Metal Architecture

by admin

This article deals with topic titled ‘Metal Sculpture .’ This is part of our series on ‘Culture’ . For more articles , you can click here

Table of Contents

Introduction

Lost wax (Cire-Perdu) technique is known to Indians since Indus Valley & bronze from 5,000 years
Earliest Bronze sculpture is dancing girl from Mohenjodaro. Similar group of bronze statues have been discovered on archaeological excavation at Daimabad (Maharashtra) datable to 1500 BCE.
Bronze sculptures & statues of Buddhist,hindu and deities of 2nd to 6th century have been found which were mainly used for ritual worship

Jain Images

At Chausa (Bihar) , Bronze Images of Jain tirathankaras belonging to kushana period have been found
Most remarkable is depiction of Adinath who is identified with long hairs (all other tirathankaras have short hairs)

Buddha Images

Most metal Buddha images in North are in Abhayamudra
Commonly found in UP& Bihar from Gupta & post gupta period & also in Maharashtra from Vakataka (Guptas & Vakatakas were contemporary)
In Abhayamudra right hand is free so that drapery(cloth) clings to right side of body. Result is continuous flowing line on this side of figure. At level of ankles of Buddha figure the drapery makes curvilinear turn as it is held by hand
Two such bronze statues are very famous ie Sultanganj Buddha & Phopnar Vakataka Buddha
Advantage of these- monks can carry them from one place to other as they are portable for purpose of worship

About Sultanganj Buddha

Epitome of metal sculpture of that time
Dated between 500-700 AD
2.3 m in height & 1 m wide , weighing 500 kg
Made using lost wax technique

Utsava Murtis Tradition of South India

In medieval times , this tradition emerged
In this deity leaves the sanctum & becomes approachable to all
Deity in many manifestations of human forms comes to street. Sometimes perform the journey to a place of pilgrimage or even to seashore to enjoy the breeze

Taalamana System of Tamil Nadu

During Chola period from 10th to 12th century , Bronze Murthis became extremely popular
Tradition of modelling followed in India & especially South India was entirely different from European tradition using Models
In India , images were made using mnemonic technique . In this craftsmen were meant to memorise dhyana shaloka which describe the attributes of various goddesses and gods & they used taalamana system of measurement to essentially visualise image & then sculpt it out of their own imagination rather than using models
Taalamana system of Iconography is derived from Shilpa Shastra
Taalamana system is system of measurement by Taala (ie palm ) & scale of 1 taala to 10 taalas was used

Nataraja Image

Most magnificent image in Bronze
Nataraja represents Shiva in his cosmic Dance ie Dance with which he destroys and creates world
One of the greatest icons created by man

What different things represent

1 . Ring of Cosmic Fire

Oval Ring around original figure
Represents cosmic fire which he uses to destroy the universe as part of cycle of destruction and creation
Three edged but in 12 th century 5 edged were also produced

2 . Third Eye

Represents his cosmic knowledge

3. Multiple arm

Hindu deities are represented with multiple arms to represent their divine powers
His four arms take different positions or hold symbolic objects showing his strength & constellation of skills

4. Cloth

Veshti around waist
Yogyopeeth ie Janeau across torso

5. Earrings

Right ear	Earring depicting Makara(=mythical water creature )
Left ear	Circular earring worn by women

Represents Shiva’s male & female aspects (Ardhinarishwar)
Half male half female form illustrating balance of male & female energies

6. Hands & different things in it

1 Left hand	Points downward => pointing sanctuary of the soul of the devotee
1 Right Hand	Open palm in Abhyamudra => worshipper needn’t fear
2 Right Hand	Damru => that Shiva beats to bring universe into creation
2 Left. Hand	Cosmic fire to end cycle of creation and destruction
Metted locks of Jatta	Reflect his role as yogi
Moon in Hair	Shiva is associated with moon in number of narratives

7. Feat & Apasmara

Balancing on right leg & suppressing Apasmara (=demon of ignorance or forgetfulness)
Left leg raised in Bhujangatrasita stance which represent kicking away veil of maya or illusion from devotees mind

Gupta Sculpture

This article deals with topic titled ‘Gupta Sculpture .’ This is part of our series on ‘Culture’ . For more articles , you can click here

Introduction

Art and architecture becomes complex. The earlier designs displaying simple pleasures of life gave way to contemplative & spiritual vision.
Many art historians prefer to call Gupta period Art as Religious Art.
- Utilitarian during Harappan Civilisation to
- Court Art during Maurayan Period
- Religious Art during Gupta Period.
Large scale temple construction took place.
For the first time , a clear & distinctive development between Sculpture, Architecture & Painting can be seen.
Major centres of Gupta art were
- Sarnath
- Mathura
- Nalanda

1 . Sculpture at Dashawatara Temple Deogarh ( U.P.)

Sheshnag Vishnu	– Sheshnaag Vishnu at Deogarh is important specimen of sculpture during Gupta Period – Headgear, ornamentation of Vishnu are important to notice
Sculpture on Lintel	– Lintel has detailed artistic sculpture on it – Geometric precision is noticeable.

2 . Sarnath Standing Budha

Already explained in other article. Refer here

3. Udayagiri Cave , Vidisha

Great Boar (Varaha) at the entrance of Udayagiri Cave
Here at entrance of one of the Cave, particularly powerful relief shows Vishnu in his boar incarnation rescuing the earth from waters

In the Udayagiri caves of Vidisha , Mukhalinga belonging to Gupta rule is also present

4. Terracotta

Includes small figurines and plaques found at many places including Kaushambi, Rajghat, Bhita and Mathura
These represent animals , ordinary people and gods & goddesses such as Durga, Kartikeya & Surya .
Among the remarkable pieces of monumental terracotta sculpture are almost life size images of the goddesses Ganga and Yamuna found at Ahichchhatra . Such images were placed in temple niches

5. Bronze Sculpture

Used Lost Wax Technique (aka Cire Perdue Method)
Copper and Bronze images of Buddha found at many places especially Nalanda (Bihar)
2.3 m high Copper-Bronze Buddha image from Sultanganj (refer next article)
Mehrauli Iron Pillar – Very interesting because first such thing & it hasn’t rusted yet.

