‘Wildlife Protection Schemes – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Environment’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles on Science and technology, you can click here.

Introduction

Wildlife Protection Schemes

The government is running 3 schemes for wildlife protection

  • Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats (IDWH)
  • Project Tiger
  • Project Elephant

1. Project Tiger

About Tiger

  • Tiger has eight subspecies in total, and three have been extinct of these. Of the five remaining subspecies, only one subspecies is found in India, i.e. Bengal Tiger (Panthera Tigris Tigris). 
  • 70% of the total tiger population in the world is found in India.
  • Tiger is the national animal of both India & Bangladesh
  • Status of Tiger
    • IUCN Red List: Endangered 
    • Wildlife protection Act: Schedule 1 (maximum protection)
    • CITES: Appendix 1 

Project Tiger

1900 20,000 to 40,000 tigers were present in India
1972 The number of tigers reduced to 1800.
1973 The government started Project Tiger to combat this alarming situation

About Project Tiger

  • Project Tiger is run as Core Scheme, i.e. union and state governments share expenses in the 60:40 ratio.  
  • It is administered by National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).

National Tiger Conservation Authority of India (NTCA)

  • It is a statutory body constituted under the provisions of the Wildlife Protection Act.
  • Minister of Environment and Forests heads NTCA.

Procedure to make Tiger Reserve

  • The state government can notify any area as Tiger Reserve on the recommendation of NTCA.

Objective of Project Tiger

  • Ensuring the maintenance of a viable Tiger population in India for scientific, economic, aesthetic, cultural and ecological value

Parts of Tiger Reserves

Core Area – No human activity is allowed except anything that affects the rights of the scheduled tribes and forest dwellers.
Buffer Area – Limited non-commercial activity such as development is allowed.
– There is a co-existence of man and wildlife Gram Sabha is consulted in the management of buffer areas. 

Alteration in boundary

  • No alteration can be made except on the recommendation of NTCA and approval of the National Board for Wildlife.

Recent initiatives

  • Strengthening of anti-poaching activities by the deployment of anti-poaching squads involving ex-army personnel/home guards
  • Reintroduction of tigers has been done at Sariska (Rajasthan), Panna (MP), Satkosia (MP) and Rajaji Tiger Reserve (Uttarakhand) tiger reserves.

Problems with project tiger

1. Funds

  • Funds received by a majority of tiger reserves are usually inadequate & delayed.

2. Staff

  • Forest Guards are usually trained only once during the course of their employment. Proper training is also lacking. 

3. Infrastructure

  • Roads, wireless equipment, jeeps, arms and ammunition and other  anti-poaching equipment are lacking.

4. Constitutional angle

  • Forests and Wildlife are placed under the concurrent list in the Indian Constitution. Hence, the Central Government has limited powers over the execution of Project Tiger. Thus, while the guideline issued by the Central Government may be sound, their translation into ground realities depends totally on the State Government’s commitment.  

Tiger Reserves in India

Tiger Habitats in India can be divided into 5 divisions i.e.

  1. Shivalik Gangetic Plains
  2. Central India and the Eastern Ghats
  3. Western Ghats
  4. Sunderbans
  5. North Eastern Hills and Brahmaputra Flood Plains

There are 52 Tiger Reserves in 17 States. The important ones are listed below

Corbett Uttarakhand
Dudhwa UP
Valmiki Bihar
Ranthambore Rajasthan
Sariska Rajasthan
Kanha MP
Bandhavgarh MP
Panna MP
Pench MP
Guru Ghasidas Chhattisgarh
Pench Maharashtra
Bandipur Karnataka
Nagarhole Karnataka
Periyar Kerala
Anamalai Tamil Nadu
Mudumalai Tamil Nadu
Simplipal Odisha
Sunderbans West Bengal
Buxa West Bengal
Kaziranga Assam
Manas Assam
Namdapha Arunachal Pradesh

Reasons for decrease in tiger population

1. Habitat loss

  • Because of Deforestation, the size of tiger prey (deer, sambar etc.) has declined.  
  • Forest fires and floods are leading to habitat loss.

2. Disturbance in Tiger breeding/ reproduction

  • Highways, noise pollution, tourism etc., disrupt the tiger breeding, thus impacting their population. 

