Geography

Major wool producers include 

Australia

• Australia is the largest wool producer.
• Australian Merino sheep are renowned for their fine wool quality.

New Zealand 

• New Zealand is another prominent wool-producing nation.
• New Zealand wool is valued for its softness.

South Africa

• The country has a substantial sheep farming industry.
• South African wool is recognized for its durability.

Argentina

• Argentina, particularly the interior and rain shadow areas of Patagonia, is a significant wool producer.

• Climate: Temperate and semi-arid conditions are conducive to sheep farming and wool production.
• Abundant Grazing Land: Vast expanses of grasslands and grazing areas are conducive for sheep farming activities.
• Sheep Breeds: Specialized sheep breeds, like Merino sheep in Australia, have been developed over the years to produce high-quality wool efficiently.
• Traditional Livelihood: Sheep farming has been a traditional livelihood in regions like Australia, New Zealand, Patagonia (Argentina), etc., and passed down through generations.

During the Industrial Revolution, Yorkshire emerged as a significant hub for woollen textile production due to:

• Abundant local supply of wool
• Access to water from nearby streams
• Availability of coal for powering machines

However, the Yorkshire woolen industry declined. It can be attributed to:

• The commencement of large-scale sheep rearing in the South Hemisphere (SH) made it challenging for Yorkshire to compete in terms of pricing.
• Introduction of cheaper synthetic fabrics, which the Yorkshire industry couldn’t compete with.

As a consequence, the industry in Yorkshire suffered, leading to its downfall. Yorkshire’s woolen industry still uses imported wool from the South Hemisphere, but it has lost its former glory.

Factors influencing Woolen Industry in India

• Nature of Raw Material: The location of raw material sources is not crucial as wool is non-perishable and lightweight.
• Market Conditions: Winters in Northern India are extremely cold, fostering a high demand for woolen products. Approximately 75% of the woolen industry is concentrated in the northern states.

Important Note

1. Apparels: Imported wool is preferred due to the coarseness of Indian wool, which can cause discomfort.
2. Non-Apparels: Indian wool is utilized for making carpets and blankets.

Major centres in India

Near Raw Material

Near Market

• Cheap Labour: Historically and even in contemporary times, the silk industry heavily relies on cheap skilled labour, particularly women, due to their dexterity and precision required in the delicate process of silk production. Cheaper labour reduces production costs significantly, making it economically viable for manufacturers.
• Proximity to Mulberry Farms: Silk-producing units are often located near mulberry farms to reduce transportation costs and ensure a constant supply of leaves for the silkworms.
• Climatic Conditions: Silkworms require a specific temperature range for their growth and cocoon formation. Regions with moderate temperatures and high humidity are conducive to sericulture. Extreme cold or hot climates are unsuitable.
• Well-Drained Soil: Silkworms are susceptible to diseases in waterlogged soil. 
• Water Availability: The silk industry requires a significant amount of water, both for mulberry cultivation and for the rearing of silkworms.  
• Government Support: Government policies, subsidies, and incentives play a vital role in the growth of the silk industry.  
• Transportation and Connectivity: Good transportation infrastructure, including roads, railways, and ports, facilitates the movement of raw silk and finished products. Well-connected regions have a competitive advantage.

India is home to various types of silk, including Mulberry, Tasar, Oak Tasar, Eri, and Muga. Among these varieties, Mulberry silk dominates, constituting 74% of the total silk production.

Major Producers include

Importance of Silk Industry in India?

• Women-Friendly Occupation: The Silk Industry in India is a women-friendly occupation, with women consisting of more than 60% of the total workforce.  
• Ideal for upliftment of Weaker Sections in Rural Areas: This industry is an ideal program for weaker sections in rural areas due to its low capital intensity and short gestation period.
• Eco-friendly activity: As a perennial crop with good foliage and root spread, Mulberry contributes to soil conservation. Waste from silkworm rearing can be recycled as inputs to the garden.
• Fulfil equity concerns: As end-product users are mostly from the higher economic groups, the money flows from high-end groups to low-end groups. 
• Export Potential: India’s Silk Industry has significant export potential, allowing the country to earn foreign currency.  

