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The Cycle of Seasons in India

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The Cycle of Seasons in India

This article deals with ‘The Cycle of Seasons in India.’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here

Introduction

India has four seasons as mentioned below.

Winter Season

Winter season commences in January and remains till the end of February.
During this period, due to the sun’s apparent movement towards the south, vertical rays of the sun fall over the Southern Hemisphere. That is why the temperature starts to decrease in the Northern Hemisphere, and pressure belts along with Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) start to move southwards.
As the temperature over Indian Subcontinent starts to decrease in winter, the pressure starts to increase. The high pressure replaces the low pressure over Northern India.
The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) starts to move southwards and gradually moves out of India. As a result, monsoon winds also start to retreat, moving towards ITCZ, i.e. from North-West to South-East. These winds are dry as they move from land towards the sea and have already shed moisture. These are known as retreating monsoon or North East Monsoon.

Cold Waves

During this period, high-pressure areas develop over central and western Asia. Dry and cold continental winds from the Caspian Sea and Turkmenistan enter the Northern Plains, which cause a fall of many degrees in the temperature of the great plains. These north-western cold winds, moving at a speed of 3 to 5 km per hour, are termed as the Cold Waves.

Jet Stream and Upper Air Circulation

Along with that, Sub-Tropical Westerly Jet (STWJ), flowing over Tibet Plateau in the summers, shifts southwards and creates high pressure over North India. STWJ extends from the Mediterranean sea to Western Asia, the Persian Gulf, Iran and Pakistan, crosses the great plains of India and reaches the China sea.

Sub-Tropical Westerly Jet (STWJ) and rains in India

Rainfall due to North East Monsoon over Coromandal Coast in Winter

Rain occurs in winter due to the North-East monsoon as well.
When Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) moves out of India, dry continental winds start to blow from North East to South-West.
But a part of North-East winds pass over the Bay of Bengal & cause rainfall on the Coromandal Coast. It is known as North-East Monsoon and precipitates over Coromandal Coast only.

Western Disturbances

Sub-Tropical Westerly Jet reaches Northern India after passing over the Mediterranean Sea, where it rains during winter. These winds bring cyclonic disturbances formed over the Mediterranean Sea to north India.
Due to Sub-Tropical Westerly Jet,
1. Punjab, Haryana, northern Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir and Western Uttar Pradesh receive an average of 20 to 50 cm of cyclonic rainfall, which is very useful for the Rabi crops.
2. Neighbouring Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir and Kumaon Hills experience snowfall.
Precipitation during the winter season is good for Rabi crops, especially wheat.
But excessive rainfall can also cause crop damage, landslides and avalanches.

Weather in Cold Season

The weather is pleasant in winter.
1. Days are pleasantly warm (moderate)
2. Nights are cold.
3. Skies are clear with dry weather.
Temperature decreases from south to north. It falls from 31° C in Trivandrum, 26° C in Calicut, 24° C in Chennai, 16° C in Varanasi, and Drass Valley has a temperature of -45° C
Due to the sharp fall in night temperature, sometimes dense or heavy fog appears.
Due to the cold waves in the plains, a severe frost occurs.

Summer Season

At the end of February, the temperature rises as sun-rays fall vertically over areas north of the equator. Hence, the summer season remains from March till the end of May, and it is the longest season in India.
Interior areas record the maximum daily temperatures. E.g., The maximum daily temperature recorded is
1. 38° C in Nagpur
2. 40° C in Madhya Pradesh
3. 45° C in the North-Western parts
4. 48° C in the Barmer (Rajasthan)
But coastal lands have moderate climates due to moderating effect of ocean and sea breeze. The temperature remains between 30 to 32° C in South India.

Pressure Systems

With an increase in temperature, Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) starts shifting towards the north.
In May and June, due to high temperatures, a low-pressure Thermal Depression develops in the north–western parts of the country. Additionally, the Sub-Tropical ‘Jet’ stream shifts towards the north of the Himalayas. In this way, a special situation develops in the north–west, in which till the height of 6–7 Km from the surface of the land, the low-pressure cycles join each other and attract the monsoon winds fastly towards themselves.

Loo

In summer, North India comes under the influence of Loo. Loo is a strong, dusty, hot, and dry summer wind blowing from the west over the western Indo-Gangetic plains region of Northern India. It is especially strong in May and June. Due to its very high temperatures, exposure to it leads to fatal heat strokes. Due to its high temperature and dryness, it has severe drying effects on vegetation leading to browning in the areas it affects.

Norwesters or Kalbaisakhi

The Loo ends in late summer due to the arrival of the monsoon. Loo (dry winds at high temperature) from the North-West and warm & moist winds from the Bay of Bengal converge around the Chotanagpur plateau. It causes thunderstorms and lightning accompanied by strong winds and heavy rainfall, mainly in the states of Assam and West Bengal.
These local winds are known as ‘Norwesters’ or ‘Kalbaisakhi,’ i.e. calamity of the month of Baisakh. They bring rainfall in Assam, West Bengal and Odisha. This rainfall is quite beneficial for the cultivation of Jute and Rice in West Bengal and Tea in Assam.

Blossom and Mango Showers

The coastal areas of Kerala and Karnataka receive rainfall close to the end of summer. These showers are extremely useful in the cultivation of tea, coffee and mango. They are also known as Mango Showers in Kerala (as they help in the early ripening of mangoes) and ‘Blossom Showers‘ in Karnataka, as with these showers, coffee flowers blossom in these areas.

Monsoon Season

Due to the rapid temperature increase in May over the north-western plains, the low-pressure conditions further are intensified. By early June, low pressure is powerful enough to attract the monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean. (we have discussed this already in the previous article)

The rain in this season begins abruptly. This sudden onset of monsoon with violent thunder and lightning is called the “burst” or “break” of the monsoons. The monsoon burst can happen in the first week of June in coastal Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra, while it may be delayed to the first week of July in interior parts.

With the onset of monsoon winds, the weather conditions change in the whole country. Its chief characteristics are

High heat
High humidity
Extensive clouding
Several spells of heavy to moderate rain with strong surface winds

Side Topic: Long Period Average (LPA)

LPA is the average annual rain received by the country during the South-West monsoon (June to September) for 50 years.
For 50 years ranging from 1960 to 2010 (used by IMA presently), India’s LPA is 88 cm (approx.)

Deficient	If rainfall is less than 90% of LPA.
Below Normal	If rainfall is between 90-96% of LPA
Near Normal	If rainfall is between 96 to 104% of LPA
Above Normal	If rainfall is between 104% to 110% of LPA
Excess	If rainfall is above 110% of LPA

March of Monsoon Winds in India

When moisture-laden winds reach the southernmost tip of the Indian Peninsula, it divides into two parts due to its topography. These branches are the Arabian Sea Branch and the Bay of Bengal Branch.

1. Arabian Sea Branch

First of all, it encounters the Western Ghats. Full of moisture, when this branch tries to cross the 2000 metres-high Western Ghats, it gets cooled at the ‘lapse rate’ and starts raining. But it rains only on the windward side, i.e. western slopes of Western Ghats, while the leeward side, i.e. South Karnataka Plateau, Rayalaseema, Vidarbha etc., receives very scanty rainfall. Also, the amount of rainfall decreases as the moisture decreases while moving north of the Arabian Sea. For example, Mangalore receives 330 cm. of rainfall, and Mumbai receives 100 cm.

Arabian Sea Branch of Monsoon and Western Ghats

The second sub-branch of the Arabian Sea moves through the valleys of Narmada and Tapi and reaches the Chota-Nagpur Plateau, where it joins the Monsoon winds coming from the Bay of Bengal and causes more than 150 cm of rainfall.

Arabian Sea Branch of Monsoon- valleys of Narmada and Tapi and reaches the Chota-Nagpur Plateau

Third sub-branch of the monsoon winds of the Arabian sea moves towards the north, through Gujarat and Sind delta. It causes very less rainfall over Kutch, Saurashtra and Thar Desert due to the following reasons.
1. By this time, the moisture content is largely decreased
2. Aravalli range is parallel to these winds, and these just move straight, without rising high, along these mountains.