Post Mauryan Sculpture

This article deals with topic titled ‘Post Mauryan Sculpture .’ This is part of our series on ‘Culture’ . For more articles , you can click here

Introduction

In Post Mauryan Phase, Shungas, Kushanas & Satavahanas ruled.
This phase paved the way for different schools of sculpture (like Mathura School of Art, Gandhara School etc & these School of arts gave way to Temple architecture)
Factors which developed art and culture in this phase
- Geographical expanse of respective kingdoms
- Local available material
- Local traditions of craftsmanship
- Political requirements
- Tastes of royalty (Satavahana queens gave donations to Buddhist monks in Western Ghats and various caves like Karle, Kanheri etc came up there)
- Religious inclination of the dynasties (these three dynasties patronised Brahmanism but at the same time kept on patronising Buddhism and Jainism although not at that great scale as Ashoka)
In this phase, although state patronage continued ( on lesser scale) but local players like Guilds and common people started to play important role in Art and Sculpture .
In this age, different motifs of yakshas& yakshis became very favourite. Shilabhanjika motif ie grasping the tree motif was very popular during this age

Kushana Period

Art & sculpture developed in this period at great pace. This was beginning of Golden phase of Indian Art
Kushana rule opened the gateway for active interaction of Indian Culture with those of Central & Eastern Asia . These further paved the way for exchange of ideas with other advanced traditions of ancient world like Graeco-Roman Traditions
Development of various schools of art took place in this period
Era of excellence in several fields including religion , philosophy & literature.
Most important development took place in Buddhism . During Kushana rule , first major Schism took place in Buddhism when Buddhism divided to Hinayana & Mahayana . Mahayana provided great impetus for development of sculpture because Buddha in this school can be shown in human form.

Mathura & Gandhara school of Art

Both Gandhara & Mathura were part of Kushana rule

First Buddha appeared in Mathura & later spread to other places including Gandhara
Both developed under political hegemony of Kushanas
In due course of time both schools merged

1 . Mathura School of Art

Origin	– In heartland of India & percolation of foreign influence was almost none. – No foreign influence,but later fertilised with Gandhara School – *Initial development took place indigenously inspired by Yakshas*
Material	Spotted red sandstone (from Sikri mines)
Features	– Mathura image makers didn’t intend to sculpt anatomically correct Budha & were images were generally disproportionate. – Images were compositions of 32 major & 80 minor laksana. – Images were very inexpressive Buddha has been shown sitting cross legged. – Boldness in expression . Images express more of power & less of compassion – Hair aren’t dressed. – Drapery and clothes are shown in simple manner – Images are mainly in Abhayamudra
Centes	Mathura, Sarnath, Kosambi
Images	– Buddha – Jain Tirathankaras – Images of hindu gods and goddesses like Vishnu, Shiva, Parvati, Kuber etc – Image of Emperors – most important being that of Kanishka
Patrons	Developed under Kushanas & Zenith during the Gupta period 325-600 AD

2. Gandhara School of Art

Origin	– Gandhara region is in North West of Subcontinent and Silk Road passes through it. Also it is on border of Subcontinent. Hence , ideas from different regions like from China, Greek, Roman, Persian kept on coming in this region. As a result of mixing of all ideas along with Indian ideas, totally different school came up here. – Strong Greeko-Roman influence- based on greco- roman norms (but influence of Indian Traditions was strong as well) Also known as Greco-Buddhist school of Art
Material	Black stone & Stucco
Features	– Closely connected with Mahayana Buddhism – Has distinct influence of old Greek School of Art. => It used the Indian themes but used the material (Stucco) & ideas of Graeco -Romans – Main theme of this school was Buddha & Bodhisattvas.
Image Features	– Finer details and realistic images – Buddha carved out in various mudras – Curly/wavy hair,anatomically accurate,spatial depth. – Wrinkles on skin, compassion and muscular frame of body – Transparent garments , fold of garment very natural , flowing drapery Images are very expressive & muscularity of body is depicted very well (Greek gods are also depicted in masculine posture) – Buddha is depicted like Greek God Apollo
Centres	Taxila,Begram, Bamiyan & Peshawar (Afghanistan & NW India)
Patrons	Shakas & Kushanas

Greek , Roman and Indian Influence

Greek	– Depiction of Buddha as a ‘man-god’ in Gandharan sculpture is inspired from Greek mythology. Greek sculpture believed in mythological and idealist statues, while the Roman sculpture was more realistic (Greek Sculptures = God \| Roman Sculptures = Mainly used to make statues of Kings and Generals) – Stucco plaster, which was commonly used in Greek art, was widely used in Gandharan artwork – Wavy hair (Romans have adopted wavy hair from Greek) – Masculinity ( Greek gods were always shown muscular)
Roman	– Roman Sculpture developed from Greek Sculpture. Hence, there was large similarity in them but differences were visible as well. Drapery Drapery of the robes on Buddha was also very similar to the drapery on Roman imperial statues. (refer image below)
Indian	– Jewelry indicated was Indian – Idea of Buddhism is Indian.

**Drapery of Budha and Roman Imperial Statues**

Mathura vs Gandhara School of Art

This type of question is very important for State Level PCS examinations.

	Mathura school	Gandhara school
Origin	No foreign influence & indigenous development (although later cross fertilised with Gandhara schools )	Strong Greek-Roman influence . Graeco Buddhist school of art . Initially inspired by Hellenistic features.
Material used	Spotted red sandstone	Stucco
Religions	All 3 = Buddhism , Jainism & Hinduism	Only Buddhism
Image feature	– Not much attention to detailed sculpting – Buddha is stout	– Finer details – Realistic images – Buddha in various mudras
Area	Mathura, Kosambi	Taxila, Bagram, Bamiyan etc
Patronage	Kushanas & later Guptas	Kushanas & Shakas

Amravati School of Art

During the time of Satavahanas , Amravati & Nagajunakonda developed as center of art popularly known as Amravati School of Art aka Vengi School of Art.

Location	– Amravati is in Guntur dist of AP. – Aka Vengi School of Art & developed in lower valleys of Krishna -Godavari region
Patrons	Satavahans & Ischvakus
Material	White Marble
Place	Andhra Pradesh (Krishna -Godavari Valley)
Theme	– Buddha life & Jataka stories – Both Mahayana & Hinayana – There is emphasis on the narrative element with stories from the life of Buddha and Bodhisattva dominating such episodes relating to the Birth, the miracles, Enlightenment
Features	– Curly hairs of Buddha influenced by greeks – Kings,princes,palaces have got prominence – Its gateways has images of lion – Amravati figures are lean, beautiful, curvy & mobile even when resting (in this respect close to Gandhara) – Flowers & lotus motifs are carved frequently – Various postures create an interest in activities of each individual \- Most of sculptures are joyful. – Female figurines are made in different postures. Feminine beauty is better depicted in Amravati than in Mathura School of Art. – Amravati School of Art had a great influence on the later period sculpture of South India and even Sri Lanka & South East Asia.