3. Area constraint/fragmentation of area

  • Tiger is a territorial animal which advertises its presence in an area through urine marking and maintains a territory. Hence, 80-100 tigers need a protected and undisturbed area of 1000 sq km. In its absence, male tigers would fight and kill each other. Due to the construction of highways and farming activities, the habitats are getting fragmented. 

4. Insurgency in North East and Naxals in Central India

  • The Forest departments cannot efficiently work and protect tigers. 
  • Using illegal trade in these to fund their operations 

5. Black market of tiger bones and organs

  • China has a big market for tiger bones and organs where these organs are used for enhancing male virality.

Why do we need to protect tigers?

  • Tiger is an “umbrella species“. It resides at the top of the forest food chain. A healthy tiger population indicates that the other ecological components in its habitat are equally robust since tigers need a large amount of prey and good habitat. 
  • If the Umbrella species are protected, it will also ensure viable populations of other wild animals (co-predators like leopards and prey like dears) and the habitat (trees, shrubs, water).  

Transfer Projects

1. Lion to Tiger Territory

  • There is a proposal to shift lion from Gujarat to Kuno-Palpur National Park, MP
  • Reason: All Lion population in Gujarat which makes them vulnerable.
  • Problem: Gujarat government considers it PRIDE OF THE STATE & refusing to share it with MP.

2. Interstate Tiger Cub transfer

  • From  Bandhavgarh and Kanha in MP to Satkosia in Odisha.  
  • Tigers were transferred in 2018. But this led to massive protests by the locals as they were not consulted in the whole process. One of the tigers started to raid human habitations leading to Man-Animal conflict. Hence, the project was shelved, and Tiger was transferred back to MP.

Tiger census-2018

Tiger census is the all India tiger estimation exercise happening since 2006. The Tiger Census is carried out after a gap of every three years by NTCA.

Project Tiger

M – STRiPES

  • M-STRiPES, or Monitoring System for Tiger Intensive Protection & Ecological Status, is software developed by the Wildlife Institute of India.
  • It is a software-based Monitoring system for tigers.
  • It uses e-Eye system using thermal cameras. 
  • The Indian government launched it in 2010.
  • The Tiger Census is also conducted using M-STRiPES.

2. Project Elephant

Project Elephant
Scientific Name Elephas Maximus
IUCN status Endangered
Population 25,000 in India
Heritage Animal The elephant was declared National Heritage Animal in 2010

Project Elephant

  • Project Elephant was launched in 1992 as a centrally Sponsored Scheme

Objectives

  • Protect elephants, their habitat and corridors
  • To address the issue of man-animal conflict
  • Ensure the welfare of the domesticated elephants 
  • Strengthening of protection from the poachers and unnatural causes of death
  • Public education and awareness
  • Providing Veterinary care

Elephant Reserves

There are a total of 30 elephant reserves in India.

Important ones are

Singhbhum Jharkhand
Mayurbhanj Odisha
Sambhalpur Odisha
Kameng  Arunachal
Singhpan Nagaland
Kaziranga Assam
Wayanad Kerala
Periyar Kerala
Anaimalai Tamil Nadu

Elephant Corridors

  • Elephant Corridors are narrow land for the passage of elephants from one habitat to another. 
  • There are 183 identified Elephant Corridors in India.

Reasons for decrease in population

  • Poaching for elephant ivory 
  • Disruption of habitat
  • Man animal conflict 
  • Mining activities in central India
  • Train hits 

Monitoring of Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) Program

  • It was established in 2003 by CITES.
  • It is an international collaboration that tracks trends in information related to the illegal killing of elephants across Africa and Asia to monitor the effectiveness of field conservation efforts.

3. Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitat (IDWH)

  • Project Tiger is run as Core Scheme, i.e. union and state governments share expenses in the 60:40 ratio.  
  • The aim of the scheme is  protection of the wildlife.
  • Objective
    • Support the protected areas 
    • Conservation of Wildlife outside protected areas 
    • Recovering the critically endangered species as well as habitats.