On reaching Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh, these monsoon winds join the Bay of Bengal monsoon branch and bring rainfall to these regions.

2. Bay of Bengal Branch

First of all, Monsoon winds hit Andaman and Nicobar Island on 20 May (MCQ = first of all, it hit A&N . Hit Western Ghats and North East on 1 June)

Bay of Bengal Branch - Andaman and Nicobar Island

Bay of Bengal Branch is then directed towards Myanmar and South-East Bangladesh. However, owing to the presence of Arakan Yoma hills along the coast of Myanmar, a large part of the Bay of Bengal Branch is deflected towards the Indian subcontinent. The monsoons, therefore, enter West Bengal and Bangladesh from the South and South-East.

The Bay of Bengal branch then bifurcates into two branches. One branch moves along the Ganga Plain, pouring rain on the Northern plains. It rains very heavily in West Bengal. But by the time monsoon winds reach Punjab and Haryana, they become dry resulting in lesser rainfall over these regions. The rainfall decreases from East to West, i.e. Kolkata receives 120 cm, Patna receives 102 cm, Allahabad receives 91 cm, Delhi receives 56 cm, Ludhiana receives 40 cm, and Amritsar receives 25 cm from the Bay of Bengal branch.

The second sub-branch of the Bay of Bengal Branch moves towards the Brahmaputra valley. First, it strikes the Garo, Khasi and Jaintia hills of Meghalaya. While crossing the 1500 m high hills, these saturated winds bring heavy rainfall. Chirapunji and Mawsynram, which are situated in the southern part of Khasi hills, receive the highest average rainfall in the world. Then these winds move towards Assam and Arunachal Pradesh and cause rainfall in Guwahati, Darjeeling etc.

Note: Tamil Nadu Coast doesn’t receive any rainfall from the Bay of Bengal branch because the Tamil Nadu Coast is situated parallel to the direction of the Bay of Bengal Branch and in the rain-shadow area of the Arabian Sea branch.

Depressions in the South West Monsoon

An Easterly Jet Stream flows in the Upper Troposphere of the southern part of Peninsular India in June. It is confined to 15 N in August and 22 N in September. This Easterly Jet Stream usually does not extend north of 30 N.

ITCZ while passing over the Bay of Bengal, cause the formation of Tropical cyclones in the Bay of Bengal. These Tropical cyclones are then steered inwards through the gaps in the Eastern Ghats (made by the eastern flowing rivers) by the Tropical Easterly Jet Streams and cause cyclonic rainfall.

Tropical Easterly Jet and Indian Monsoon

Dates when South West Monsoon hits various regions

Characteristics of the Indian Monsoon

Some of the unique features of the Indian monsoon are

Sudden onset: start of the monsoon is very abrupt.
Gradual advance: once started, it advances very slowly & gradually
Gradual retreat: monsoon winds go back slowly
Seasonal in Character: Rainfall received from the southwest monsoon is seasonal in character and occurs only between June & September.
Largely governed by topography: Monsoon rains are governed by the region’s topography. E.g., Western ghats receive massive rainfall, and Aravallis receive almost none (explained above).
Monsoon has ‘breaks,’ i.e., wet spells of few days interspersed by rainless days.
Monsoon has Variations: These variations are both regional & temporal.

Variation in Monsoon

We will cover both Temporal and Spatial Variation when asked about variations.

1. Temporal Variations

The distribution of rainfall varies temporally during the four seasons.

Winter Season
- In winter, there is little rainfall in regions of India.
- The reason for the winter rainfall in North-West India is Western Disturbances.

Summer Season
- In Summer, torrential local rains happen when there is a sudden contact between dry and moist air masses.

South-West Monsoon season
- The four wet months of June through September account for more than 80% of the annual precipitation.
- In the coastal regions, the monsoon begins in the first week of June; however, it may not begin until the first week of July in the nation’s interior parts.
- Rainfall from monsoons is mostly influenced by relief or topography, and it tends to decrease as one gets farther from the sea.

Retreating Monsoon
- In response to the sun’s southward march, the monsoon begins to weaken around the end of September.
- India’s north experiences dry weather, whereas the Coromandal Coast experiences rain.

2. Spatial Variations

Areas of High Rainfall (Over 200cm): Maximum rainfall occurs along mountain ranges that block moist winds, such as the west coast, as well as in sub-Himalayan regions in the northeast, such as the Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia hills.
Areas of medium Rainfall (100-200 cm): Medium rainfall happens in the north-eastern Peninsula covering Orissa, Jharkhand, Bihar and eastern Madhya Pradesh, east Tamil Nadu, southern parts of Gujarat, and northern Ganga plain.
Areas of low Rainfall (50-100 cm): Most regions showing continentality, like Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, eastern Rajasthan, Western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Deccan Plateau and Gujarat.
Areas of inadequate Rainfall (Less than 50 cm): In Ladakh, western Rajasthan and the Interior Peninsula (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra)

4. North East Monsoon /Retreating Monsoon

Rain happening in October and November is known as Retreating Monsoons.
The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone begins moving southward in response to the sun’s southward movement towards the end of September, which weakens the southwest monsoon. Hence, the temperature in the Northern Plains starts decreasing, and consequently, pressure starts increasing. In response to this, Monsoon winds start to retreat from northern India, and this is also known as North-East monsoon as the winds blow from North-East to South-West.

These monsoon winds retreat in almost the same sequence as they arrive in the country.
- They first leave Punjab till 15 September,
- Uttar Pradesh till 1 October,
- Ganges Delta till 15 October
- Till 15 November, these leave southern parts of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

The retreat of the monsoon is marked by clear skies and a drop in the night temperature. But the land still remains moist. The combination of high temperature and humidity gives rise to oppressive weather and is known as ‘October Heat.’

The North-East monsoons are generally dry as they originate on land except on the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, i.e. Coromandal coast because when they pass over the Bay of Bengal, they collect moisture and shed that moisture on the Tamil Nadu coast.

Cyclones on the Eastern Coast during retreating monsoon

Due to the shifting of ITCZ over the Bay of Bengal and the convergence of winds on both sides of ITCZ, cyclonic depressions are created in the Bay of Bengal, whose water is already at high temperature due to continuous heating throughout the summers. These cyclones move towards the west or north-west.
These cyclones frequently hit the eastern coastal region and cause significant damage to life and property. The areas most vulnerable to these storms include the coastal belt of Tamil Nadu, Andhra, Odisha and West Bengal.
The number of devastating severe Cyclones hitting the Indian coasts has been increasing owing to the increase in sea surface temperature in the northern Indian Ocean.

Knowledge-Based Industry in India

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Knowledge-Based Industry in India

This article deals with the ‘Knowledge-Based Industry in India.’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

The advancement in information technology has profoundly influenced the country’s economy. The Information Technology (IT) revolution opened up new economic and social transformation possibilities.
The Indian software industry has emerged as one of the fastest-growing sectors in the economy.
A majority of the multinational companies operating in the area of information technology have either software development centres or research development centres in India.

Knowledge-Economy

Knowledge-Economy is primarily based on intangible assets such as the value of its workers and IPR. These sectors include Space, Pharma, IT, e-learning etc.

India’s competitors in Knowledge-Economy

China	China is the most formidable competitor to Indian companies in the knowledge economy.
ASEAN Nations	ASEAN countries such as the Philippines, Vietnam, Indonesia etc., have graduated with command over the English language, thus encroaching upon the Indian market.

Indian Knowledge-Based Economy

1. Space

India has been able to develop Space Sector due to the support given by the Indian government. But, apart from ISRO, India has not been able to produce a world-class space company (such as SpaceX of the USA)

2. BPO

Indian BPO sector is well developed and is a major contributor to Forex earnings of India.