Sarnath School

Sarnath is place near Varanasi and is famous as place where Buddha delivered his first sermon
Sarnath School developed much later than Gandhara & Mathura School and some scholars opine that development of Sarnath school is closely associated with the Gupta Period.
It is also associated with Buddha (and Boddhisatvas are also shown)
- Halo is very much developed .
- Hair are developed than Mathura (but lesser than Gandhara) – small dot like structure
- Drapery isn’t developed – Flows are simple and not showing natural cloth like Gandhara . Almost transparent
- Made of Red Sandstone
- Calm & inner tranquility is shown
- Very popular for preaching Buddha ie Dharmachakramudra is most common in this .
- Here Stupa Architecture was very much different than other places like Sanchi . Eg Dhamekh Stupa & Chaukhandi Stupa both belonging to this school.

Mauryan Sculpture

This article deals with topic titled ‘Mauryan Sculpture .’ This is part of our series on ‘Culture’ . For more articles , you can click here

Introduction

Dr.Ananda Coomarswamy differentiated Mauryan sculpture to

Court Art	Palaces, Pillars & their capitals
Popular Art	Yakshas & Yakshinis, Pottery.

Maurayan Empire has great role in promoting Indian Sculpture.
Why Maurayans were Patronisers of Art & Architecture
- Maurayans gave secured borders to India and in times of peace, art and architecture saw phenomenal growth.
- Other reason was that because of such a huge area under control and surplus revenue, emperors could easily patronise art
- Role of religion was also there. Pillars to spread message of Ashoka’s Dhamma & along with this, Stupas & Monastries came up due to spread of Buddhism.
From Utilitarian Art of Indus Valley Civilization , in Maurayan Period it became Court Art.
Uniformity in styles of pillar capital tells us that craftsmen were from same region

Influence on Mauryan Art

Mainly influenced by two things

Religious influence	– Buddhism became most popular social & religious movement – Concept of religious sculpture prominent
Foreign Influence	– First three Mauryan emperors Chandragupta,Bindusara & Ashoka known to have friendly relations with Hellenistic west and Achaemenids of Iran – Adaptation of Achaemenids seen in Edicts & imperial palace of Pataliputra

Court art

It mainly consist of Edits and Pillars made by the royal court on the direct orders of king himself.

General Outline

Consist of

Shaft : Monolithic & Freestanding
Bell/Lotus Base : Act as Joint between pillar & capital
Drum : On bell base. Can be rectangular, square or circular
Capital : Placed on Drum eg Lion, Bull, 4 headed Lion etc.

General Features of Ashokan Pillars

Inscriptions on Stone ie Ashoka’s Message to his subjects
- In middle of Pillars . If seen with bare eyes, these inscriptions cant be read properly. That is the reason , why Dhamma Mahamatras were there in Ashokan Period who periodically visited these places and read out the message of Emperor to people.
- Mostly written in Brahmi Script and Pali or Prakrit Language. In North West , Greek language and Aramaic script was used.
- Important to note that any Pillars don’t mention Ashoka but Devnampriya Priyadarshi

Monolithic & free standing structures (ie without support)
- All the Ashokan Pillars are carved out of single stone with no breaks
- They are not supported with any material
- Prof Jaiswal of BHU argues that many a times, these arent monolithic but joined and polished from above so that joints arent visible . Nevertheless most of them are monolithic.

Use of Chunar Sandstone
- Chunar is place in Mirzapur district & there are naturally existing mines of Sandstones there.
- All the pillars were mined out of that place and transported to different places.

Polished surface
- Surface of these Pillars is very shiny and archeologists called it Polish
- Actually it is mixture of animal fat with lime, gypsum and sandstone .

Animal capitals
- Every pillar has capital made of same stone

Transportation Technique
- Since these pillars are massive structure several feet in height and very heavy. In those days, transportation was not that effective as that of modern time
- Inland navigation was used for this. River Ganga was used extensively. This is the reason that most of these pillars are found in Ganga Valley.

They are placed either to mark a sacred site associated with Buddha’s life or to commemorate a great event. On many of these pillars are inscribed the famous edicts of Ashoka propagating the Dhamma (laws of the Buddha) or the imperial sermons of Ashoka to his people.
Some were of spotted red and white sandstone from the region of Mathura, the others of buff colored fine grained hard sandstone usually with small black spots quarried in Chunar near Varanasi.The uniformity of style in the pillar capital suggests that they were all sculpted by the craftsmen from the same region.

Various Pillars

1 . Lion Capital

Place	Sarnath (now our national symbol without crowning wheel) Note : there is one Lion capital similar to this at Sanchi too but that is not our national symbol because in it’s drum base is different
Components	For all these are same 5 in number (now only 4 remains)
1.shaft	Broken into many parts now
2.Bell base	Artistic beauty and act as joint between pillar and capital
3.Drum on Bell Base	Circular in shape Has drum shape with 4 animals -elephant,horse,bull &lion
4Lions	– 4 voluminous roaring lion figures back to back – Indicate spread of dharma in all direction – Reminiscent of Persian tradition
5.crowning Element	– Dhammachakra, a large wheel – Lions originally supported this and it is important symbol of cosmic order; in Buddhism it represents Dhammachakraparivartan (first sermon by Buddha) – This wheel is lying in broken condition &displayed in museum

2. Pillar at Vaishali

How different	Only one lion capital
Direction of lions face	North
Why north	Direction buddha took on his last voyage
Location of pillar	Contiguous to site of monastery

3. Allahabad pillar

First erected at Kausambhi (30km from Allahabad) capital of Koshala Kingdom
Located inside Allahabad fort now
Earlier inscriptions from Ashoka (Brahmi Language dated around 232 BC)
Later inscriptions attributed to Samundragupta & Jahangir
Too has single lion capital

4. Lauriya-Nandangarh

Location	23km from Bettiah in West Champaran,Bihar
Feature	– Single lion capital – Hump and hind legs of lion go beyond abacus

5. Lauriya-Areraj

Location	East Champaran , Bihar
Speciality	Devoid of any capital

6. Rampurva

Bull Capital in Rampurva ( Bihar)
Presently, it is in Rashtrapati Bhavan

Comparison with Persian Pillars

Most of the Colonist/Imperialist Historians gave theory that Indian Art was highly influenced by foreign Art & Ashokan Pillars were simply a copy of the Pillars of Persian Empire of Darius I because they wanted to show that Indians weren’t capable of such artistic endeavors .
Yes, these two types of pillars are of same period and ideas do match but we cant say that one is the simple copy of other. Idea of these pillars was very much prevalent in Persia & India both of which came in same cultural zone in those time but developed in both places with local artistic craftsmanship. It cant be said that one copied from other.