Financial and technical assistance is given to states to protect threatened 18 species like

Mammals 1. Snow Leopard
2. Bustards (including Florican)
3. Hangul
4. Nilgiri Tahr
5. Asian Wild Buffalo
6. Manipur Brow-antlered
7. Malabar civet
8. One-horned rhinoceros
9. Asiatic Lion
10. Swamp deer 
Aquatic 11. River Dolphin
12. Marine Turtles
13. Dugongs 
14. Coral Reefs
Birds 15. Edible-nest Swiftlets
16. Nicobar Megapode
17. Vultures
18. Jerdon’s Courser

3.1 Lion Conservation Project

Lion Conservation Project
  • It was launched by Environment Ministry in 2018. 
  • The aim is to protect and conserve the world’s last ranging free population of Asiatic Lion. 
  • It is funded under the Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitat (IDWH), with the contributing ratio being 60:40 of Central and State governments. 

About Asiatic Loin

  • Asiatic Lion, Panthera Leo Persica is listed in 
    • Schedule 1 of Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 
    • Appendix-I of CITES
    • Endangered category under IUCN Red List
  • Asiatic Lions are found only in the 5 protected areas of Gujarat, the most famous of which is Gir. 

Lion Transfer

  • Lion is only found in Gujarat, which makes it vulnerable to extinction in case of any disease or unwanted accident. Hence, the proposal is to transfer some lions to Kuno-Palpur National Park, Madhya Pradesh. 

3.2 Project Snow Leopard

Project Snow Leopard
  • There are around 7400 snow leopards globally, and ~10% of them are present in India (750 in India ).
  • The snow leopard is the apex predator on the ecological pyramid. Hence, it plays an important role in sustaining the ecosystem in its habitat.
  • Snow Leopard is listed in 
    • Schedule 1 of the Wildlife Protection Act 
    • Vulnerable category under IUCN Red List
  • It is found in Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Arunachal and Sikkim.
  • In 2021, the newly created Union Territory of Ladakh declared it to be the state animal.

3.3 Vulture

  • India is home to 9 out of 23 species of vultures. These include
    1. White-rumped vulture (WRV)
    2. Long-billed vulture (LBV)
    3. Read-headed or king vulture
    4. Egyptian vulture (EV)
    5. Eurasian griffon (EG)
    6. Himalayan griffon (HG)
    7. Cinereous vulture (CV)
    8. Slender-billed vulture (SBV)
    9. Bearded vulture(BV).
  • Of these, 3 are Critically Endangered 
    1. White Backed Vulture 
    2. Slender Billed Vulture 
    3. Long-Billed Vulture 
  • Other points about Vultures
    • Vultures nest on tall trees and rocky cliffs. 
    • They are slow breeders. Hence, the survival of every individual is essential.
    • They have excellent eyesight and smelling sense and can detect the presence of dead animals from great distances. 
    • They don’t hunt and rely on other carnivores for carcasses. But they have strong bills and necks adapted to tear flesh from carcasses. Further, vultures have acidic stomachs, which help them to digest rotting carcasses. 

Causes of their deaths

  • Bioaccumulation of Diclofenac leads to kidney failure in vultures culminating in their death.
Bioaccumulation of Diclofenac

Other minor reasons

  • Hunting and trading because of myths about the medicinal power of vultures.
  • Habitat destruction due to rapid urbanization. 
  • Electrocution in the areas with lesser trees.

Program for Protection

  • The use of Diclofenac has been banned in India.
  • Vulture has been brought under Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitat (IDWH)
  • Vulture Safe Zones : 3 such zones have been created – from Uttarakhand to Nepal, Assam to Arunachal and Central India
  • Vulture Breeding Facilities: Breeding facilities have been created in Guwahati, Pinjore and Buxa (WB)
  • Ramadevarabetta Vulture Sanctuary: It is India’s only vulture sanctuary in Karnataka
  • ‘Vulture Restaurants/Cafeteria’: These are elevated spots located strategically, for example, in Punjab and Maharashtra, where dead animals are kept for vultures to feed. 

Consequences of these disappearances

  • The disappearance of vultures has allowed other species, such as rats and wild dogs, to take their place. These new scavengers, however, are not as efficient as vultures. Vulture’s metabolism is a true “dead end” for pathogens, but dogs and rats become carriers of the pathogens. Thus, they are directly or indirectly responsible for thousands of human deaths. 

