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India Afghanistan Relations

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India- Afghanistan Relations

This article deals with ‘India Afghanistan Relations.’ This is part of our series on ‘International Relations’ which is an important pillar of the GS-2 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

A brief history of India-Afghanistan Relations

1950 Afghanistan and India signed a “Friendship Treaty.”
1950 to 1978 India had robust ties with Afghanistan during King Zahir Shah’s regime. 
1978 People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) (Marxist Party) took power in a military coup , an event which is known as SAUR Revolution. They started series of radical reforms in Afghanistan and as a results conservatives started war against them.  
1979 Soviet Union entered Afghanistan after threat of removal of Socialist government in the neighbourhood of USSR was eminent and war started between the Soviet Union led Afghan forces and Mujahedeen allegedly supported by USA and Pakistan .  
1989 Soviet forces left Afghanistan after eminent defeat .  
1990s  Taliban rose to power in Afghanistan. India started to support the ‘Northern Alliance’ which was fighting Taliban in Afghanistan .  
2000s till 2012 – Subsequent to the 9/11 attacks in USA, NATO interfered in Afghanistan under OPERATION ENDURING FREEDOM (2001)  with the purpose to defeat Al-Qaeda,remove the Taliban from power &  create a viable democratic state .
– Taliban gave a tough fight and as a result, NATO stayed in Afghanistan for  more than decade.
– USA also worked for the capacity building of the Afghan National Security Force (ANSF) and it was thought that even after the US troops finally withdraw, the ANSF would be strong enough to prevent the Taliban from recapturing Afghanistan .
 
Post  2012 Barack Obama shifted the focus on ending the Afghan war.
– Obama increased the US troops in Afghanistan during first term (called ‘Surge Policy’).
– But his policy saw major turn in second term when he decided to  withdrew all but approximately 8,400 soldiers from Afghanistan
2016 In 2016, Prime Minister Narendra Modi was conferred with Afghanistan’s highest civilian honour, the Amir Amanullah Khan Award.
Trump policy Trump regime wanted to withdraw American troops from Afghanistan .
Feb 2020 US president struck a peace deal with the Taliban on the issues of counterterrorism and the withdrawal of U.S. and international troops. Its terms were as follows
1. The United States to reduce its troops in Afghanistan from 12,000 to 8,600.
2. Release of prisoners and prisoner swap.
3. Recognition to Taliban and US will move to the United Nations Security Council to remove Taliban members from the sanctions list.
4. Taliban would prevent any terror group from using Afghanistan to threaten the security of the US and its allies.
5. Intra-Afghan Negotiations will be start  among all the stakeholders of the Afghan society and the Taliban would commit towards it.  
2020 ‘Intra-Afghan peace talks’ held for the first time between Afghan government and the Taliban in Qatar.

India – Afghanistan

  • In 1999, India became one of the key supporters of the anti-Taliban Northern Alliance.
  • In 2005, India proposed Afghanistan’s membership in the SAARC.  Both nations also developed strategic and military cooperation against Islamic militants.
  • Afghanistan signed its first Strategic Partnership Agreement with India in 2011.
  • In 2016, PM Narendra Modi was conferred with Afghanistan’s highest civilian honour, the Amir Amanullah Khan Award.

Importance of Afghanistan for India

India has a vision about stable Afghanistan which would be the crossroad of trade, the role which Afghanistan has played for centuries.

Economic importance

  • Natural Resources: Afghanistan has a mineral wealth of about $1-3 trillion which includes Iron ore, Lithium, Chromium, Natural Gas, Petroleum etc.
  • Massive reconstruction plans for the country offer a lot of opportunities for Indian companies.

Security

  • A stable government in Kabul will not give a safe haven to terrorists that might reduce insurgency in Kashmir. In fact, at present, the extremists fighting in Kashmir have drawn inspiration from the resistance offered by Afghan Mujahedeen against the Soviets during the Cold War.
  • Afghanistan can help in the prevention of Pakistan from regaining its central role in Afghan affairs.