Popular Art of Mauryans

1 . Yaksha & Yakshini

Yaksha	Nature spirits usually benevolent also known as fertility spirits
Yakshini	Female counterpart of male yaksha

Both attend to Kubera ,hindu god of wealth who rules mythical Himalayan kingdom-Alaka
They were deities of common people (ie symbolize common belief of people) but gradually other religions took them into their fold
Both caretaker of natural treasures
Have prominent place in Hindu, Jain & Buddhist literature
Most common element- polished surface & clear physiognomic details

2. Didarganj Yakshini

Place	– Didarganj (Bihar) – In Patna museum presently.
Material	Sandstone with polished surface ,reflecting sophistication in treatment
Features	– Tall, well built, well proportioned, free standing sculpture – Yakshini holds chauri (flywheel) in right hand & left hand is broken – Shows sculptures sensitivity towards round muscular female human body- folds of muscles are properly rendered & tightening of garment around belly creates effect of bulging belly. – Lower garment has been rendered with great care. Each fold of garment on legs is shown by protruding lines clinging to legs ,which create transparent effect – Heaviness of torso is depicted by heavy breasts and impressive back

3. Elephant Sculpture

Place	– Dhauli near Bhubneshwar – There is rock-cut elephant above the Edicts which is the earliest Buddhist sculpture of Odisha.
Features	– Represent fore-part of elephant carved over edicts of Ashoka – Different from animal figures surmounting pillar capitals – Fine delineation of bulky volume & living flesh, natural to that animal along with dignified movement and linear rhythm that has no parallel

4. Facades of Lomus Rishi cave

Place	Rock cut cave of Lomus rishi in Barabar Hills near Gaya,Bihar
Feature	Decorated with semicircular chaitya arch at entrance resembling that of wood work
Patronage	By Ashoka for Ajivika sect

5. Pottery

Pottery is known as Northern Black Pottery Ware (NBPW)
Black color was used
Highly lustrous polish was used
It was a Luxury ware showing maturity
it shows highest level of pottery making
Was considered precious item => because archaeologists found broken NBPW pottery that was repaired

Indus Valley Sculpture

This article deals with topic titled ‘Indus Valley Sculpture .’ This is part of our series on ‘Culture’ . For more articles , you can click here

Introduction

The artists of that time surely had fine artistic sensibilities and a vivid imagination.
Art found at Indus valley include sculpture,seals,pottery,gold jewelry,terracotta figures

Stone Sculpture

Stone statuaries found at Harappa and Mohenjodaro are excellent examples of handling three- dimensional volumes.

1 . Bearded Priest

Made up of Steatite
It is interpreted as Priest or priest king
Features

Shawl	– Under right arm & covering left arm – Decorated with trefoil pattern (indicating embroidery was practiced commonly in Indus valley)
Eyes	Little elongated, and half-closed as in meditative concentration.
Nose	Well formed & medium sized
Mouth	Average sized
Moustache	Closed cut & short beard and whiskers
Ear	Resemble double shell
Armlet	On right hand & holes around neck indicating necklace

2. Male torso

Made of	Red Sandstone
Features	– Socket holes in neck & shoulders for attachment of head and arms – Shoulders well curbed & abdomen looks prominent – Balanced lines stand equal to beautiful art of Gandhara

Bronze Casting

Lost wax technique was used .
In bronze we find human as well as animal figures, the best example being statue of a girl popularly titled ‘Dancing Girl’.
Among animal figures in bronze buffalo with its uplifted head, back & sweeping horns and the goat are of artistic merit.

Terracotta

The Indus Valley people made terracotta images also but compared to the stone and bronze statues the terracotta representations of human form are crude in the Indus Valley. They are more realistic in Gujarat sites and Kalibangan.
The most important among the Indus figures are those representing the mother goddess. The repetition of this figure in exactly the same position would suggest that he was a deity.
Toy carts with wheels, whistles, rattles, birds and animals, gamesmen and discs were also rendered in terracotta

Side Topic : Mother Goddess

Necklace hanging over prominent breasts
Most distinct feature- fan shaped head dress with cup like projection on each side
Rest facial figures very crude & distant from being realistic
Believed to be Goddess most probably linked to Fertility

Seals

Archaeologists have discovered thousands of seals, usually made of steatite, and occasionally of agate, chert, copper, faience and terracotta, with beautiful figures of animals
The purpose of producing seals was mainly commercial. It appears that the seals were also used as amulets, carried on the persons of their owners, perhaps as modern-day identity cards.
The standard Harappan seal was a square plaque 2×2 square inches, usually made from the soft river stone, steatite
Every seal is engraved in a pictographic script which is yet to be deciphered.
They all bear a great variety of motifs, most often of animals including those of the bull, with or without the hump, the elephant, tiger, goat and also monsters. Sometimes trees or human figures were also depicted.

Side Topic : Pashupati Seal

Most remarkable seal is Pashupati Seal.
This seal depicts
- human figure seated cross-legged
- An elephant & a tiger are depicted to right side of seated figure, while on left a rhinoceros and a buffalo are seen.
- two antelopes are shown below the seat.

Laws as Sources of Ethical Guidance

by admin

Table of Contents

Laws as Sources of Ethical Guidance

This article deals with the topic titled ‘Laws as Sources of Ethical Guidance.’ This is part of our series on ‘Ethics’. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

Laws and Conscience also act as sources of ethical guidance for all humans living in society. They can be broadly classified as

Laws	It is the outside actor of Ethical Guidance
Conscience	It is the inner actor of Ethical Guidance (discussed in the next article CLICK HERE)

What is Law?

It is the codification of mutually agreed values.
In modern democracy (not authoritarian regimes), it can be said to be minimum ethical conduct that society decides for itself through elected representatives.

Characteristics of Law

1. Common Good

Law must result in the common good of society.
E.g., Outlawing murder & thuggery – There is the common good of society if we punish this by law. Hence, this law results in the common good of society.

2. Compliance

Law should be implementable.
E.g., Although there is a common good in outlawing lies, it cant be implemented. Hence, no such law is made.

3. Create minimum Morality

Law creates minimum morality in public life.
Hence, we can say that law represents the minimum morality/ethics that society wants in its members. A citizen can have more than that in himself, but lower than that will land him in jail.
It is desirable and practicable that we make laws for minimum morality only because if laws cover every aspect of our behaviour, they will become so cumbersome that they can’t be implemented.