3.4 Rhino

  • Rhino is listed in
    • Schedule 1 of the Wildlife Protection Act 
    • Vulnerable category under IUCN Red List
  • There are around 3000 Rhinos in the world. 
  • In India, Rhino is found in North Bihar, North West Bengal and the Brahmaputra valley of Assam. But 95% of the world population is found in Kaziranga & Orang National Park in Assam.

Reasons for poaching

The reason for poaching is a great demand of horns of Rhino due to

  • Use of Rhino horn in Chinese medicines.
  • The Rhino horn is considered a status symbol in countries such as Vietnam.

3.5 Project Hangul/Kashmiri Stag

  • Hangul or Kashmiri Stag is a CRITICALLY ENDANGERED species under IUCN Red List. 
  • There were only 160 mature individuals of Hangul in 2008 
  • Project Hangul was started in 1975 by the J&K government, IUCN and WWF. Presently under IDWH
  • It is also the state animal of J&K. 
  • The main population is in Dachigam National Park, Srinagar.

3.6 Gangetic Dolphin

  • In 2010, Government declared Gangetic Dolphin as the National Aquatic Animal.  
  • It is listed in the
    • Schedule 1 of the Wildlife (Protection) Act  
    • Endangered on IUCN Red List.
  • It is found in parts of the Ganga Brahmaputra river system. More than 50% of Gangetic Dolphin are found in Bihar. 
  • The Gangetic Dolphin symbolizes the purity of Ganga as it can survive only in freshwater.
  • It is also known as Susu or Sushak, or Souns because of its noise. 

Side Topic: River Dolphins

  • There are a total of 4 freshwater dolphins in the world i.e. 
    1. Baiji or Yangtze Dolphin (China)
    2. Boto or Amazon Dolphin 
    3. Bhulan or Indus Dolphin
    4. Susu or Gangetic Dolphin.

Main reasons for population decline

  1. Poaching for oil 
  2. Habitat degradation due to declining flow 
  3. Heavy siltation 
  4. Sand mining 
  5. The construction of barrages causes population fragmentation due to physical barriers 
  6. Increasing traffic due to the declaration of Ganga as National Waterways

Steps taken for preservation of Gangetic Dolphin

  • Project Dolphin 
    • Ministry of Environment announced it in 2020 on the lines of ‘Project Tiger’.
    • It involves the conservation of dolphins through the use of modern technology and engages local fishing communities in the conservation process.
  • National Dolphin Research Centre has been established at Patna University.
  • Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary has been established in Bihar.

Side Topic: Indus Dolphin

  • Indus Dolphin are endangered, freshwater, and functionally blind species of dolphins relying on echolocation for navigation, communication and hunting prey.
  • India has a population of around 30 Indus Dolphins in the Beas River. The rest of the population is found in the Indus river in Pakistan. 
  • Punjab declared it as its state aquatic animal in 2019.
  • In 2021, the Punjab government, along with WWF-India, conducted the first organized census on the population of Indus Dolphin. 

3.7 Nilgiri Tahr

  • Nilgiri Tahr is the state animal of Tamil Nadu.
  • It is listed in 
    • Schedule 1 of the Wildlife (Protection) Act  
    • Endangered on IUCN Red List
  • It is endemic to the narrow belt of the higher elevation of Shola Forest in the Western Ghats.

Legal Provisions regarding Biodiversity Conservation

by

Legal Provisions regarding Biodiversity Conservation

This article deals with ‘Legal Provisions regarding Biodiversity Conservation – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Environment’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles on Science and technology, you can click here.

Timeline

Before Independence

1887 Wild Birds Protection Act was enacted by the British Government aimed to prohibit the trade and sale of scheduled wild birds. But the act remained merely a piece of legislation as wildlife protection wasn’t a priority for the British Indian government. 
1927 Indian Forest Act was enacted. But the act was not envisaged to protect Indian forests or the environment. Instead, the act was aimed to exploit Sal & Teak for making railway sleepers & export to Europe. 

After Independence

Legal Provisions regarding Biodiversity Conservation
1950 Indian Constitution came into force. It has various provisions for biodiversity conservation, such as Article 51-A(G), calling citizens should conserve Wildlife & Environment. 
1972 Wildlife (Protection) Act was enacted.
1980 Forest (Conservation) Act was enacted.
2002 Biological Diversity Act was enacted.