3. Electronics

The Indian government has not supported developing the electronics sector in the past. Hence, India’s electronics sector was not able to develop.
The present government wants to develop the Electronics sector in India and has started schemes like Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme. Companies such as Samsung and Apple have started manufacturing their products in India.

4. Pharma

India is known as the ‘pharmacy of the developing world’ and the 11th largest drug producer globally. But private companies are not spending on R&D and hence not able to produce novel and revolutionary drugs, for which Indians are dependent on foreign companies such as Pfizer, Novartis etc.

IT Industry in Bangalore. Why?

Bangalore is known as the silicon valley of India.

1. Historical perspective

In the 1950-70s, Bharat Electronics Limited, IISC, National Defence lab, HAL, and ISRO were set up here. It created backward & forward linkages in the field of electronics.

2. Well Connected

The city is well connected by road, railways & air.

3. Skilled Labour

IISC & a large number of institutions around Bangalore provide a large number of professionals to work in the software industry.

4. Progressive Government

The government’s policies helped, like providing land at reasonable rates, tax concessions etc.

5. Pleasant climate

A pleasant climate is a perk for professionals, especially in Tropical countries like India. It is an ideal place to living

But Bangalore has not been able to cope with the rapid increase in population. Due to jammed roads & increased pollution, other cities came up to compete like Pune, Gurgaon, Noida etc.

Challenges faced by India’s IT Sector

1. Loss of Market Access

Indian IT Industry is losing market access

USA: Due to the “Buy American, Hire American” Policy & H1B Visa restrictions
EU has also introduced Data Protection and Privacy Rules (DPPR) that effectively prevent Indian companies from providing services from India, while the US has been given safe harbour status.

2. Competition from new entrants

Indian service companies are now challenged by startups like Luxoft, which are using cloud-based technology, and new digital entrants from Eastern Europe and Latin American countries.

3. Domestic challenges

There are also some domestic challenges like

shortage of skilled talent
underdeveloped infrastructure in Tier 2 & 3 cities
Some restrictive regulations for product startups.

Meanwhile, the Government of India’s rapid adoption of technologies as a platform for delivering government-to-government and government-to-citizen services is a tremendous push factor for the domestic ITBPM market.

Mercury Poisoning

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Mercury Poisoning

This article deals with ‘Mercury Poisoning – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Environment’, which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles on Science and technology, you can click here.

Introduction

Mercury concentrates as highly toxic Methyl Mercury in the bodies of fish.

Minamata disease

The disease was searched in Japan’s seaside town of Minamata.
Strange behaviour was seen in cats, birds & also in humans. The investigation found that petrochemical companies had been discharging mercury waste into the sea.
Around 5,000 people were killed & 50,000 were poisoned to some extent by Mercury.

Humans have controlled the Minamata disease and the use of Mercury to a large extent. But such cases are sporadically noticed in

Mercury Mining, mainly in China
Central Asian nations like Kyrgyzstan
In India
1. Kodaikanal (Tamil Nadu): The thermometer factory was dumping waste (the factory was of Ponds and later acquired by Hindustan Unilever in 1987 )
1. Singrauli Region in Uttar Pradesh
2. Ganjam in Odisha

Applications of Mercury

Side Topic: Diseases from Metal Poisoning

Mercury	Minamata Disease
Cadmium	Itai Itai
Nitrate	Blue Baby Syndrome
Water with little or no fluoride	Cavity in teeth
Arsenic	Black Foot Disease (disfigures the skin, impacts kidney and, heart & lung fatalities.

Minamata Convention on Mercury

Minamata Convention aims to control the use of Mercury.
The convention was signed in Kumamoto (Japan) in 2013 and ratified by India in 2014.
Minamata Convention is part of the cluster of agreements, including
- Basel Convention to control transboundary movement of hazardous wastes
- Rotterdam Convention to manage international trade of hazardous chemicals and pesticides
- Stockholm Convention to restrict and eliminate persistent organic pollutants.

What does India have to do?

India will have to establish and enforce mercury emission standards for coal-fired power plants(and coal mining).
The Chlor-alkali industry has to use mercury-free technologies.
Replace CFLs with LED.

Noise Pollution in India

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Noise Pollution in India

Last Update: March 2023

This article deals with ‘Noise Pollution in India – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Environment’, an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles on Science and technology, you can click here.

Introduction

The unwanted and undesirable sound or sound that can disrupt one’s quality of life is called noise.
Noise pollution is the phrase used to describe when there is excessive “noise” in the environment.
World Health Organization has prescribed optimum noise level as 45 dB by day and 35 dB by night. Anything above 80 dB is hazardous.

Sources of Noise Pollution

Industrialization (industries use big machines)
Poor Urban Planning: Congested houses and large families sharing small space
Social Events: Such as marriage, parties, pubs or places of worship
Vehicles: A large number of vehicles run and honk on roads
Construction Activities
Household appliances like noise from the TV, Radio, Air Conditioner, cooking appliances etc. These might be minor contributors but affect the quality of life badly.

India suffers from high levels of Noise pollution. For example, World Health Organisation’s “Worldwide Hearing Index” reported that Delhi is the second-worst city with the highest noise pollution (Guangzhou in China is the worst and Zurich in Switzerland is the best).

Effects of Prolonged Noise Pollution

Physical Effects: It leads to irreversible Noise-Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL), heart disease, high blood pressure, stress-related illness, sleep disruption and productivity loss.
Physiological effects:
- Depression and fatigue
- Aggressive behaviour
- Straining of senses and annoyance
- Psychomotor impacts
Sleeping disorders: Loud noise can impact a person’s sleeping cycle. Due to this, a person’s performance may go down in the office.
Effect on Wildlife: Wildlife is dependent on sounds for their various functions, and animals may become easy prey.

Legal and Constitutional Provisions

Article 48-A regarding protection and improvement of the environment)
Article 51-A (fundamental duties) of the Constitution of India.
Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981: The act includes noise in the definition of ‘air pollutant’.
Noise Pollution (Regulation & Control) Rules: Under the rules, permissible noise limits are as follows
1. Industrial Areas: 75 decibels during the day and 70 decibels during the night
2. Commercial Areas: 65 decibels during the day and 55 decibels during the night
3. Residential Areas: 55 decibels during the day and 45 decibels during the night
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has set up the National Ambient Noise Monitoring Network (NANMN), covering 35 locations in seven metro cities like Delhi, Lucknow, Hyderabad, Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai and Bangalore.
Article 48-A, i.e. protection and improvement of the environment
Article 51-A, i.e. fundamental duties of the Constitution of India
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has established the National Ambient Noise Monitoring Network (NANMN), covering 35 locations in seven metro cities like Delhi, Lucknow, Hyderabad, Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai and Bangalore.

Preventive measures

Personal Level: NIHL can be prevented by
- Dietary supplements rich in antioxidants
- Use of earplugs
Scientific urban planning: Transport terminals, Industries, airports, and railway terminals sight should be far from living spaces.
Green Belt, i.e. planting trees in and around noise sources.
Lubricating the industrial machinery to reduce their noise levels
Making and implementing laws in effective ways to control noise pollution. E.g., regulations regarding loudspeakers are present but not applied strictly.

Monsoon Theories

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Monsoon Theories

This article deals with ‘Monsoon Theories.’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

The Monsoon is traditionally defined as the seasonal reversal of winds and related changes in precipitation. Monsoon is a surface wind that blows in a particular direction in one season but reverses completely in the other season.
Monsoon is the main characteristic of the Indian Climate and requires special study. Hence, we will study that in detail.

Monsoon Theories

Monsoons are a complex meteorological phenomenon. Meteorologists have proposed numerous theories explaining the origin of monsoons.