Law vs. Ethics

Law	Ethics
It is the codification of mutually agreed values.	Ethics are values held by society which are used in deciding right & wrong.
It has legal backing.	It has societal backing.
Breaking laws has legal sanctions.	It is voluntary in nature. If you do unethical work, you will not land in prison (although you can face social ostracization).
There may be many areas where the law does not exist or is silent.	Ethics has a wider scope.
Law is the same for all people.	Ethics may vary from person to person.
Laws need to be specifically changed by the legislature.	Ethics change automatically as society matures.

Whether law guides ethics or ethics guide law

Ethics usually guide the laws, as the law is the minimum ethical conduct the state wants each person to uphold. For example, in the highest form of ethical conduct, we shouldn’t take anything that isn’t rightfully ours. It includes something we have found by chance, like a ₹500 note lying on the road. But as minimum ethical conduct, the state wants that person shouldn’t indulge in theft. A person is punished if he indulges in such activity.
Sometimes the law can be more progressive than ethics, and in that case, the law guides ethics. E.g., the Sati Abolition law when William Bentinck enacted it. In that case, the law guided ethics and made society more progressive.
But some of the laws have nothing to do with Ethics. For example, the law prescribes driving to the left (in India, England etc.) and the right (in the US, Canada etc.). Although these laws prevent chaos on the roads, it has nothing to do with ethics.

Exception: Law can be Immoral or Unethical

However, not all laws can have moral or ethical sanctions. Even in a democracy, a majority can take over the legislative process and frame a law that may not be just for every section of society or may undermine the dignity of some. A law that caters to most at the cost of a few is unjust. And according to St. Augustine, an unjust law is no law at all. Mahatma Gandhi also argued that an unjust law is itself a species of violence. In the present context, the following examples could be seen in this light:

Criminalizing Homosexuality: Many countries, including India, have recently criminalized the LGBT community for their sexual orientation.
Adultery: Until recently, only a man in India could be prosecuted for adultery under Section 497 of IPC.
Historically, laws related to apartheid in South Africa and racial discrimination in the US were ethically corrupt.

Therefore, these laws were withdrawn after widespread opposition and resentment by the population.

Question: Describe some acts which are ‘ethical but not legal’ and ‘legal but not ethical’.

Ethical but not legal

Starting the pension, if some old age person doesn’t have age proof but it is clear that he is a senior citizen.
Stealing medicine to save somebody’s life
Breaking signal to save a life.

Legal but not ethical

Removing slums because they are not legal owners of property without giving them any shelter
It is ethical not to give capital punishment as it is against the dignity of human life. Still, according to the law, it is correct (mainly for heinous crimes) to maintain law and order.
Old apartheid laws of South Africa
Marital Rape
Suicide

Law as a source of Ethical Guidance

Law and ethics overlap considerably. The law is the minimum acceptable standard of behaviour backed by legal sanctions. But laws can’t cover every possible ethical issue.

Hence, it can be said that

Law is the minimum morality that is placed on all the members of society. Whether a person wants or not, he has to possess that much morality in himself. Hence, by this notion, it is clear that laws indeed act as a source of ethical guidance.
But we must remember that morality and legality aren’t identical. Morality (or ethics) is much more than legality, and it is expected that the person’s moral standards should be higher than Legal Standards. But the tragic plight is that we have started to equate Morality & Ethicality with the letter of the law. The old adage “if it isn’t illegal, it must be ethical” is deeply flawed in the context of modern society.
Outlawing something takes back the legitimacy of that action. E.g. banning alcohol by law is easy, but it is challenging to implement it. But even after this limitation, banning it takes the legitimacy of drinking back.
Laws command both action and inaction: Some laws lay down what should not be done, e.g. murder, whereas others lay down what should be done, e.g. registration of motor vehicles.

Disobeying the unjust laws / Philosophy of Civil Disobedience

In earlier Authoritarian and Colonial Regimes

Historically, most of the regimes were authoritarian and colonial and didn’t consist of the people’s elected representatives. They made laws to increase their control over people’s lives and protect their own financial and commercial interests. We also have to remember that they didn’t have any moral sanction to rule people since people did not elect them. Those were despotic governments.
- Taxing salt production may have been just for the financial convenience of the British Indian administration; it was totally unjust for the millions of Indians.
- Slavery laws were made to benefit a few landed magnates and justified the exploitation of millions.
Hence, disobeying those unjust laws without any doubt wasn’t wrong. Gandhi advocated the moral responsibility to disobey unjust laws through non-cooperation and civil disobedience.

Modern Democracies

But the real issue is whether one should go for breaking the law in the case of Modern Democracies. We have to keep the following points in mind while going to conclusions.
- First of all, these laws are made by elected representatives of the people. People have given them moral sanctions to make laws.
- Secondly, people can change the government in the next elections if the government is formulating anti-people laws.
- Still, some government actions may be considered grossly unjust and unfair to a large section. In such situations, peaceful protests and pressurizing through the building up of popular opinion should be resorted to.
Resorting to Civil disobedience should be avoided because:
- Resort to unconstitutional methods could be justified in past as there was little rule of law or adherence to constitutionalism. In the present, we must hold to the constitutional methods of achieving our social and economic objectives.
- It may result in anarchy: While disobedience may be helpful to some, it may spiral out of control soon, undermining peace and benefitting none.

Martin Luther King also provided a template for opposing unjust laws. He said that one who breaks an unjust law must do so openly, lovingly, and with a willingness to accept the penalty. There should be acceptance of the penalty of imprisonment to arouse the community’s conscience over its injustice.

Information Sharing and Transparency in Government

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Information Sharing and Transparency in Government

This article deals with the topic titled ‘ Information Sharing and Transparency in Government .’ This is part of our series on ‘Ethics’. For more articles, you can click here.

What is Transparency in Governance?

Transparency = Openness in functioning
Transparency in governance means that the criteria, processes and systems of decision-making are openly known to all (in simple words, Transparency in Governance means how governance is being carried out should be known to all).
Although transparency is often used interchangeably with access to information, transparency is a wider term with information sharing as one of the tools.
Transparency or Openness has three aspects (PIA)
- Participative Governance
- Information Sharing
- Accountability

Examples of Transparency
1. Jharkhand Public Distribution System (PDS)
2. E-auctions of coal blocks: The process made the auction of coal blocks more transparent and uprooted corruption from the sector to a large extent.