Challenges faced by Indian Silk Industry

1. Decreased Export Revenue: The Indian Silk Industry has been grappling with a decline in export earnings, primarily caused by the global recession and diminished demand for silk products in Western nations.
2. Intense Price Competition: Intensified price competition due to the incorporation of low-cost Chinese silk or artificial/synthetic silk yarns has forced natural silk traders to resort to distress sales to remain competitive.
3. Reduction in Cultivated Area: The cultivation of mulberry silk has suffered due to a consistent reduction in the area of mulberry cultivation.  

India is a leading producer. WHY?

• Raw Material: India’s leading silk production is facilitated by the cultivation of mulberry plants. These plants can be grown on any soil type, including hill slopes and have a high tolerance for drought conditions.
• Labour: Sericulture does not demand hard physical labour. Silkworms, the critical players in silk production, can be reared by individuals, especially women and older people, making them an ideal source of supplementary income for households.
• Low Capital Requirement: Sericulture requires minimal capital investment. This affordability enables tribals and impoverished sections to engage in silk production, boosting their economic prospects.  
• High Demand: In India, the demand for silk consistently exceeds the domestic supply. This demand-supply gap necessitates the import of silk to meet the market requirements.

Karnataka has a well-developed Silk industry. WHY?

Karnataka’s thriving silk industry has prospered due to several factors. 

Raw Material:

• Mulberry thrives in Karnataka’s climate, making it readily available for sericulture.
• Karnataka utilizes the Bombax variety of silkworms, which can be reared throughout the year with a high yield.

Water Supply:

• Karnataka benefits from an abundant supply of soft water, which is crucial for silk production.  

Labour Force:

• Women play a significant role in rearing silk worms, contributing to the labor force involved in silk production.

Capital Investment:

• During World War II, capitalists in Mysore accumulated substantial wealth, providing a financial boost to the silk industry.
• Mysore’s silk was in high demand for making parachutes, further driving economic growth in the region.

Technological Advancements:

• Karnataka benefits from the presence of the Central Silk Board located in Bangalore.

• China dominates global silk production, contributing approximately 80% of the total output. 
• India is another substantial producer, accounting for around 18% of the global silk production. 
• Countries like Japan, Brazil, Thailand, and Vietnam individually produce 0.5% or even less of the world’s silk supply.

Why is China a leading producer?

China holds a prominent position as the leading silk producer due to several factors.

• Climate: China’s temperate and tropical climate provides an ideal environment for cultivating silk.
• Technology: Scientists have developed hybrid silk varieties with higher yields.  
• Labour: China has abundant & skilled labour.  
• Government Policy: Sericulture in China is organized through cooperatives, ensuring efficient production and distribution. 

Japan was earlier a major producer but now produces less than 0.5%. 

Japan was once a significant producer, but currently, its silk production has declined drastically, accounting for less than 0.5% of the total output.

Labour:

• The industrial sector offers higher wages, leading to a scarcity of labour for sericulture.

Capital:

• Other sectors provide better returns on investment compared to silk production.

Lost Market:

• Traditional Japanese attire like kimonos are no longer widely worn by Japanese women, resulting in a diminished market for silk products. Kimonos are predominantly reserved for ceremonial occasions in contemporary Japan.

Entrepreneurship:

• An example is Koromo town, where the silk industry was in decline, and both land and labour were available at a low cost. Toyota seized this opportunity, purchased land in the area, and transformed it into an automobile manufacturing facility. 

Many factors have influenced the establishment of cotton and textile industries in India. 

1. Proximity to Raw Material: Unlike other industries where the weight or perishability of raw materials is a critical concern, cotton and textile industries benefit from the fact that cotton is relatively lightweight and non-perishable. Therefore, being in immediate proximity to the source of raw cotton is less important than in some other industries.
2. Proximity to Market: Given the importance of market demand in dictating the type of cloth to be produced, a significant consideration is the proximity to the consumer markets. Being close to the market facilitates efficient distribution and reduces transportation costs.
3. Water Availability: The textile industry involves processes like dyeing and bleaching that require substantial amounts of water. Consequently, the availability of water bodies such as rivers and lakes plays a role in industry location. 
4. Energy Availability: Cotton and textile production requires a considerable amount of energy, particularly in processes like spinning, weaving, and finishing. 
5. Labour Supply: Textile production involves intricate processes that require skilled workers, and a region with an ample labour pool can provide a competitive advantage.
6. Capital and Finance: Access to financial resources can facilitate expansions, modernization, and technological advancements.
7. Climate: Climate considerations are also relevant. Dry climates can lead to thread breakages during textile production. Historically, this led to the preference of coastal areas with higher humidity for textile industry setup. However, technological advancements, such as artificial humidifiers, have diminished the climate-related constraints on industry location.