1. Halley’s Thermal Theory

Mechanism of summer Monsoon

During summer, interior parts of the North Indian Plains covering Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana etc., are heated strongly. As a result, low pressure develops, resulting in the formation of the monsoonal trough.
Temperature over the Indian Ocean is still low. Hence, high pressure prevails over the Indian Ocean.
Hence, the general movement of air in JUNE is from the South-West (Indian ocean) to North-East (Indian Subcontinent) (this direction is directly opposite to trade winds prevailing during Winter).
When these moist winds from the Indian Ocean pass over Indian Subcontinent, they cause widespread Monsoon from June to September.

Winter Monsoon

During Winter, high pressure is developed over land, whereas low pressure prevails over oceans. Hence, winds start to blow from North-East towards South-West (North East Trade Winds).
These are dry & cold winds causing no rainfall except on the Coromandal Coast, where it gathers moisture after passing over the Bay of Bengal.

Shortfalls

But this presents a very simple picture and fails to explain the following:-
- Why low-pressure areas on land are not stationary & suddenly change their location?
- Why are there no anti-monsoon circulations in the upper-troposphere which must be there if they were thermally induced?
- Low pressure in Northern India develops in April & May, but rain starts there in June. Why??
Monsoon rains are an amalgamation of convectional, orographic & cyclonic rainfall & the thermal concept fails to explain this.

2. Fohn Dynamic Concept of Monsoon

Fohn tried to explain the monsoons using shifting of ITCZ (Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone), i.e., where northern and southern Trade winds converge. This ITCZ zone keeps shifting towards the north and south according to the apparent movement of the sun.
According to this theory, Monsoon is the result of the seasonal migration of planetary winds & pressure belts around the Equator due to the apparent shifting of the sun during different seasons
1. During Summer, the sun moves directly above the Tropic of Cancer due to the apparent northward movement of the sun. As a result, all the pressure belts of the globe shift northwards. ITCZ moves up to 25° N & low pressure develops over the whole Indian Subcontinent. Trade winds blowing towards ITCZ need to pass through the Equator to reach ITCZ. Due to the Coriolis effect, while crossing the Equator, these winds get deflected and take the southwest direction, becoming a southwest Monsoon. Indian landmass gets rain due to these South-West winds as these winds carry moisture from the Indian Ocean to Indian Subcontinent.
2. During Winter, due to the apparent southward movement of the sun, all the pressure belts shift southwards. As a result, ITCZ moves southwards out of India, establishing the North-East Monsoon. Hence, during Winter, winds in India start to blow from North East to South West, creating a North-East monsoon.

3. Real Mechanism

But in reality, the mechanism is more complex than what even Fohn proposed. A large number of factors impact the Indian Monsoon & the exact mechanism is not known to date. Major factors which impact the Indian Monsoon are

3.1 Maskarenes High

When there are summers in the North Hemisphere, there are winters in the Southern Hemisphere. As a result, a High-pressure zone develops near a small island in the Southern Hemisphere in the South Indian Ocean called Mascarene. Winds from this high-pressure area, termed as Mascarene High by scientists, start blowing towards low-pressure areas in the Northern Hemisphere, along the east Somalia coast.
The strength of Mascarene High is a crucial factor in determining the intensity of the Monsoon in India. Stronger is the Mascarene High, stronger will be the push caused by them and stronger will be the rainfall over Indian Subcontinent.

3.2 Somali Jet / Findlater’s Jet

The monsoon wind that is deflected to the east as it crosses the Equator (due to Coriolis Force) is further deflected to the east by the mountains of Africa on the Somalian Coast and Somali Jet. The Somali Jet transits Kenya and Somalia and exits the African coast at 9 degrees north at a low altitude at very high speed.
Hence, it gives a strong push to the Monsoon winds & also deflects them towards India.

(This Jetstream was discovered by J. Findlater, a British meteorologist & it is most pronounced between 1.0 and 1.5 km above the ground.)

3.3 Tropical Easterly Jet / Role of Tibet Plateau

The first instance of the relationship between the Indian Monsoon and Tibet plateau came some 130 years ago, when Sir H.F. Blanford, Chief Reporter of the newly-established India Meteorological Department (IMD), noticed more Himalayan snow cover during the preceding Winter resulted in a poor monsoon. Hence, scientists began to study the relationship and reached the following explanation.
- In summer, the apparent movement of the sun is northwards. Due to this, there is intense heating of land in Northern India & Tibet.
- Since the Tibetan plateau is situated at a great height, it receives 2-3° C more insolation, and extreme low pressure develops there. As a result, air from Tibet Plateau rises to the Upper-Troposphere and starts moving towards Mascarene High in the form of a Tropical Easterly Jet. After reaching Mascarene high, it descends & further strengthens the Mascarene High-Pressure Cell.
- More strength of Tropical Easterly Jet means stronger Mascarene High, which further means good rainfall in the Indian Subcontinent.

3.4 Sub Tropical Westerly Jet Stream

India is under the influence of Sub-Tropical Westerly Jet (STWJ). It impacts the Monsoon in the following ways

1. Winters

Due to the sun’s southward apparent movement during winters, all the earth’s pressure belts move southwards. As a result, STWJ also moves southwards & comes over North India (from the Himalayas).
These Jet streams create High-Pressure Zone over North India, so no rainfall occurs during Winter.

Sub Tropical Westerly Jet Stream in Winters

2. Summers

2.1 Early Summer

With the onset of summers, the sun starts to move northwards; as a result, pressure belts of the earth, along with STWJ, also starts to move northwards.
During early summers, half of the STWJ is over the Northern plains, while the other half moves north of the Himalayas. Hence, high pressure continues to be maintained over Northern India. Until the whole of STWJ doesn’t move out of North India, Monsoon cant strike Indian Subcontinent.

Sub Tropical Westerly Jet Stream in Summer

2.2 Late summer, near June

During late summer, STWJ entirely moves north of the Himalayas, and low pressure develops over North India. Hence, Monsoon strikes Indian Subcontinent in June.

3.5 El Nino

El Nino creates High Pressure near Northern Australia & as a result, Walker Cell between Western Pacific Pool (WPP) and the Western Indian Ocean (Mascarene High) is altered. In normal conditions, this Walker Cell helps to strengthen the High Pressure in the Western Indian Ocean. But during El Nino, Mascarene High is not strengthened.
As Mascarene High helps push monsoon winds towards India, in case of weak Mascarene High during El-Nino years, the push would be weaker, resulting in lower rainfall in Indian Subcontinent.

La Nina

La Niña is the reverse of the El-Nino. Here, extreme Low Pressure prevails over Northern Australia. It strengthens the Mascarene High more than what happens in normal conditions.
La Niña years are infamous for frequent and intense hurricanes and cyclones in the Atlantic Ocean and the Bay of Bengal, likely due to multiple aiding factors, including high relative moisture and relatively low wind shear over the Bay of Bengal.

3.6 Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)

In 1999, N H Saji of Japan’s University of Aizu and others discovered an El-Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) -like phenomenon in the Indian Ocean, which they named the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD).
The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is defined as the difference in the sea surface temperatures between two poles, i.e. Western pole in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean) and the Eastern pole near Indonesia in the eastern Indian Ocean.

The IOD affects the climate of Australia, India and other countries surrounding the Indian Ocean and is a significant factor in deciding the rainfall variability in this region.

Case 1: Positive IOD

In this, waters in the Western Indian Ocean (Arabian Sea) become relatively warm compared to waters in the Eastern Indian Ocean (south of Indonesia).
Studies have shown that a positive IOD year sees more than normal rainfall in central India. It happened in 1994 and 1997.

Point to note: The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) and El Nino are independent climatic phenomena but often co-occur. When they co-occur (60% of the time), then two competing factors come into play at the same time i.e.

El-Nino reduces high pressure at Mascarene high, which negatively impacts the Indian Monsoon.
But at the same time, positive IOD favours good rainfall over Indian Subcontinent.

This is the reason why we can’t say with certainty that El-Nino will result in lower rainfall over Indian Subcontinent. In 1997, there was intense El-Nino but above-average rainfall in India; in 2002, there was moderate El-Nino but intense drought in India. The reason for this was in 1997, there was a positive IOD which overpowered El-Nino, but in 2002 there was a Negative IOD which exacerbated the impacts of El-Nino.