Benefits of Transparency

Helpful in curbing Corruption and Nepotism: Transparency has a deterrent effect on corrupt behaviour as public officials know their actions will be subject to public scrutiny.
Transparency increases the state’s legitimacy as citizens are more likely to trust it when the government is transparent about its decision-making processes and is open about its policies and actions.
Enable a citizen to make well-informed decisions, especially while voting: Transparency helps citizens cast votes based on performance rather than narrow considerations of caste or creed.
Efficient utilization of funds: Transparency in governance ensures the efficient utilization of funds and prevents financial misdoings. When financial information is readily available to the public, it becomes easier to identify irregularities or discrepancies in financial statements and transactions.
Empowering the Marginalized: It empowers the poor and marginalized sections of society by providing them with the necessary information. For example, access to information can help people living in poverty to learn about job opportunities, government services, and educational programs. It can also help marginalized groups such as women, minorities, and people with disabilities to learn about their legal rights and protections.

Issues with Transparency in India

Red Tapism in bureaucracy undermines transparency
Official Secrets Act of 1923, under which government can classify certain information as official which cant be shared.
Monitoring mechanisms aren’t efficient.
Lack of government’s political will to be transparent
Citizens are not interested enough to ensure transparency in governance
Political parties don’t come under the ambit of RTI

3 Aspects of Transparency

1. Participative Governance

Participative Governance means when citizens themselves participate in governance and decision-making. It entails the participation of people in decision-making at the grass root level through the decentralization of powers to the local self-governing bodies.
Participative governance is one of the means to achieve transparency in governance through the bottom-up approach.

There are different ways by which participative governance can be achieved.

1.1 Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) & Urban Local Bodies

It is a well-known fact that as the distance from the Power of Center increases, proportionately transparency decreases.
PRIs and Urban Local Bodies were given constitutional status via the 73rd and 74th Amendments.
Powers have been devolved to Village Panchayats and Gram Sabhas, in which people make decisions themselves.

1.2 Social Audit

Social Audit is the audit through client or beneficiary groups or civil society groups (i.e. stakeholders) to ensure the social accountability of an organization.
It was suggested by Ashok Mehta Committee in 1977. After the 73rd Amendment, when Gram Panchayats got Constitutional Status, rural citizens/gram sabha got legitimacy to conduct Social Audits.
The Supreme Court has also favoured it. CAG, in 2016, laid down “auditing standards” for Social Audit.
It isn’t just limited to Government companies and schemes. It is equally valid for Private Companies where its stakeholders can conduct audits. E.g., TISCO adopted this technique of Auditing even before independence.

Conventional Audit vs. Social Audit

Conventional Audit	Social Audit
Top-down concept of audit	Bottom-up concept of audit
Audit done by Government Functionaries	Audit done by the beneficiary group and civil society (stakeholders)
Audit with economic orientation	Audit with economic as well as social impact consideration

Advantages of Social Audit over Conventional Auditing

Increases people’s participation in governance (Participatory Governance)
It leads to more transparency and strong accountability.
Social Audit is an audit from the economic and social impact perspective. Hence more effective
Infuse effectivity and efficiency in public service delivery (Ghost Beneficiary can be weeded out)
Generation and consolidation of Social capital and social enterprise
Social Audit becomes crucial after greater devolution of the central fund to PRIs, and ULB on the recommendation of the 14th FC, as CAG’s audit jurisdiction over such entities is nebulous.
Social Audits of MGNREGA have played an important role in rooting out corruption from the scheme.

Challenges in Social Auditing

It is voluntary & doesn’t enjoy legal backing (although some schemes like MGNREGA have legal backing)
Standardisation problem: Different stakeholders may have varying opinions and expectations, making it difficult to reach a consensus on what constitutes positive social performance.
Time-consuming

1.3 Resident Welfare Associations

Resident Welfare Associations (RWAs) in India are local community organizations formed by residents of a particular neighbourhood or housing society to address and manage various issues related to the welfare and development of their locality.

Bhagidari Scheme (of the Delhi Government)

The Bhagidari Scheme of the Delhi Government directly involves citizens through RWAs in monthly meetings to mobilize the community to take responsibility for their respective zones and areas. These RWAs are also the first point of contact for state utilities while planning development-related and other changes

2. Information Sharing

Information sharing refers to the exchange of data among various governing bodies, organizations and the general public.
Indian Parliament has also institutionalized this right by legislating the Right to Information (RTI) Act 2005. (CLICK HERE for more on RTI)
Further, parliamentary debates are televised in India, government audit reports are published, and government positions on various policy issues are widely advertised through websites, radio and social media.
Most recently, the government has launched the data.gov.in website to promote Open Data Government (ODG).

3. Accountability

Accountability has three aspects

Answerability of the officials for their decisions and actions
Enforceability of rules and laws to punish the officials if they fail to effectively discharge their duty
Grievance redressal mechanism for the ordinary people who suffer due to the absence of accountability.

(CLICK HERE for more on Accountability)

Utilization of Public Funds

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Last Updated: April 2023 (Utilization of Public Funds)

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Utilization of Public Funds

This article deals with the topic titled ‘Utilization of Public Funds .’ This is part of our series on ‘Ethics’. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

The Public fund is money that the government generates to provide goods and services to the general public. It is held by the government as a custodian and not an owner. Hence, judicious and effective utilization of public funds is very crucial. However, public funds are often subjected to inefficient utilization, diversions, etc., owing to factors such as corruption.

There are various aspects to consider when it comes to the utilization of public funds:

Problems in the Public Fund Utilization

CAG reports, and other academic studies have revealed the following problems in the public fund utilization

Ministries release funds mechanically without considering the capacity of State Governments to absorb and utilize those funds. For example, in 2018, the Ministry of Health released Rs. 9,000 crores to various states for the implementation of the National Health Mission. But, many states were unable to utilize the funds due to a lack of infrastructure, inadequate human resources etc.
Misuse of public funds for political purposes: It can be seen in the following examples.
- Freebies and schemes: Political parties offer freebies such as free laptops, TVs, and other household appliances, which depletes the public exchequer but creates an unfair advantage for the party
- Development projects: Political parties sometimes allocate public funds for development projects in areas where they have a strong vote bank.
Internal audit functions within departments are inadequate due to various issues.
- Insufficient Resources: Internal audit team is generally understaffed or underfunded.
- Lack of Technical Expertise: Internal auditors may not have the technical expertise required to perform their duties.
- Ineffective Communication: The higher management generally doesn’t act on the findings and recommendations of the Internal Auditors
State Governments are more interested in getting funds from the Central ministries than in ensuring the quality of expenditure. For instance
- Case of Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS): CSS are partially funded by the Central Government but implemented by State Governments. State governments focus more on meeting the conditions for receiving the funds rather than ensuring that the schemes are appropriately implemented to benefit the intended beneficiaries.
- To attract more Central funding, State Governments prioritize the allocation of funds towards projects that are likely to attract central funding rather than those that are genuinely important for the development of the state.
March Madness or March Rush: Central Ministries are also more concerned with expenditure rather than the attainment of the objectives. Large parts of funds are generally released in the last month of the financial year, which could not be expected to be spent by the respective State Governments during that financial year. It is done to avoid the funds being surrendered to the government at the end of the financial year.
Veracity and propriety of expenditure data cant be assured, and generally, expenditure figures given by IAS do not tally with the statistics reported by the District level agencies. On the whole, expenditure information is unreliable.