Some Acts to Protect Biodiversity in India

The Biological Diversity Act, 2002

The Biological Diversity Act, 2000 was enacted to fulfil India’s commitments under UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), signed in 1992 at Nagoya.

Aim

  • Conservation of biological diversity. 
  • Regulating the access to biological and genetic resources. 
  • Ensure equitable sharing of benefits arising by using those biological resources.

Institutional Structure

  • 3 -tier system was established with
    • National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) at Centre.
    • State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) in each state.
    • Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) function with local governments (both municipalities and panchayats).
  • It also establishes the National and State Biodiversity Fund. 
The Biological Diversity Act, 2002

Functions of NBA, SBB & BMC

1. National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)

  • All foreign nationals require approval from NBA for obtaining Indian biological resources.
  • All Indian individuals/organizations must seek NBA approval before transferring knowledge/research to foreigners.
  • The NBA’s prior approval is required before applying for IPR based on research conducted on Indian biological material.
  • Advise the Central Government on matters relating to (1) conservation of biodiversity, (2) sustainable use of its components and (3) equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of biological resource
  • Advise the State Governments in the framing rules for managing Biodiversity Heritage sites.

2. State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs)

  • It advises state governments on the matter relating to the conservation of Biodiversity.  
  • It regulates the commercial use of bio-resources in the state by Indians (i.e. companies using biodiversity resources for a commercial purpose need to take permission from SBB ), excluding 1) Vaids and Hakims, practising Indian medicinal system 2) Local People using the bioresources for local use.
  • It ensures equitable sharing of benefits arising from utilizing biological resources.

3. Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs)

  • BMCs are constituted by the local bodies within their area of jurisdiction. 
  • BMC will promote conservation, sustainable use and documentation of biological diversity.
  • NBA and SBBs shall consult the BMCS while taking any decision relating to the use of biological resources and knowledge within the jurisdiction of the BMCS.
  • BMC is mandated to prepare the People’s Biodiversity Register in consultation with local people. These registers will have comprehensive information about local biological resources and knowledge about their medicinal and traditional uses. 

Role of Indigenous & Local Community  (ILC)

  • The act recognizes the role of ILCs in conserving biological resources over the years. Under the act, if the company uses local biological resources and has an annual turnover of more than Rs 3 crore, it will have to share 0.5% of sales with the local community.
  • It also provides for the involvement of ILCs through biodiversity management committees (BMCs) in the preparation of people’s biodiversity registers (PBRs).

Biodiversity Heritage Sites

  • Under the provisions of the Act, State Government, after consulting local bodies, can notify any area with biodiversity importance as Biodiversity Heritage Sites (BHS). 
  • In consultation with the Central Government, the State Government may frame rules for the management and conservation of BHS.

Issues with Act

  • Lack of Local Representation: Neither NBA nor State Biodiversity Boards have any representation from indigenous communities, forest-dwelling communities, or traditional knowledge practitioners. 
  • Corporate Collusion:  Big players in this industry are yet not registered with the respective State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs). Hence, these corporations are able to bypass the provision of taking permission prior to using local biological resources and the subsequent requirement of sharing royalty.
  • Less than 16% of local bodies had constituted Biodiversity Management Committees till 2016.
  • Less than 3% of local bodies have prepared the People’s Biodiversity Registers (PBRs). The absence of PBRs puts several endangered species at the risk of extinction and denies benefits to locals from the commercial use of biological resources.

Divya Pharmacy Case (2019)

  • Uttarakhand High Court has directed Divya Pharmacy to share part of its profits with the indigenous communities under the provisions of the Biodiversity Act, 2002. 
  • Judgement has said that both Indian and foreign companies are liable to pay indigenous and local communities for using the biological resources under the Biological Diversity Act, as the latter kept the traditional knowledge of biological resources alive over the years.  