At present, the trend is to locate industry at or close to markets, as the market decides what kind of cloth is to be produced. 

Cotton Industry in Ancient & Medieval India 

• The cotton textile sector has been integral to India’s traditional industries. Across the globe, India held a renowned reputation for crafting muslin, an exceedingly delicate form of cotton fabric, along with calicos, chintz, and various other superior cotton textiles.
• The development of the textile industry in India stemmed from many factors. 
  1. Firstly, the nation’s tropical climate made cotton the optimal fabric, providing a large market. 
  2. Secondly, India has abundant raw materials due to the substantial cultivation of cotton.
  3. The country possessed an abundant reserve of skilled labour necessary for this industry.

During the Colonial Era

• Initially, the British didn’t foster the growth of the native cotton textile sector. They shipped raw cotton to their mills in Manchester and Liverpool, then imported the finished goods back to India. These products were more affordable due to mass production in British factories.
• In 1854, the first modern cotton mill was set up in Mumbai. The city had various advantages as a hub for cotton textile manufacturing:
  • It was situated close to Gujarat and Maharashtra, key cotton-producing regions.  
  • Mumbai’s status as a financial centre provided access to the necessary capital for industrial initiation.
  • Its urban nature attracted a substantial labour force, ensuring a readily available pool of affordable workers.
  • The machinery required for cotton textile mills could be directly imported from England.
• Subsequently, Ahmedabad saw the establishment of two more mills, namely the Shahpur Mill and the Calico Mill.
• By 1947, the total number of mills in India rose to 423. However, this situation changed after the partition, leading to a significant downturn in the industry. This was because most of the prime cotton-producing areas were now in West Pakistan, leaving India with 409 mills and only 29% of the previous cotton-producing territory.

After Independence 

• After Independence, this industry gradually recovered and eventually flourished.
• Production of cotton cloth has increased almost five times since Independence. Cotton textile has been facing tough competition from synthetic cloth.

India’s Cotton and Textile industries are vital to the nation’s economic landscape, owing to their multifaceted significance and widespread impact.

1. Backward Linkage with the Agriculture Sector
2. Employs 4.5 crore individuals
3. Approximately 12% of the nation’s total exports are comprised of textiles and textile products.
4. Rural Development: Cotton cultivation and subsequent processing through the textile value chain often occurs in rural areas. As a result, the growth of these industries contributes to rural development.

• Fierce International Competition: The industry faces fierce competition from countries like Bangladesh, Vietnam, and Ethiopia, which enjoy Duty-Free Access or have signed Free Trade Agreements with major markets such as the EU and USA. This advantage puts Indian textiles at a disadvantage in terms of pricing and market access.
• Most Indian mills are small-scale operations, preventing them from achieving the economies of scale enjoyed by larger competitors.
• Mechanization vs Job Dilemma: The Indian industry is caught in a dilemma regarding mechanization. While mechanization can enhance productivity, it also threatens traditional jobs. Balancing technological advancement with employment opportunities is a critical challenge. 
• Competition from synthetic textiles:  The rise of synthetic textiles has further intensified the struggle for market share. Synthetic textiles often offer cost advantages and versatility.
• Cotton Farmers under stress: Indian Cotton Farmers face immense stress due to various factors, including the monopolization of seeds by a few major corporations and the introduction of genetically modified crops like BT Cotton.

The foundation of the cotton and textile industry lies in cotton cultivation. Cotton is primarily grown in regions with favourable climatic and soil conditions. Significant producers of cotton include 

1. United States: Cotton is grown in southern states like Texas and Mississippi
2. India: Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh 
3. China: Northwest regions, particularly Xinjiang
4. Pakistan: Sindh and Punjab provinces contribute significantly to Pakistan’s cotton production
5. Brazil: Mato Grosso region  

After cotton is harvested, it goes through a series of processing stages. Major cotton processing centres are concentrated in:

1. United States: Southern states like North Carolina.
2. India: Textile Mills are concentrated in Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu  
3. China: Coastal regions like Shanghai, Zhejiang, and Jiangsu  
4. Pakistan: Karachi, Faisalabad, and Lahore  
5. Brazil: São Paulo and Santa Catarina

The textile industry in Manchester and Lancashire has a rich history that witnessed remarkable growth during colonial times but declined significantly after World War II. 