Gateway to energy-rich Central Asia

  • Afghanistan is situated at crossroads between South Asia and Central Asia and South Asia and the Middle East. 

Indian works in Afghanistan

  • India has contributed 2 billion $ for Afghanistan’s reconstruction (6th largest donor by amount).  Indian assistance has been largely focused on infrastructure, irrigation and defence.
  • India has helped in the deepening of democracy in Afghanistan by building its Parliament building (cost = $90 million). 
  • Other Indian projects in Afghanistan include
    • Salma Dam on Harihud river (cost = $290 million) will generate 42 megawatts and irrigate 75,000-hectare land. It was later renamed to India-Afghanistan Friendship Dam.
    • Construction of a 218 km road from Zaranj to Delaram for facilitating the movement of goods to Chabahar Port.
    • Committed to contribute substantially in improving the transportation system in Kabul & to donate 1000 buses.
    • India has built a 220 kV DC transmission line from Pul-e-Khumri to Kabul.
    • Constructing the Chimtala power substation in Kabul.
    • Rebuilding of the Habibia High School in Kabul.
    • Financing the establishment of the Afghan National Agriculture Sciences and Technology University (ANASTU) in Kandahar.
    • Building the cricket stadium in Kandahar.
    • Building a cold storage warehouse in Kandahar.
  • India and Afghanistan signed a Preferential Trade Agreement in  2003. In  2011, India removed basic customs duties for all products of Afghanistan (except alcohol and tobacco) giving them duty-free access to the Indian market.
  • Afghanistan is rich in mineral resources.   India has acquired rights to iron mining (from Hajigak iron ore reserves).
  • Accessing Afghanistan is the biggest problem for India because Pakistan doesn’t allow Indian trucks to pass from her territory & reach Afghanistan. To overcome this India has invested in a route through Iran (Zaranj-Delaram Highway). Chabahar port will also help in this pursuit.
  • India has also invested in TAPI. If the project takes off, it will help Afghanistan to earn a transit fee.
  • India has donated four Mi-25 attack helicopters to Afghanistan.
  • India train cadets of the Afghani Army at NDA and IMA.
  • A large number of Afghani students come to India to study through scholarships. 
  • Afghanistani Cricket Team has a base in Dehradun.
  • Indian Soft Power: Indian Bollywood movies and dramas are among the favourite of Afghani people.  In Afghanistan, the reason that Bollywood is popular is that it has deep echoes with the psyche of Afghan society. Bollywood cinemas are based on the theme of a larger-than-life Bollywood hero fighting injustice. This synchronizes well with the Afghan society, which has also faced and continues to face immense injustice.

APTTA (Af-Pak Transit Trade Agreement)

  • Treaty was originally signed in 1950 to provide access to Karachi port & Lahore dry Port to Afghanistan. Under the modified agreement in 2011, along with Karachi port and Lahore dry port, 
    • Afghan trucks loaded with Cargo meant for India can travel up to its last checkpoint at Wagah in Pakistan.
    • But no Indian goods can be imported and Afghan trucks would have to drive back empty to the Afghanistan-Pakistan border where they could load up with Pakistani goods.
Af-Pak Transit Trade Agreement
  • Afghanistan demands  Pakistan to open a transit route for India.  But Pakistan doesn’t allow this. Bitter India-Pakistan relations mean Afghan trucks carrying perishable fruit face long delays on both sides of the border.
  • In 2016, Ashraf Ghani asserted that if Pakistan does not allow its trucks to come back with goods from India, Afghanistan would block Pakistani access to Central Asia. But, despite the assertion by Ghani, Pakistan refused to budge.
  • Due to this, India is adopting alternate routes
    • India has built Zaranj-Delaram Highway and Chabahar Port for trade with Afghanistan in future.
Zaranj Delaram
  • India-Afghanistan Air Freight Corridor was started in 2017 (Bring Dry fruits to India & take medicine, garments etc. from India). The air corridor will be a big enabler to the bilateral trade and will send a strong message to Pakistan that despite its obstructionist behaviour, India will continue to engage with Afghanistan.