Case 2: Negative IOD

In this, waters in the Eastern Indian Ocean (south of Indonesia) become relatively warm compared to waters in the Western Indian Ocean (Arabian Sea).
In this case, more rainfall will happen in southern Indonesia and the eastern Indian Ocean.

Negative Indian Ocean Dipole
Heavy Rainfall
Cool water
Warm water

Note: Worst drought occurs when El-Nino and Negative or Neutral IOD co-occur.

Climate Funding

by admin

Climate Funding

This article deals with ‘Climate Funding – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Environment’, an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles on Science and technology, you can click here.

Introduction

As per the Sharm el-Sheikh Implementation Plan, released during COP27, an annual investment of $4 trillion must be invested in renewable energy until 2030 to reach net zero emissions by 2050. No single source will be sufficient for this amount.

Classification of Finance Sources

We can classify the cash streams based on who is the prominent player

1. Government Funding

1.1 Environment Tax

An ‘‘environment” or ”green” tax is imposed on a product that damages the environment to reduce its production or consumption.
It is in line with the ”polluter pays principle”.

Benefits of Environment taxes

They internalize environmental costs into prices.
Deter actions that lead to environmental damage
Encourages innovation and development of new technology
Government can use the revenue raised by environmental taxes for development activities and thus reduce the level of other taxes (e.g. income tax or excise duty on medicines)

Government’s initiatives in this regard

1. Clean Environment Cess

The government introduced Clean Energy Cess on coal at Rs.50 per ton in 2010.
The rate is subsequently increased to Rs. 400 per ton presently.
The money thus collected is transferred to the National Clean Energy and Environment Fund.

2. Higher Excise Duties on SUV

Government charges higher excise duty on fuel-guzzling SUVs.

2. Market-based Mechanisms

2.1 Carbon Trading or Cap and Trade

Carbon Trading, also called carbon emissions trading, is a market-based system of buying and selling permits and credits that allow the permit holder to emit carbon dioxide. The model used in most carbon trading schemes is called ”cap and trade”.

How does ‘cap and trade’ work?

Setting a cap: An overall limit or cap is set on the amount of emissions allowed from significant carbon sources, including the power industry, automotive and air travel.
Issuance of permits: Governments issue permits up to the agreed limit. Each permit is usually measured in terms of one tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e).
Selling and buying of permits: If a company curbs its own carbon significantly below the cap, it can trade the excess permits on the carbon market for cash. If it’s not able to limit its emissions, it may have to buy extra permits.

2.2 PAT (Perform Achieve and Trade) & ESCerts

It was launched by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (Ministry of Power) under the National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE).
It is a market-based mechanism in which sectors are assigned efficiency targets. Industries that over-achieve targets get incentives through Energy-Saving Certificates (ESCert). Other companies can buy those ESCerts to meet their targets

2.3 Renewable Purchase Obligations (RPO) & Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs)

Under the Renewable Purchase Obligations (RPO) mechanism, DISCOMs must purchase certain percentage of their total energy in the form of renewable energy.
Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) are provided under the RPO mechanism if DISCOM is using more than the required Renewable Energy. DISCOM is entitled to RECs equivalent to the surplus
Those Discoms, which are not able to use the required Renewable Energy can buy these RECs and claim that they have purchased renewable energy.

2.4 Green Bonds

What are green bonds?

The Green Bond is a type of bond (debt instrument). But the issuer of a green bond publicly states that capital is being raised to fund ”green” (environment-friendly) projects, like renewable energy, clean transportation etc.
It can be issued by Banks as well as Companies.

Timeline

2007	In 2007, green bonds were first launched by European Investment Bank & the World Bank
2015	Yes Bank & later EXIM bank launched India’s first dollar-denominated green bond.
2016	SEBI issued Green Bond guidelines.
2017	L&T issued the first SEBI-approved Green Bonds.
2022	Budget 2022 announced that the Government of India would issue Sovereign Green Bonds (SGB) for projects leading to a less carbon economy.

Importance

India has set an ambitious target of generating 40% of its energy through Renewable sources by 2030 as part of its Paris Climate Deal obligations (INDC). It requires massive funding, and Green Bonds can help in raising that.
Higher interest rates in India raise renewable energy costs by about 25%. Green bonds carry a lower interest rate
Green bonds enhance an issuer’s reputation by showcasing its commitment towards sustainable development.
It allows issuers to tap into pools of global investors & capital funds dedicated to ethical climate change and green investing.

Risks & challenges

Greenwashing: There have been heated discussions regarding whether the projects that green bond issuers fund are environmentally friendly. E.g., Reuters reported how activists were claiming that the proceeds of the French utility GDF Suez’s $3.4 billion green bond issue were used to fund a dam project that hurts the Amazon rainforest in Brazil.
Most green bonds in India have a shorter tenure of about 10 years (compared to international issuances). A typical loan is for minimum 13 years.
Most Indian Green Projects are small and unattractive to investors due to their small scale.
Borrowing costs and information asymmetry: In India, the cost of green bond issuance has consistently remained higher than that of other bonds.

Further steps required

Standardizing the definition of green
Going towards securitization & aggregation: Many standalone green projects such as rooftop solar, energy efficiency, and rural water supply remain unattractive to institutional investors owing to the smaller scale and vast geographical spread. Aggregation and securitization of such projects could be a welcome move in providing mainstream debt to small-scale green projects.

Side Topic: Blue Bonds

It is a sub-type of green bond.
Blue bonds are sustainability bonds used to fund initiatives to preserve and protect the ocean and its surrounding ecosystems. E.g.,
- Sustainable fisheries
- protection of fragile ecosystems
- reducing pollution and acidification
E.g. 2018- Seychelles issued the world’s first ”Blue Bond” to expand its marine protected areas and fisheries sector.

3. International Funds

3.1 Adaptation Fund

Adaptation Fund was established under United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). 2% of the trade of Carbon Credits goes to Adaptation Fund.
From the Adaptation Fund, the funds are sent to the National Implementation Entity (NIE) of countries.
For India, this Agency is NABARD (it is the only NIE in the Asia Pacific)

3.2 Global Environment Facility (GEF)

Global Environment Facility (GEF) was established during the Rio Earth Summit of 1992 to address the world’s most challenging environmental issues.
GEF provides funding for 5 things
1. UNFCCC
2. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
3. Stockholm Convention on POPs
4. Minamata Convention on Mercury
5. UN Convention to Combat Desertification
World Bank serve as the Trustee of the GEF

3.3 Green Climate Fund (GCF)

It was established in 2010 at COP 16 held in Cancun.
GCF raise money from rich countries to fight climate change. Projects will be carried out in developing countries to fight climate change using this fund.
The aim is to spend $100 Billion per year from 2020.
Countries have to appoint a National Designated Authority (NDA) that acts as the interface between their government and GCF. India’s NDA is NABARD.

Issues with GCF

How to define Green Climate Finance. E.g :
- Will US NGOs (e.g. Ford Foundation or Melinda Gates Foundation) working on providing clean water in Africa be considered within US Green Climate Obligations in Account books? Developed countries are re-categorising all these funds under GCF Obligations.
- Is Technology Transfer part of Green Climate Finance? Suppose Patents are transferred like the US transferred patents to produce Solar Cells in India. Will the cost of the patent be counted under GCF obligations? Developed countries are in favour while Developing countries are opposed to this.
Which Countries have the first claim over GCF Corpus? Should AOSIS Nations, which are most affected by Climate Change, get these funds or African Nations or Other developing countries?
Whether to spend it on Mitigation or Adaptation projects

Privatisation of Banks

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Last Update: Jan 2025 (Privatisation of Banks)

Privatisation of Banks

This article deals with the ‘Privatisation of Banks.’ This is part of our series on ‘Economics’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

The government is also reducing its shareholding to less than 50% in Public Sector Banks. This is known as the Privatisation of Public Sector Banks.
E.g.:
- Government-owned UTI Mutual Fund applied for UTI Bank License in the 1990s. Later, after the scam, UTI Bank was privatized into Axis Bank.
- 2018: IDBI Bank was privatized.