Rise during Colonial Times

1. Favourable Climate: Manchester and Lancashire’s location was advantageous due to the moist Westerlies, providing high humidity levels and preventing threads from breaking during manufacturing.
2. Abundant Raw Materials: Cheap cotton was available from its colonies, such as India and Egypt.
3. Strategic Transportation: The proximity of Liverpool as a major port city facilitated the import of raw materials and the export of finished products.
4. Quality Water Sources: Streams from the Pennine hills provided soft water, ideal for dyeing and bleaching.
5. Abundant Energy: The availability of coal from Northern England and Wales served as a reliable source of energy.
6. Expansive Market: The demand for textiles in Europe And the massive market in British colonies provided a market for the finished product. 

Decline after World War II

The decline of the Textile industry after World War II can be attributed to the following factors.

1. Loss of Colonies: Post-World War II, the loss of colonies meant that the dirt-cheap raw materials(cotton) from India and Egypt were no longer readily available. 
2. Competition from Other Nations: Emerging players like Japan entered the global textile market with cheaper production methods.

Various factors contribute to the thriving cotton industry in China, with a major concentration in the bustling city of Shanghai. 

• Favourable Climate: Shanghai is a port city with a humid climate. This humidity is crucial in the cotton industry as threads are less likely to break during production.
• Raw Material:  The Yangtze-Kiang Delta, where Shanghai is located, is fertile ground for cotton cultivation. 
• Transport: Shanghai benefits from its status as a port city, offering easy access to international markets. Additionally, the city is well-connected by rail and road networks, facilitating the movement of raw materials and finished products.
• Water and Energy: The Yangtze River not only serves as a transportation route but also provides a source of water and energy. Access to water resources is crucial for textile industries. Furthermore, the river can be harnessed for hydroelectric power.
• Labour: With a large population, Shanghai has a pool of skilled workers who contribute to the manufacturing process.
• Market: Within 1000 nautical miles, major markets like Kobe, Taiwan, South Korea, and Hong Kong are accessible, facilitating international trade. Moreover, within China, cities like Nantong, Wuhan, and Chongqing, connected via the Yangtze River, create a robust domestic market. 

Other centres in China include Hwang-Ho Valley, Sichuan, Nanjing, Beijing, etc.        

1. Raw material

• The sucrose content in sugarcane starts to decrease as time passes after harvesting, making it imperative for the sugar to be extracted within 24 hours to achieve better recovery. As a result, the ideal location for sugar mills would be close to the sugarcane fields to minimize transportation time and maximize sucrose content preservation.

2. Weight loss

• The weight loss of sugarcane during processing is significant, with sugar accounting for around 10% of the total bulky sugarcane. This high weight loss further underscores the importance of situating sugar mills near the source of raw material, as it reduces transportation costs and logistical challenges associated with moving large quantities of sugarcane over long distances.

Sugar Mill

The core unit of the Sugar Industry is the sugar mill, a facility where sugarcane undergoes a series of processes to yield various forms of sugar products.

Sugar Refinery

Sugar Refinery transforms the raw coarse brown sugar obtained from sugar mills into refined sugars of various grades, including brown and white sugars.

Sugar production is primarily concentrated in two distinct regions: Louisiana and Hawaii.

Louisiana

• Subtropical climate is conducive to sugarcane cultivation. 
• Earlier, cheap labour was available. Later, they invested in automated harvesting machines and precision agriculture techniques. 

Hawaii

• Hawaii’s islands’ volcanic soils are suitable for sugarcane cultivation.
• Historically, Hawaii’s sugar industry relied heavily on immigrant labour, including Japanese, Chinese, Filipino, and Portuguese workers. Later, they invested in Mechanized methods like combine harvesters and automated irrigation systems. 

Soil and Climate

• Soil is favourable for sugarcane cultivation
• Wet Climate favours sugarcane plantations.

Labour

• Indentured labourers played a crucial role in establishing and sustaining the sugar industry in these island nations.  

• In India, the sugar industry holds significant prominence as it leads the world in the production of both sugarcane and cane sugar. 
• Besides, khandasari and gur or jaggery are also prepared from sugarcane. 
• This industry directly employs 4 lakh persons.
• Development of the industry on modern lines dates back to 1903 when a sugar mill was started in Bihar. Subsequently, sugar mills were started in other parts of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. In 1950-51, 139 factories were in operation. The number of sugar factories rose to 662 in 2010-11.