How the problem of misuse of Public Funds can be corrected

There are various ways to do this

1. Citizen Participation

Social Audit: The social audit evaluates and assesses the social impact of government policies and programs on various sections of society.

2. Audit

CAG: Expenditures from all public funds must be properly accounted for and pass through the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) audit.
Parliamentary Oversight: Major irregularities which emerge are also examined by parliamentary committees (Public Accounts Committee, Estimates Committee etc.)

3. Outcome-Based Approach to Evaluation

Outcome-Based Approach to Evaluation (OBAE) is a method of assessing the effectiveness of programs and policies by examining their impact on the desired outcomes. For example

National Rural Health Mission (NRHM): The scheme aims to improve healthcare in rural areas. It is evaluated by measuring the progress towards the desired outcomes, such as reducing infant and maternal mortality rates.
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA): The scheme aims to provide free and compulsory education to all children aged between 6 and 14. It is evaluated by looking at desired outcomes, such as improving enrolment, retention, and learning outcomes

4. Informed Citizenry

The informed citizenry is essential for holding the government responsible for efficiently utilizing public funds. When citizens are aware of where their tax money is being spent, they can hold the government accountable for its spending decisions. For example

Right to Information Act: RTI empowers citizens to access information about government expenditures. It has helped ordinary people to expose the corruption and misuse of public funds.

5. Use of e-Governance

5.1 Central Plan Scheme Monitoring System (CPSMS)

CPSMS integrates tens of thousands of implementing agencies through a common system and tracks fund movement at successive stages, starting with the initial release from the Centre till the money actually reaches the ultimate beneficiaries. It has covered over 1000 Central Plan schemes, captured more than 75,000 sanctions for the release of funds, and registered nearly 20,000 programme-implementing agencies with the system. In addition, CPSMS is linking with State treasuries and State AGs to obtain real-time expenditure information for schemes for which funds are transferred from the Central Ministries to the States.

6. Canons of Financial Propriety

Public officials should be guided by following canons of financial propriety.

Government officials are expected to exercise the same level of prudence in managing taxpayer funds as they would when handling their own personal finances.
The expenditure should’ t be more than what the occasion demands.
It is inappropriate for any authority to use its power to approve expenses resulting in direct or indirect benefits to itself.
Public funds should not be spent for the benefit of a specific individual or group of people except in cases where it can be enforced in a court of law.

Quality of Service Delivery

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Last Update: May 2023 (Quality of Service Delivery)

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Quality of Service Delivery

This article deals with the topic titled ‘Quality of Service Delivery .’ This is part of our series on ‘Ethics’. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

Public Services are the services delivered to the public by local, municipal, or federal governments. But in modern administration, Public service goes beyond the administrative functions of the governments and incorporates non-governmental organizations as a lot of public functions are delegated to private organizations.

Understanding the Concept of Service Delivery

The concept has to be understood w.r.t. two different angles.

Quality of services provided to the poor sections of the population: These services are usually offered free of cost or are subsidized by the government—for example, education, healthcare etc. The overall objective of providing these services is to provide social protection for poor and vulnerable sections of society.
Services for which the government charges the citizens for service delivery, e.g. passport, driving license, gas and electricity connection, telephone services etc. Since the citizens pay for the services, they expect time-bound delivery of quality services

Problems in Service Delivery

Weberian Bureaucracy: The working of most government organizations is still based on the Weberian principle, which emphasizes rules and regulations. For Bureaucracy, Rules and Regulations have become end in themselves rather than means for making a just society. It has also resulted in a lack of flexibility & responsiveness to the changing needs of society.

Bureaucratic Red Tape: The bureaucratic red tape and slow decision-making process in government agencies can also hamper the quality of service delivery. The long waiting times for approval or processing of documents can discourage people from accessing government services. For example, individuals who apply for a government subsidy or grant must wait months to receive approval, which can lead to financial hardship.

Government Monopoly over the Provision of Public Services: In India, the government has a monopoly over the provision of various public services, including healthcare, education, transportation, and utility services such as electricity and water supply. This monopoly can significantly impact the quality of service delivery, like overcrowding, underfunding, understaffing and substandard customer service.

Inefficiencies & Absenteeism: In India, absenteeism impacts the quality of service delivery. For example
1. Healthcare: Absenteeism of medical staff can lead to delayed diagnosis and treatment
2. Education: A study has revealed 25 per cent absenteeism of teachers in government schools. It leads to a lack of supervision and teaching for students.
3. Public Services: Absenteeism among police officers and firefighters can lead to delayed response times during emergencies

Corruption: Corruption is a significant problem in India, and it also affects the delivery of government services.
1. Bribery and Nepotism are common, and they can delay the delivery of services or even denial of services altogether.
2. Government officials often demand bribes for basic services like issuing a driver’s license, passport, or ration card.
3. Bribery and Nepotism can affect Police investigations, leading to the wrongful arrest or release of individuals.
4. In educational services, Students may be asked to pay bribes for admission to top colleges and universities.

Leakages: The leakages in the public funds adversely impacts the quality of service delivery. It is corroborated by Rajiv Gandhi’s famous statement that if the government allocates ₹ 10 for public service, only ₹1 reaches the intended beneficiary.
1. Education Sector: The leakages in the Mid Day Meal scheme reduce the quantity and quality of food served and undermine the objectives of the scheme
2. Healthcare Sector: The leakages in the scheme, such as National Rural Health Mission (NRHM), due to payments to ghost health workers and suppliers, inflated drug prices etc., compromise the availability and quality of healthcare services in rural areas
3. Food Distribution: Due to leakages in the Public Distribution System (PDS) owing to the diversion of subsidized food to the black market deprives the poor of their entitlements.