2021 Budget: The government announced the privatisation of two Public Sector Banks (PSBs). But the scheme has not materialised as of now.

Case for Privatisation of Banks

Improve the overall efficiency of the Banking Sector: Even though the PSBs and New Private Banks are operating in the same domestic market, the PSBs are considered less efficient, thus leading to the loss of taxpayers’ money.
Government’s Monopoly: The Government ownership in the PSBs, which account for almost 70% of the Banking assets, has led to a kind of virtual monopoly of government that reduces the competition, breeds inefficiency and thus hurts the overall growth of the Banking Sector.
Better Human Resource Management: Privatisation will help in introducing a high degree of professional management. On the account of huge human capital deficit, PSBs are seriously handicapped vis-à-vis their competitors.
Reduce the burden on the government by doing away with the need for undertaking their recapitalisation to comply with the higher BASEL III requirements

Arguments against Privatisation

Improve the Governance Framework of PSBs: The main reason for the lower efficiency of the PSBs is actually the government’s political intervention in the functioning of the PSBs, which is in turn leading to a lack of autonomy and freedom to the PSBs and thus hurting their revenues.
Financial exclusion of weaker sections: It can lead to financial exclusion of weaker sections as the private sector cares about profits.
Job Loss: Public Sector Banks employ a large number of people who can lose their jobs in case of privatisation of banks as one of the first things banks do after privatisation is employee retrenchment and branch closures.
Depriving SC/ST/OBCs of benefiting from reservation: Since private banks are not mandated to provide reservations to SC/ST/OBCs in jobs, it hurts the social empowerment of weaker sections of society.
Concerns regarding bank failures and safety of deposits: Private sector banks are prone to failures due to the absence of sovereign guarantees. Bank failures have a large contagion effect on the economy as the savings of the households get locked.
The macroeconomic effects of bank failures can cause tremendous contagion effect and derail the economy. E.g. From 1935 to 1947, there were 900 bank failures in our country. From 1947 to 1969, 665 banks failed. It became the driving factor for bank nationalisation in 1969.

Ways to Control Climate Change

by admin

Last Updated: July 2025 (Ways to Control Climate Change)

Ways to Control Climate Change

This article deals with ‘Ways to Control Climate Change – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Environment’, an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles on Science and technology, you can click here.

Introduction

It is a deliberate, large-scale intervention carried out in Earth’s natural systems to reverse the impacts of climate change.
It involves techniques to physically manipulate the global climate to cool the planet.
These techniques fall primarily under three categories:
- Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS)
- Climate Engineering
- Other Projects (Carbfix Project, Controlling the Emissions of Ruminants, etc.)

1. Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS)

It is the process of removing carbon from the atmosphere & depositing it in a reservoir.

First Capture CO2

Firstly, we need to capture the CO2 directly from the atmosphere or at the end of combustion & industrial processes.
It is done using technologies such as
1. Chemical Solvent: Preferred when dealing with gas streams that are lean in CO2 and have relatively lower pressures, such as flue gas streams from power plants etc.
2. Adsorption: Suitable for gas streams with moderate to high pressure and moderate CO2 concentration, such as steam methane reforming (SMR) flue gas.
3. Cryogenic Separation: Preferred in cases where the cost of power is low.

Transport and then store CO2 in Reservoir (Carbon Sequestration)

The captured CO2 is then stored in reservoirs, which can include

Depleted Oil and Gas Reserves
Unmineable Coal Seams
Deep Saline Aquifers
Enhancing the productivity of ocean biosystems through fertilization, e.g. algae
Inject CO2 into the deep ocean
Enhancing and manipulating the forests, wetlands etc.
Artificial Upwelling: This water will absorb more CO2
Ocean fertilization

Issues with the Concept

There is general agreement about the need to halt fossil fuel emissions, particularly in industrialized countries. However, instead of moving ahead with drastic reductions in energy use and initiating a transition towards low-carbon economies, forests’ ability to (temporarily) sink carbon is being used to justify continued fossil fuel use.
Afforestation – especially afforestation in northern tundra regions – may accelerate global Warming. Dark green forests absorb more sunlight than tundra or farmland, adding to the warming trend (snow reflects).
All carbon is not the same. Fossil carbon is generally static, whereas that which is in the active carbon pool (the atmosphere and the biosphere) can be easily released through activities beyond government control, such as forest fires).
Lands dedicated to carbon sink projects require contractual agreements that lock the land up for years, often decades.
High Cost: Upfront capital investment for carbon capture technology, transport pipelines, and geological storage is high, and significant energy and water usage is required to capture and compress CO2.
Insufficient geological information: Due to a lack of geological survey technology, companies lack geological information before the project is carried out. Therefore, they cannot accurately predict project risks.

2. Climate Engineering

Climate engineering describes a diverse and largely hypothetical array of technologies and techniques for intentionally manipulating the global climate to moderate or forestall the (most severe) effects of climate change.
These include
1. Space Mirrors: Reflect Solar Energy and not allowing it to enter the atmosphere
2. Reflective Aerosols in Stratosphere (proponents claim that it can reduce Global Warming by 1 C)
3. Cloud Seeding: Clouds are good reflectors of sunlight
4. Using pale-coloured roofing material or growing high albedo crops
5. Cirrus cloud manipulation: Cirrus clouds are removed or thinned so that their long-wave trapping capacity is reduced, thus cooling the surface.
6. Diamond Dust: Spraying the diamond dust in the upper atmosphere as diamond dust is a good reflector of sunlight.

3. Other Projects for Carbon Fixation going on

3.1 Carbfix Project

It is a project in Iceland that aims to lock away CO2 by reacting it with basaltic rocks.
Carbonated water is injected into the rocks to react with Calcium, Magnesium or Silicate material present in Basaltic rocks. It is called enhanced weathering. Thus, the CO2 is captured permanently without releasing any harmful by-products.

3.2 Controlling the Emissions of Ruminants

Philanthropists such as Bill Gates are funding startups to develop feed called Rumin8 that will reduce the amount of methane they emit in the atmosphere.

Denmark has decided to impose tax on its livestock farmers for the greenhouse gases (GHGs) emitted by their cows, sheep, and pigs from 2030.

Impacts of Climate Change

by admin

Last Updated: July 2025 (Impacts of Climate Change)

Impacts of Climate Change

This article deals with ‘Impacts of Climate Change – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Environment’, an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles on Science and technology, you can click here.

Introduction

The Climate Change we will talk about in this article pertains to the change in the climate because of human-induced factors.

Even before humans, the Earth’s climate has changed throughout history. In the last 6.5 lakh years, Earth has passed through 7 ice ages. The last ice age ended approx. 7000 years ago, also marking the beginning of human civilization.

But the climate change that we are witnessing now is entirely different. The earlier changes were primarily attributed to minor variations in the Earth’s orbit, which changed the amount of solar insolation received by Earth’s atmosphere or volcanic eruptions.

The reason for the present climate change is the increase in the concentration of heat-trapping gases (or Green House Gases) in the Earth’s atmosphere due to the increase in the rate of burning of fossil fuels.

Mauna Loa Atmospheric Baseline Observatory (Hawaii) has been recording the CO2 concentration since 1958. The concentration reached dangerous levels of 415 ppm in 2019 and 420 ppm in 2023.

Many people, especially from countries like the USA, UK etc., known as Climate Sceptics, don’t accept that Global Warming and Climate Change are real. After fighting for years against denialism, scientists have now been successful in making world leaders realize that we need to act against climate change if we want to avoid the potentially huge cost to the economy and society worldwide caused by the “irreversible build-up of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and warming of the globe.”