Concentration of Sugar Mills in India

The sugar industry in India is geographically diverse, with various regions contributing significantly to its production. 

Maharashtra

• Maharashtra stands out as the largest sugar producer, accounting for over one-third of the country’s total output. 
• The sugar industry in Maharashtra is concentrated in the following regions 
  1. Western Maharashtra’s river valleys
  2. Sangli, Solapur and Satara
  3. Ahmadnagar, Pune and Nasik

Uttar Pradesh

• Uttar Pradesh is the second-largest sugar producer in India. 
• The sugar industry in Maharashtra is concentrated in the following regions 
  1. Western UP and Terai region
  2. Meerut, Moradabad and Muzaffarnagar
  3. Sitapur, Gorakhpur and Saharanpur

Tamil Nadu

• Tamil Nadu’s presence in the sugar industry is notable, with Coimbatore and Tiruchirapalli as key centres of production.

Karnataka

• In Karnataka, Chitradurga and Shimoga are instrumental in contributing to the state’s sugar output. 

Andhra Pradesh

• Andhra Pradesh’s sugar industry is prominent around cities like Hyderabad and Nizamabad.

Sugar Mills are concentrated in Maharashtra?

The concentration of sugar mills in Maharashtra, India, can be attributed to a combination of various favourable factors 

1. Favourable Climate 
   • The warm climate supports better yield, and Maharashtra benefits from the abundant sunlight and warmth. 
   • The proximity to the ocean further enhances the sugarcane growth, as the minimal temperature fluctuations between day and night increase sugar yield and sugar content within the cane.
2. Soil: Lava soil in the region enhances fertility and water retention capabilities. This soil characteristic proves beneficial for sugarcane growth.
3. Energy: Mills use bagasse as fuel ( and is not a deciding factor in the case of the Sugar industry)
4. Transport: The transport infrastructure, specifically the presence of Mumbai Port, plays a crucial role in facilitating exports.
5. Labour: The transport infrastructure, specifically the presence of Mumbai Port, plays a crucial role in facilitating exports.

Sugar Mills are concentrated in UP?

The sugar industry in India has a significant concentration of sugar mills in the state of Uttar Pradesh (UP). Various factors have influenced this geographical concentration. 

1. Soil Composition: The presence of potash and lime in the soil of Uttar Pradesh provides a favourable environment for sugarcane growth. 
2. Abundant Water Resources: The state of Uttar Pradesh is blessed with major rivers like the Ganga and Yamuna, along with their numerous tributaries. 
3. Energy Efficiency: Sugar mills in Uttar Pradesh have adopted an eco-friendly approach by utilizing bagasse, a by-product of sugarcane processing, as a renewable energy source.
4. Well-Connected Transportation Network: The dense road network in Uttar Pradesh and its flat terrain facilitate easy sugarcane transportation from farms to mills.
5.  Seasonal and Migratory Labour: The availability of seasonal and migratory labour in Uttar Pradesh helps maintain lower production costs. 
6. Large Domestic Market: With its substantial population, Uttar Pradesh boasts a large domestic market that exhibits a consistent demand for various sugar products like gur, khandsari, and sugar itself. 
7. Government Intervention: Regulatory measures, subsidies, and price support mechanisms impact the industry’s economic dynamics and stability

Sugar Industry: North vs South

When comparing the sugar industries in North and South India, it’s intriguing to note that despite the favourable climatic conditions for sugarcane growth in the southern regions due to the absence of extreme heat, frost, and the moderating influence of the sea, the northern part of the country has a greater concentration of sugar industry. This phenomenon can be attributed to historical, economic, and agricultural factors.

1. Historical Factors: During the British colonial period, the northern regions of India were known for cultivating indigo, a plant used for producing natural dyes. However, with the advent of synthetic dyes, the demand for natural indigo diminished, leading many farmers in the North to seek alternative crops. Sugarcane emerged as a viable substitute due to its potential for sugar production. 
2. Other Options Available: Despite the climatic advantages in the South, farmers in those regions have better options for cultivating cash crops. Cash crops like cotton, tobacco, and coconut are well-suited to the southern climate and soil conditions.
3. In the North, the historical presence of sugar mills and the availability of infrastructure might have facilitated the growth of the sugar industry.