TKDL (Traditional Knowledge Digital Library)

  • TKDL was started in 2001.
  • It is a collaboration project between CSIR & Ministry of AYUSH and implemented by CSIR.
  • TKDL acts as a bridge between traditional knowledge information existing in local languages & patent examiners at IPO (International Patent Offices). Whenever any MNC or foreign company tries to get a patent on traditional knowledge of Indians, TKDL files a complaint against it to stop biopiracy.
  • In the late 1990s, after granting Turmeric and basmati rice patents by the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) and the neem patent granted by the European Patent Office (EPO), respectively, the Indian Government successfully achieved their repudiation. Thereafter, the biopiracy and unethical bioprospecting issue made headlines. This led to the coming of more patent claims. Due to India’s vast traditional medicine knowledge in languages such as Sanskrit, Hindi, Arabic, Persian, Urdu, and Tamil, it became impossible for patent examiners to verify such claims at the international patent offices. Thus, the Department of AYUSH, Government of India, was encouraged for the creation of the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) in 2001.
  • Achievements Till 2010,
    • TKDL had transformed 148 books in the public sphere based on Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha and Yoga languages into information consisting of 34 million pages, and further translated them into five languages, namely, English, German, French, Spanish and Japanese.
    • TKDL has already received information on Ayurveda’s 80,000 formulations, Unani’s 1,000,000 and Siddha’s 12,000.
    • TKDL also signed an agreement with the world’s leading international patent offices, such as the European Patent Office (EPO), the United Kingdom Trademark and Patent Office (UKPTO) and the United States Patent and Trademark Office with the primary objective of protecting conventional knowledge from biopiracy and further giving access to the database of TKDL by the patent examiners at International Patent Offices for enabling the purpose of patent search and examinations.
    • Pangaea Labs Limited (a UK-based company) filed a patent for a product based on Turmeric, pinebark, and green tea to treat hair loss. TKDL objected to this and proved it to be part of the Indian system of medicines like Ayurveda and Unani. As a result, Pangaea Labs withdrew its application. 
    • US company Colgate Palmolive applied for a patent for a mouthwash formula containing the herb Jayaphal (Nutmeg). The TKDL submitted proof against this, and the company withdrew the claim. 

Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

Before this Act, India had only 5 designated National parks. This was the first umbrella act that established schedules for plants & animals 

  • The act extends to the whole of India. 
  • Under the provisions of this law, hunting & harvesting of species were largely outlawed based on their names in Appendix.

Schedules of the Act

There are 6 schedules in this act, which give varying degrees of protection

Schedule 1 & Part 2 of Schedule 2

  • Absolute protection and the highest penalty.
  • Note: Animals in Schedule 1 cant be declared Vermin in any case. 

Schedule 3 & 4

  • Less penalties, but animals are protected.

Schedule 5

  • Schedule 5 is meant for vermin & pests.
  • No legal protection is provided to animals in Schedule 5. 
  • It includes rats, common crow, fruit-bat etc. 

Schedule 6

  • Schedule 6 includes the plants prohibited from plantation and cultivation. These include 
    1. Beddomes cycad 
    2. Blue Vanda 
    3. Kuth 
    4. Ladies slipper orchards 
    5. Red Vanda

Proposed Amendments

Amendment for the Wildlife (Protection) Act has been introduced, which seeks to rationalize the schedules from 6 to 4 by 

  • Reducing the number of schedules for specially protected animals to two (one for greater protection level)
  • Removing the schedule for vermin species (Wild animals to be declared as Vermin by way of notification by the Central Government for any area and for a specified period.)
  • Inserting a new schedule for specimens listed in the Appendices under CITES
Wildlife (Protection) Act , 1972

Statutory Bodies under Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

Statutory bodies under Wildlife Protection Act include 

1. National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA)

  • NTCA works under the Environment Ministry.
  • It was made via amendment in 2006.
  • Its functions include strengthening tiger conservation. 
  • State Governments can declare any area to be a Tiger Reserve on the recommendation of NTCA. 

2. National Board for Wildlife (NBWL)

  • It was constituted in 2002 via an amendment in the act.
  • Its function includes 
    1. Advice Central Government on framing policies for the conservation of wildlife.
    2. Approve projects around Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Parks.
    3. Alteration in the boundaries of National Park and Wildlife Sanctuaries can be done only after the approval of NBWL.

3. Central Zoo Authority

  • Central Zoo Authority is the central body responsible for the oversight of zoos in India.

4. Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB)

  • It works under MoEFCC.
  • Its functions include 
    • Collection, collation of intelligence.
    • Establishment of Wildlife Crime data bank.
    • Advise the Indian Government on wildlife crimes.

Other notes regarding the Act

  • It protects the hunting rights of the Scheduled Tribes in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.