Evidences and Impacts of Climate Change

1. Glacier Retreats

Glaciers have been melting rapidly due to global warming, leading to a phenomenon known as Glacier Retreat. The examples include Hindukush – Karakoram – Himalayan Glacier Retreat and Kaskawulsh Glacier Retreat (Kaskawulsh is Canada’s one of the largest glacier).
The breakdown of Larsen C Glacier (in the Antarctic) is the result of Climate Change and Global Warming.

Impact of Glacier Retreat

Shortage of Water: The glacier retreat can result in a water shortage in the river streams fed by the glaciers. Therefore, it will negatively impact the lives of people living in those river basins.
River Piracy: Climate Change has resulted in the retreat of one of Canada’s largest glaciers (Kaskawulsh Glacier). It led to an incident called ‘River Piracy’ by the researchers.
- Earlier (Before Retreat): The glacier was feeding Slims River (taking water to the Bering Sea)
- Now (After Retreat): The glacier feeds Alsek River (taking water to the Gulf of Alaska)
Habitat Loss: Animals that dwell on or near glaciers may be pushed towards extinction—for example, tiny ice worms.
Contaminants: Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) such as PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls) are transported in the air from their source to cooler areas where they condense and are deposited in glacial ice. Rapid melting has begun to release them back into the environment. For example, in some Canadian lakes, glacial meltwater is the source of 50-97% of the various POPs entering the lake.
Flooding: Rapid melting of glaciers can lead to flooding in rivers.
Sea Level Rise: Sea-level rise will affect coastal regions worldwide, causing erosion and saltwater intrusion into aquifers and freshwater habitats.

2. Climate Change and Oceans

Climate Change and global warming have impacted the oceans negatively in various ways.

1. Ocean Acidification

As CO2 concentration in the atmosphere has increased, more CO2 is being dissolved in Ocean Waters, leading to the formation of Carbonic Acid. It increases the pH of Ocean Water (i.e. makes it acidic), which harms the calcifying animals.

2. Ocean Warming

According to the IPCC Report, the world’s oceans have absorbed 90% of the temperature rise caused by man-made GHG emissions.
Ocean warming creates anoxic (i.e., waters with no dissolved oxygen) and hypoxic (i.e. waters with low oxygen concentration) zones. It leads to the destruction of the ecosystem in those zones.

3. Sea Level Rise

Sea Level rise happens due to two reasons
- Glaciers melting at a faster pace
- The density of warm water is lower (leading to higher volume)
Impact of Sea Level Rise is as follows
- Large-Scale Displacement: 10% of the world’s population lives on the coast, which faces the danger of getting displaced. Additionally, many islands will disappear (like Kiribati, Maldives, Tuvalu, etc.)
- The saltwater intrusion into surface waters will exacerbate the issue of drinking water shortage.
- Increasingly severe storm surges will cause damage to property situated on coasts.
- International Conflicts: Sea Level Rise will change nations’ exclusive economic zones, potentially creating conflicts between neighbouring nations.

4. Changes in Ocean Current Patterns

Oceans are now receiving more fresh water due to climate change. It is changing the patterns of Ocean Currents, thus resulting in strange weather phenomena. E.g., increase in the frequency of tropical cyclones and El-Nino.
It is disrupting the marine food chains.

5. Negative Impact on Food Security

Rainfall Patterns Affected: Precipitation patterns in a number of areas have changed, resulting from large-scale atmospheric teleconnections with ocean warming.
Due to Ocean Warming, more rain happens over the ocean and rainfall on land decreases. It impacts agriculture negatively.
Due to Ocean Warming, the size of fish is decreasing. The experiment showed that fish raised in warm waters weighed less and had lower metabolic performance than those raised in lower temperatures.

6. Deoxygenation (Creation of Dead Zones)

Ocean warming leads to deoxygenation, i.e., reduced dissolved oxygen in ocean water. It negatively impacts the marine species, ecosystems and fundamental benefits humans derive from the ocean.

7. Migration of Animals

Ocean Warming is leading to the migration of tropical marine creatures towards temperate areas, thus disturbing the food chain, food availability and biodiversity of a region.

3. Climate Change and Island Submergence

Island states such as Tuvalu, Mauritius etc., are on the verge of submergence.
Kiribati is on the verge of drowning and will become the first country to drown due to sea level rise due to climate change
A World Bank report stated that some of these states, including the Marshall Islands and Tuvalu, may lose their status as a nation if sea levels continue to rise at this rate.

4. Increase in frequency of Extreme Events

As per the Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), human-induced climate change has likely increased the frequency and intensity of extreme events since pre-industrial times, including heatwaves, extreme precipitation events, marine heatwaves, etc.
For example, since 2020, we have seen a large number of extreme events like
- Heatwave in Canada and parts of the USA. Temperatures in Canada have reached as high as 49.4 °C.
- Floods in Germany, New South Wales (Australia), Pakistan (2022) and India (2023).
- Forest Fires in Canada and Europe (2022, 2023 and 2024) and Bushfires in Australia (2020).

Increase in frequency of Extreme Events due to Climate Change

5. Impact on Flora and Fauna

Rapid climate change is more than the ability of animals to adjust. In 1999, the death of the last Golden Toad in Central America marked the first documented species extinction driven by climate change. Experts opine that one-fourth of Earth’s species will face extinction by 2050 due to climate change.
Animal and plant species are responding to earlier springs—E.g, earlier frog breeding, bird nesting, flowering, and migration of birds and butterflies.
Increased Frequency of Wildfires: As the Earth gets warmer and droughts increase, wildfires are expected to occur more often and be more destructive. Wildfires do occur naturally, but the extremely dry conditions resulting from droughts allow fires to start more easily, spread faster, and burn longer.
The distribution of tree lines, plants, birds, mammals, insects, fish, reptiles, and marine invertebrates is shifting towards the poles.
The distribution of plants is shifting to higher elevations.
Tropical reef corals are expanding poleward.

6. Impact on Health

Global Warming has led to greater frequency & severity of heat waves. In 2003, for example, extreme heat waves caused more than 20,000 deaths in Europe and more than 1,500 deaths in India.
Malaria is now being reported from countries like Bhutan for the first time.
Climate Change has increased the spread of infectious diseases, mainly because warmer temperatures allow disease-carrying insects, animals and microbes to survive in areas where they were once blocked by cold weather.
According to the Lancet Report, Climate Change will lead to undernutrition and obesity.
- Undernutrition: Global Warming will lead to lower yields, thus resulting in undernutrition.
- Obesity: Climate Change will reduce the production of fruits & vegetables, making them expensive and forcing people to move towards processed food (high in fats, sugars, and sodium).

7. Impact on Security

Climate Change is leading to environmental degradation, food shortages, and unfair distribution of resources, likely leading to tension and conflict. The civil war in Syria has had successive droughts as one of the most important issues.

Climate Change is a security issue because

Local Resource Competition: Due to Climate Change, pressure on local resources like water is increasing, leading to instability and violent conflict. Transboundary river water issues will become violent due to water shortage.
Forced Migrations: World Bank Report points toward the fact that by 2050, 140 million people from South Asia & Latin America will be forced to migrate due to climate change.
Volatile food prices heighten the risk of protest, rioting and civil conflict.
Sea level rise and coastal degradation will lead to social disruption and disagreement over maritime boundaries (change in EEZ) and ocean resources.

Keeping this in mind, United Nations Security Council deliberated on the impacts of climate-related disasters on international peace and security.

8. Impact on Women

Women are impacted by climate change disproportionately.