Problems Faced by the Sugar Industry in India 

• Problem with State Advised Price (SAP): Due to political considerations, SAP is kept high, making sugarcane the most attractive crop to grow (due to this, it is grown even in drought-prone regions like Maharashtra). As a result, sugar mills are forced to pay high prices, culminating in high arrears to farmers. 
• Low Yield of Sugarcane: Per hectare, sugarcane productivity is low in India compared to global standards. For instance, productivity in India is 64.5 tons/hectare compared to Java – 90 tons/hectare & Hawaii – 120 tons/hectare.
• Mismatch between Sugar and sugarcane prices: The government tries to keep sugar prices low (to get the votes of consumers) but sugarcane prices high (to get the votes of farmers). As a result, sugar mills suffer losses. 
• Over-Regulation: 
  • The sugar industry is an over-regulated industry. Every sugar mill is allocated a command area, and the mill is bound to purchase sugarcane grown in that area. Sugarcane farmers can sell their sugarcane only in designated mills. 
  • State governments fix the quotas for different end uses of molasses and restrict their movement outside the state. 
  • Some states have even restricted the selling of power generated from bagasse outside the state. 
• Old and obsolete machinery: Most of the machinery used in Indian mills, particularly in UP and Bihar, is old and obsolete, being 50-60 years old 

• Copper is essential for the electric industry.
• Due to the increase in demand,  new mining & smelting techniques have developed.

Uses of Copper

Stages of Copper Refining

• First stage, i.e. Concentration: In this process, we get blister copper using the froth floatation method, which is 2.5% of the original quantity. Hence, concentration is done near the mine.
• Second Stage: Blister Copper is 99% pure but can’t be used as such. Refining of Blister Copper is done using electrolysis. In this process, weight loss is just 1%. Hence, electricity is the deciding factor in this stage. 

1. Availability of Copper Deposits:  Regions with abundant copper ore reserves have a competitive advantage. For example, 
   • Malanjkhand copper deposit in Madhya Pradesh is one of India’s largest copper deposits, leading to the establishment of the Malanjkhand Copper Project.
   • Khetri Copper Complex in Rajasthan is strategically located near the Khetri mines, a major copper ore source.
2. Power Supply: Reliable and affordable power supply is essential for copper smelting and refining processes. Areas with access to sufficient electricity, preferably with a stable grid, are preferred. 
3. Infrastructure and Transportation: Adequate infrastructure, including transportation networks, is crucial for the copper industry. The Tuticorin Port in Tamil Nadu is an important hub for copper imports and exports, providing a favourable location for copper-related industries in the region.
4. Skilled Labor Force: A skilled labour force with expertise in mining, metallurgy, engineering, and related fields is crucial for the copper industry.
5. Government Policies and Incentives: Favorable government policies, like tax incentives, subsidies etc., can attract copper industries to specific locations.
6. Market Access: Proximity to domestic and international markets is important for copper industries. 

1. Chile

• Chile is the world’s largest copper producer, accounting for a significant portion of the global copper supply. The country’s vast copper deposits are mainly located in the Atacama Desert.

 2. Zaire and Zambia

• Zaire and Zambia, both African nations, possessed significant copper ore reserves and established refineries to process the raw material into valuable copper products. In an effort to exert more control over their natural resources and economic sectors, the governments of Zaire and Zambia chose to nationalize these refineries. 
• However, the nationalization of the copper refineries did not go as planned, and the refineries began to face financial struggles, turning into loss-making ventures due to mismanagement, lack of expertise, and changing market dynamics.

3. China

• China is a significant player in both copper production and consumption. Major copper-producing provinces in China include Jiangxi, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang.

4. Australia

• Australia has substantial copper resources and availability of cheap electricity.

5. Indonesia

• Indonesia is a major copper producer, with its Grasberg mine being one of the world’s largest copper and gold mines.

6. USA

• The Copper industry was concentrated around the states of Utah, Montana, and Arizona (UMA). These states are known for their historical significance in copper mining and refining. 
• However, the landscape of the industry in the UMA region started to shift due to factors such as rising costs of electricity, legal requirements to curb sulfur dioxide emissions necessitating expensive upgrades and Foreign competitors offering increased competition.

7. Canada

• Canada has copper production primarily in provinces such as British Columbia and Ontario.