The Convenience of Service Providers, not Receivers: Public services have been provided based on the convenience of the service providers rather than receivers. For example,
1. Bank timings: Indian Banks are operational from 10:00 AM to 4:00 PM, which is not convenient for working people. Hence, people have to take time off work to visit the bank.
2. Healthcare services: Many healthcare services operate during limited hours and are often closed on weekends and public holidays.

Limited Access: The limited accessibility of government services is another issue. In India, many rural areas lack basic infrastructure, including access to government services. It makes it challenging for people in these areas to access government services.

Lack of Incentives to be Efficient: The lack of incentives to be efficient is a persistent challenge in India that impacts the quality of service delivery. For example,
1. Delay in processing government applications: The root cause of this problem is the lack of motivation among government officials to complete their work on time as they do not face any penalty or punishment for the delay
2. Public Education and Healthcare System: Teachers and healthcare professionals do not show a high level of motivation because they do not receive any reward for good performance or face any consequences for poor performance.

Ways to Improve Service Delivery

Inculcation of Public Service Ethos in the Institutions and Individuals. These include values like compassion, empathy etc.) and character-building exercises.

Increasing Social Accountability: The quality of public services can be improved by increasing social accountability using mechanisms such as School Management Committees (SMCs), and Rogi Kalyan Samitis (RKSs)
1. School Management Committees (SMCs): SMCs were constituted as part of the Right to Education Act and consist of parents, teachers, and other community members. They are responsible for managing the day-to-day affairs of schools. This mechanism enhances accountability and improves the transparency of school functioning.
2. Rogi Kalyan Samitis (RKSs): RKSs are committees comprising representatives from the community, government officials, and healthcare professionals to monitor and improve the functioning of hospitals.

Performance-based bonus payments
- While salaries of Public Servants are high, the pay does not in any way depend on any measure of performance. Performance-based incentives will encourage public servants to be more efficient.

Involving the Private Sector to infuse competition
- Competition increases the quality of service delivery. Also, the profit-seeking behaviour of private sector managers leads to cost-cutting, deployment of better technology and greater attention to customer satisfaction.
- The government should directly provide health and education grants or vouchers to the poor, which would be redeemable at any recognized school or clinic.

Citizen Report Card
- Citizen Report Cards are prepared mainly by NGOs and are based on response to the quality of service by Citizens.

The rights-based approach to improving public service delivery
- A rights-based approach is an approach that focuses on the rights of citizens as enshrined in the Constitution and other legal frameworks, with the goal of ensuring that these rights are upheld and protected.
- Right to Public Service Acts: Many states, such as Punjab, have passed the Right to Public Service Acts to give timely delivery of services to people.

Plugging leakages
- To plug leakages, the government could use Aadhar and Direct Benefit Transfers. It will help find the ghost and duplicate beneficiaries and remove profit-seeking intermediaries.

Giving lesser discretion to Bureaucracy
- The existing Departmental Manuals and Codes should be reviewed.
- Phrases like ‘left to the discretion of, ‘as far as possible’, etc should be avoided.

Contractual Structure of Employment
- Modify job to contractual nature, making job renewal subject to satisfactory performance. It will encourage public servants to be more efficient.

Case Study of Helsinki

One example of good quality public service can be seen in the city of Helsinki, Finland.

Work Culture

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Work Culture

This article deals with the topic titled ‘Work Culture.’ This is part of our series on ‘Ethics’. For more articles, you can click here.

What is work culture?

Work culture refers to how rules/regulations, policies, traditions/rituals, shared values, beliefs and practices contribute to an organization’s unique social and psychological environment.
The work culture decides how employees interact with each other and how an organization functions.

Important Note: There are two concepts in the syllabus.

Work Culture: It is concerned with the interaction between workers within the organization and between workers & organization
Service Delivery: It is concerned with the interaction between the organization and outsiders.

Why work culture is important?

Sense of identity and belongingness: Employees (including Public Servants) obtain a sense of identity and understand that they belong to a larger community with a sense of commitment to achieve something more significant than their individual interest.
Acts as a regulating mechanism: Organizational culture shapes attitudes and behaviour by providing the necessary incentives and sanctions. These ensure that the behaviour of the employees is aligned with the organization’s values.
Attracting talent: It helps attract and keep talented staff as workers prefer to work in an environment where they enjoy spending time.
Promotes efficiency: A collaborative environment in the organization encourages the employees to work diligently and inspires people to demonstrate the values of responsiveness and efficiency. It creates satisfied employees and increases productivity.

The 2nd Administrative Reforms Commission states that poor organizational culture has led to the degradation of values and corruption in administration in India.

Characteristics of a Healthy Work Culture

Employees are cordial with each other.
Each employee is treated as one. Partiality leads to demotivated employees.
Management should appreciate the top performers. But motivating the low performers is essential.
Healthy work culture encourages discussions at the workplace. Each one should have the liberty to express their views.
The organization must have employee-friendly policies and practical guidelines. Expecting an employee to work till late at night on his birthday is simply impractical. Rules and regulations should be made for the benefit of employees.
Promote team-building activities to bind the employees together.
The “Hitler approach” does not fit in the current scenario. Instead, bosses should be more like mentors to the employees.

Traits of (Healthy) Work Culture of Government Organizations

Administrative Hierarchy: There should be a clear-cut division of work wherein each level assigns responsibilities to the level beneath it, while each lower level is accountable to the level above for fulfilling those assignments.
Rules and Procedures: Decisions taken by bureaucrats should be governed by a consistent system of rules, regulations and procedures, which are written, rational and impersonal.
Communication and consultation: Bureaucratic structure should ensure the free flow of information among all departments and levels in the organization horizontally and vertically regularly.
Process Simplification: There should be a constant endeavour to move towards process simplification. E.g. adoption of web-based single window clearance systems.
Inclusiveness: Work culture should be able to inspire and motivate people coming from different cultural backgrounds to achieve organizational goals.

Methods of Improving Work Culture

Work culture can be improved in a number of ways:

Objective Role Assignment: The role assigned should be as objective as possible
Remove Role Ambiguity: Role ambiguity should be totally removed.
Reinforcement in the event of creative expression of the given role.
Improving communications between management and staff in both directions
Providing adequate rest breaks to prevent the build-up of fatigue
Be fair but firm in dealings with subordinates.
Take an active interest in the personal and family needs/problems of subordinates.
Take immediate action in cases of indiscipline and do not condone indiscipline in any form and at any level
Ensuring that jobs that pose a risk and cannot be completely eliminated are rotated so that no individual spends long on that task.