Patriarchal norms: Socio-cultural factors like regulations on movement, childcare and elderly care responsibilities, gendered cultural codes of dress etc., limit their mobility and heighten vulnerability and exposure to climate change-related extreme weather events.
Dependence on natural resources: Women increasingly rely on natural resources for their livelihood, which is threatened by climate change. E.g., 75.7% of women in rural India are engaged in agriculture (PLFS, 2019-20).
Public measures lack a gender equality perspective: Most policy documents lack explicit provisions for addressing the specific vulnerabilities of women across sectors.
Inadequate access to and control over finance and productive resources: It affects women’s contribution to climate efforts and ability to recover from climate-related disasters or loss of livelihood economically.
Lack of gendered data: The scale and scope of women’s burden related to climate change are not well understood due to inadequate data.

9. Impact on Health

Global Warming will lead to greater frequency & severity of heat waves and extreme weather events. In 2003, for example, extreme heat waves caused more than 20,000 deaths in Europe and more than 1,500 deaths in India.
Malaria is now being reported from countries like Bhutan for the first time.
In 2023, Crimean-Congo Haemorrhagic Fever (CCHF) endemic to Africa started to spread in Europe.
Climate Change increases the spread of infectious diseases, mainly because warmer temperatures allow disease-carrying insects, animals and microbes to survive in areas once blocked by cold weather.
Climate Change will lead to undernutrition and obesity (Lancet Report) as
- Global Warming will lead to lower yields.
- Global Warming might reduce protein and other micronutrients in plants.
- Climate Change will reduce the production of fruits & vegetables, making them expensive and forcing people to move towards processed food, which is high in fats, sugars, and sodium.

10. Other Impacts

Increased Insurance Cost: Extreme weather events influenced by climate change are causing ever greater destruction, forcing insurers to increase their premiums. The major insurance company has stopped selling insurance policies in California, citing the growing risk of catastrophes, steep construction costs and a challenging reinsurance market.

Side Topic: Climate Refugees

Definition: People forced to migrate due to climate-induced disasters like rising sea levels, droughts, or floods.
The issue has become more important because Nations like Kiribati, Tuvalu, Maldives face existential threats due to rising sea levels and their citizens may lose homes without refugee rights or legal resettlement options.
Legal Gap:
- The 1951 Refugee Convention does not recognize environmental reasons as grounds for refugee status. For Example: In 2015, New Zealand rejected asylum to Ioane Teitiota from Kiribati, citing the absence of “persecution” required under the Refugee Convention.

Side Topic: Anthropocene Epoch

For the last 12,000 years, we’ve lived in the Holocene Epoch — a stable period where all human civilizations flourished. But something changed after 1950s — humans began to reshape the Earth like never before.

How Humans Changed the Planet:

We triggered mass extinction — 75% of species may vanish in coming centuries.
Our fertilizers doubled nitrogen & phosphorus levels in soils.
We left permanent pollution traces in sediments and glaciers.

Scientists Take Notice

In 2000, Nobel Laureate Paul Crutzen coined the term Anthropocene — meaning “age of humans.”
In 2016, experts at the World Geological Congress suggested officially declaring it a new epoch.
By 2019, a global panel voted in favour (29-4) of calling it the Anthropocene Epoch.

Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir

by admin

Last Update: July 2025 (Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir)

Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir

This article deals with ‘ Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir .’ This is part of our series on ‘Internal Security’, an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

The origin of the Jammu and Kashmir insurgency can be traced back to the partition of India when Pakistan attacked Kashmir to capture it. Since then, India and Pakistan have fought three wars over this.

Many terrorist organizations are active in Kashmir.

JeM (Jaish-e-Mohammed): Formed by Masood Azhar with the stated objective of uniting Kashmir with Pakistan. JeM was behind various terrorist activities, including the attack on Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly.
HM (Hizbul Mujahideen)
HuM (Harkat-ul-Mujahideen)
LeT (Lashkar-e-Taiba)
The Resistance Front (shadow organization of LeT)

Reasons for Upsurge

The unrest in Kashmir is not a new incident. The Valley has been the victim of such violence for many years. It started in 1947 with the State’s accession to India but worsened at the end of the 1980s (1988) with the rise in the militant insurgency. Reasons are

Geographical: The presence of an envious neighbour in the form of Pakistan, which incites the sentiments of the Kashmiri people.
Historical Background: The demand for a plebiscite has been there since 1947, which the people feel is their legal right as per the instrument of accession. However, due to the actions of Pakistan and changed conditions since 1950, a plebiscite cannot be performed in the Valley. It has enraged generations of Kashmiri people.
Economic reasons
- Unemployment is a significant reason for youth frustration. Tourism has been down due to the disturbed security situation.
- Kashmir has limited industries and enterprises. Due to harsh weather conditions, there are limited days of productive work.
Mujahideen Infiltration: After the victory over the Soviet Union in Afghanistan, Mujahideen fighters, with the aid of Pakistan, slowly infiltrated Kashmir to spread a radical Islamist ideology.
Political Reasons :
- Perceptions of the domination of politics in the State by one or two families (i.e. Abdullahs and Muftis)
- The immediate reason was the widely perceived rigging of state elections in 1987.
- Laws like AFSPA, regular curfews, presence of armed forces, allegations of human rights violations
- Use of pellet guns on the protestors, including children.
Weakening of Decentralization: History shows that Pakistan has tried to foster an anti-India jihad in Jammu and Kashmir since 1947 but without much success until the late 1980s. In the 1980s, they succeeded because, till that time, Article 370 of the Constitution had been rendered a dead letter.
Social Cause/Wahhabization of Kashmiris: Increasing radicalization has choked the more tolerant Sufi tradition and introduced a new Wahhabi culture in the Valley.
New Generation raised in troubled times: The present generation of Kashmir was raised during troubled times that started in the 1990s. Hence, they feel alienated from the political establishment.
Social Media: The new generation having access to the internet has been radicalized by anti-India propaganda spread on the internet. Messaging apps such as Telegram and WhatsApp have helped the militants to mobilize the crowds and indulge them in stone-pelting incidents.
“Doval Doctrine” which posits that under no circumstance should the State be seen as yielding, either tangibly or symbolically

Ways to address the Problem

Multi-pronged approach consisting of Security, Development and Engagement (with all stakeholders is required). Although the government is looking after the first two, Engagement with Kashmiris is almost missing. As a result, the people of Kashmir feel alienated.

Methods to control Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir

Dialogue: Provide political healing touch to Kashmir using Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee’s Principles of “Kashmiriyat, Insaniyat, Jamhooriyat” (Kashmir-ness, humanity, democracy). Pursue dialogue with the separatists under the ambit of Insaniyat, which was supposed to be more accommodating than the Indian Constitution.
Take comprehensive confidence-building measures.
Development, especially economic development of the Valley in the field of Tourism, Timber industry, Saffron development, Fruits etc.
Youth Engagement & Job Creation: Although the government is already running various schemes like Nai Manzil, USTAAD etc., only creating more jobs will help take youth away from radical elements.
Tight security and proper border management to stop infiltration
Stop the use of Pellet Guns: TVSN Prasad Committee report recommended the use of alternatives like PAVA (Pelargonic Acid Vanillyl Amide) Shells for crowd management instead of Pellet guns. PAVA Shell is chilli-based non-lethal ammunition which can temporarily immobilize and paralyze a victim.

Take steps for Nation-Building: Kashmiri youth feels alienated and, for many reasons, don’t see themself as part of the Indian nation. Some instances like discrimination faced by Kashmiri youth in mainland India alienate them further. Government should take steps towards their integration.
Control on Irresponsible Media: The situation has worsened due to the presence of social media, incitement by local media and irresponsible coverage by national media.

Steps taken

Abolition of Article 370
Infrastructure Development: The government has inaugurated various infrastructure development projects aimed at enhancing the security and economic development of Jammu and Kashmir. These include
- Sonmarg Tunnel: To ensure year-round connectivity to the tourist resort of Sonmarg
- Vande Bharat Train between Jammu and Srinagar

Previous Year Questions

Winning of Hearts and Minds’ in terrorism-affected areas is an essential step in restoring the trust of the population. Discuss the measures adopted by the Government in this respect as part of the conflict resolution in Jammu and Kashmir. (UPSC CSE 2023)