Heart of Asia – Istanbul Process

  • ‘Heart of Asia- Istanbul Process’ was established to encourage security, political and economic cooperation between Afghanistan and its neighbour.  There are 14 participating countries in this.
India Afghanistan Relations
  • 6th & latest conference was held in Amritsar in Dec 2016. Amritsar Declaration was adopted which called for
    • Immediate elimination of terrorism from Afghanistan 
    • State-sponsored terrorism was identified as a key challenge
  • Amritsar was chosen as a venue by India because
    • Amritsar lies at the heart of the Grant Trunk Road connecting Bangladesh to Peshawar.
    • India showcased that Pakistan remains an irritant in facilitating regional connectivity. India used the conference in Amritsar to press Pakistan to allow entry of trucks and transit to Afghanistan via the Attari- Wagah border.

Issue: US withdrawal from Afghanistan

Timeline

2000s till 2012 – Subsequent to the 9/11 attacks in the USA, NATO interfered in Afghanistan under OPERATION ENDURING FREEDOM (2001)  with the purpose to defeat Al-Qaeda, remove the Taliban from power &  create a viable democratic state.
– Taliban gave a tough fight and as a result, NATO stayed in Afghanistan for more than a decade.
– USA also worked for the capacity building of the Afghan National Security Force (ANSF) and it was thought that even after the US troops finally withdraw, the ANSF would be strong enough to prevent the Taliban from recapturing Afghanistan.
 
Obama Policy – Obama increased the US troops in Afghanistan during the first term (called ‘Surge Policy’).
– But his policy saw a major turn in the second term when he decided to withdraw all but approximately 8,400 soldiers from Afghanistan.
Trump policy Trump regime wanted to withdraw American troops from Afghanistan.
Feb 2020 US president struck a peace deal with the Taliban on the issues of counterterrorism and the withdrawal of U.S. and international troops. Its terms were as follows
1. the United States to reduce its troops in Afghanistan from 12,000 to 8,600.
2. Release of prisoners and prisoner swap.
3. Recognition to Taliban and US will move to the United Nations Security Council to remove Taliban members from the sanctions list.
4. Taliban would prevent any terror group from using Afghanistan to threaten the security of the US and its allies.
5. Intra-Afghan Negotiations will start among all the stakeholders of the Afghan society and the Taliban would commit towards it.  
2020 ‘Intra-Afghan peace talks’ held for the first time between the Afghan government and the Taliban in Qatar.

Reasons for US withdrawal

  • Trump’s America First Policy: Trump is not in favour of wasting US ‘blood and treasure’ on distant lands (19th year and no solution in sight).
  • The realisation that the Afghanistan war cant be won owing to Afghan geography and society. Even after 19 years of war, the Taliban is controlling a large part of Afghan territory.
Area under Taliban Control

Reasons for US failure

  • Polity factor: The US failed to integrate the Taliban into Afghan government & National Unity Government was corrupt & inefficient.
  • Geographical Factors:  hostile terrain as well as guerrilla tactics used by Talibs.
  • Great Game:  
    • Intervention by global powers. E.g. U.S.-Russia tensions are creating space for proxies.
    • Intervention by regional powers. Eg: India vs Pakistan.
  • Role of Pakistan: ISI allowed senior Taliban Leaders to run the war in relative security. 
  • Socio-Cultural Factors:  nomadic and tribal society in Afghanistan comprises multiple tribes like Pashtuns, Turks and Persians, each dominant in different regions, asserting their own traditions and culture. The tribal factionalism didn’t allow the democratically elected government to settle in Afghanistan.