8. Russia

• Russia’s copper operations are concentrated in regions like the Ural Mountains and Siberia.

9. Mexico

• Mexico’s copper production is centred in areas like Sonora and Zacatecas.

• Lithium is the lightest solid metal. 
• It is mainly produced from hard rock or brine mines.
• Major Lithium Ores include
  1. Spodumene: Primary source of Lithium which contains high concentrations of Lithium (between 3% to 7.6%)
  2. Petalite: Another important Lithium ore.

Lithium Batteries

• Lithium Batteries or Lithium-ion Batteries is the primary use of Lithium due to their use in electric vehicles, smartphones, tablets, laptops etc. Lithium-ion batteries are popular as they have high energy density, long lifespan, and lightweight nature.

Other Minor Uses

• Heat-resistant glass and ceramics
• Lithium Grease Lubricants: These can withstand high temperatures
• Flux additives for iron, steel and aluminium production
• Optics
• Thermonuclear Weapons
• Coolant in Nuclear Processes: Lithium has the highest specific heat capacity of all the solids
• Fuel for Rocket Propellants: Complex hydrides of Lithium such as Li[AlH4] 

Due to its uses, it is one of the most sought-after commodities and is called ‘WHITE GOLD.’

• Australia: It is the world’s biggest supplier, which produces it from hard rock mines. 
• Lithium Triangle: The Lithium Triangle consists of Lithium rich region in Argentina, Bolivia and Chile.
  1. Chile: It is the second-largest producer of Lithium. Salar de Atacama is very rich in Lithium.
  2. Argentina: It is found in the salt flats of Salinas Grandes and Hombre Muerto.
  3. Bolivia: It is found in the brine deposits of Salar de Uyuni.
• China: China’s Tibet, Qinghai, and Sichuan are rich in Lithium.
• Canada: In Canada, Quebec is rich in Lithium.
• United States: Nevada, North Carolina, and California have Lithium deposits.

• National Mission on Transformative Mobility: To encourage domestic Lithium-Ion Cell manufacturing and EV components. 
• ISRO and BHEL Agreement: To develop low-cost lithium-ion batteries. 
• India’s first lithium cell plant manufacturing facility will be launched in Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh. 
• Strengthening relationship with Lithium Triangle Nations: India is focusing on ‘Lithium Triangle’ nations Argentina, Bolivia and Chile.
• Minerals Security Finance Network (MSFN): It is a US-led initiative to strengthen cooperation between the member countries to secure the supply chains of critical minerals. India is part of the initiative.

Raw Materials required in the Cement industry are

• Limestone: 60-65%
• Silica: 20-25%
• Alumina: 5-12%
• Slag from Steel plant 
• Slag from Fertiliser plant 
• Sea Shells

Availability of Raw Materials

• Limestone, clay, and gypsum are used in huge quantities in cement manufacturing. As a result, the cement industry is situated close to the raw resources. That’s why cement plants such as Ultratech Cement and Ambuja Cement are situated in Rajasthan (rich in limestone).

Infrastructure and Transportation

• The cement thus produced needs to be transported to the market. As cement is a heavy and bulky material, a well-developed network of roads, railways or ports (for exports) is required. 

Power Availability

• Cement manufacturing is an energy-intensive industry. Hence, the cement industry is located in regions with an adequate and cheap energy supply like coal, hydroelectricity, or renewable energy. 

Water Availability

• An ample water supply is required to manufacture cement for processes such as cooling. Hence, cement plants are situated near water sources, like rivers or lakes.

Government Policies

• Government policies and regulations can also influence the location of cement industries. Environmental regulations, tax benefits and subsidies can encourage or discourage the establishment of cement plants in that region.

Environmental Factors

• Air Pollution Regulations can affect the location of the cement industry. Since Cement is a polluting industry, it is not situated in states with strict air pollution requirements. 

Geological Considerations

• Geological factors, especially the quality and composition of limestone deposits, can influence the location decisions of cement plants. 

Major industrial houses in the Cement Industry in India include 

• UltraTech Cement
• ACC Limited (Headquartered in Mumbai)
• Ambuja Cement (Mainly Gujarat based)
• Shree Cement (Beawar (Rajasthan) based)
• Ramco Cement (Chennai based)
• Dalmia Bharat Cement (Tamil Nadu based)
• JK Cement