Consequences of US withdrawal

  • The resurgence of Taliban: Post US withdrawal, the Taliban with help of Pakistan can take over the whole of Afghanistan.
  • The breeding ground of Terrorism threatening the security of Central Asia and India.
  • Refugee Crisis as instability will result in the mass exodus of Afghans.
  • Threat to human rights: The Taliban wants to reimpose its version of Islamic law as the country’s system of governance.

Consequences for India

  • The upsurge of terrorism and act as a launchpad for attacks on India as happened during 1990s post-Soviet withdrawal. Eg: In 1999, Pakistani terrorists hijacked Indian Airlines flight IC-814 and landed in Kandahar.
  • On Kashmir:  Separatists in Kashmir are using the Taliban’s “victory” over the US  to inspire that they too could “defeat India”.
  • India has already invested 2 billion $ in Afghanistan’s infrastructure along with a large investment in Chabahar port with an eye on Afghanistan.
  • The ‘Golden Crescent’ comprising of Iran, Afghan, and Pakistan is a worry for India, especially with respect to the issue of drug abuse in Punjab
  • TAPI project may get jeopardised impacting the energy security of India.
  • It will lead to increased Pakistani involvement in Afghan policy which will disturb the Balance of Power in the Middle East & Central Asia in Pakistan’s favour.
  • Refugee Crisis will impact India. Due to the resurgence of the Taliban regime, a large number of Afghani Sikhs and Hindus will seek refuge in India.

IRNSS / NAVIC

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Last Updated: March 2025 (IRNSS / NAVIC)

IRNSS / NAVIC

This article deals with ‘IRNSS / NAVIC‘. This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

How Global Positioning System (GPS) works?

  • GPS is the network of 24 Satellites that orbits the Earth, transmitting signals back to Earth. GPS triangulates the position by comparing the time when the signal was transmitted by the satellite with the time it was received. With the help of 3 satellites locked by the receiver, the 2D position (latitude & longitude) can be determined, and with 4 satellites, the 3D position can be determined (latitude, longitude & altitude).
  • GPS receiver is only a receiver, without any transmitting capability. The satellites contain highly precise atomic clocks, generating some code that keeps transmitting to the Earth.

IRNSS / NAVIC

  • At present, only a few countries have fully functional global navigation systems. These include
USA NAVSTAR
Russia GLONASS
China Beidou Compass
Japan Quasi-Zenith
Europe Galileo
  • American GPS has 24 satellites covering all parts of the world. Indian GPS (named NAVIC) has just 7 satellites covering India and 1,500 km beyond its borders. 
  • 7 satellites of NAVIC or IRNCC has the following composition
    • 3 Geostationary Satellites 
    • 4 Geosynchronous Satellites with an inclination of 29 degrees 
  • Area of Service of IRNSS includes
    • Primary Service Area: up to 1,500 km from India’s boundary.
    • Extended Service Area: rectangle imagined by 30° S and 50° N and 30° E and 130° E.
  • NAVIC has an accuracy of 20 m (compared to 15 m of American GPS).
IRNSS / NAVIC

Timeline

1979The first satellite of GPS (USA) was launched.
1982 The first satellite of GLONASS was launched.
2006 The Indian government approved this project.
2013First Satellite i.e. IRNSS-1A was launched with lifespan of 10 years.
2016 April All 7 satellites were placed in orbit & Modi named this system NAVIC, i.e. Navigation with Indian Constellation.
2024-25ISRO is replacing 5 first-generation satellites with second-generation navigation satellites (known as NAV SAT). These satellites have a longer lifespan of 12 years, better atomic clocks and utilize L1 frequency (same as that of US GPS).

As of Jan 2025, ISRO has placed 1 second generation Nav Sat in the orbit. Although the second Nav Sat was launched in Jan 2025 but mission failed due to non firing of engines in the space. 

Applications of IRNSS

  1. Terrestrial, aerial and marine navigation.
  2. Disaster management
  3. Vehicle tracking and fleet management.
  4. Integration with mobile. 
  5. Precise timing
  6. Terrestrial navigation aid for hikers and travellers.
  7. Geotagging of all the assets created under schemes like MNREGA, RKVY etc.
  8. Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) for Toll Collection

Why should the Indian Government waste money on IRNSS/NAVIC? Why not simply use American GPS at a fraction of that cost?

  • Access to a foreign GPS is not guaranteed during a hostile situation. During Indo-Pakistan War (Kargil War) in 1999, the rumour circulated that the US was denying India access to the most precise level of its GPS. Although this rumour was never substantiated, this scenario presented the advantage of having such a system fully under Indian Control.
  • Americans sent wrong GPS signals to Iraqi planes during the Iraq war, and the same can happen with India as well.
  • It also bolsters the ability of India to serve as a net security provider in the neighbourhood and Indian Ocean Region. 
  • It will increase the technical prowess of India and help it in becoming a knowledge-based economy.
  • It can play a role in relief efforts post disasters such as the tsunami in the Indian Ocean region in 2004. 

Use in Diplomacy

  • As a goodwill gesture, Modi said that our SAARC neighbours could use it who depend on foreign GPS services.

New developments wrt NAVIC

  • December 2020: International Maritime Organisation (IMO) has recognized NavIC as a World-Wide Radio Navigation System (WWRNS) component. It will enable NAVIC’s utilization in maritime navigation, surveying and others.
  • Jan 2020: Qualcomm Technologies has unveiled mobile chipsets supporting the IRNSS/ NAVIC. Now Mobile manufacturers can release NAVIC enabled phones in India. 

GAGAN

GAGAN
  • GAGAN = GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation System 
  • GAGAN is intended to meet civil aviation requirements, and ISRO has worked with the Airports Authority of India to establish GAGAN.
  • It is a satellite-based augmentation system for Civil Aviation purposes.
  • It depends on GPS (American navigation system) and  Indian satellites like GSAT 8, 10 & 15.
  • GAGAN  provides position to aeroplanes in the Indian airspace with an accuracy of 3 m.  

Gaganyaan

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Last updated: June 2025 (Gaganyaan)

Gaganyaan

This article deals with ‘Gaganyaan‘. This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here

Gaganyaan Program or Indian Human Spaceflight Program (IHSP)

  • Gaganyaan Program is India’s first manned Spacecraft. In the 15 August (2018) Speech, PM Modi set a target of 2022 for the Space Manned Mission. It has been delayed now and is expected to be launched in 2025.
  • It will carry 3 crew members to low earth orbit (400 km above earth’s surface) , their stay for 3 days and their safe return back to Earth.
  • India will become 4th country after US, Russia and China to have this capability.

Spacecraft / Space Shuttle

  • As Satellite Launch Vehicles are used to send satellites in the Orbits. In the same way, Spacecraft is used to send astronauts into space. 
  • Examples include China’s Shenzhou, America’s Atlantis, Russia’s Soyuz, SpaceX’s Dragon Capsule and Boeing’s Dreamliner.
  • India’s Gaganyaan is also a spacecraft.
Gaganyaan

Timeline

1984 Rakesh Sharma travelled to space (becoming the first and only Indian citizen to do so).
2007 The first proposal for ISRO’s human-crewed space mission.
Dec 2014 Experimental flight of manned mission launcher GSLV MK-III tested.
July 2018 ISRO conducted Pad Abort Test (PAT).  Pad Abort Test is part of the crew escape system, which assists in quickly pulling the astronaut cabin along with the crew out to a safer distance from the launch vehicle during a launch abort.
15 August 2018 PM Modi announced that Gaganyaan will be launched by 2022. But the project got delayed.
2024ISRO will send a humanoid robot named VYOMMITRA into space before human expedition to test the safety of the spacecraft.
2026First, Indian manned Spacecraft will be launched.

Earlier Manned Missions

Only 3 countries — the USA, Russia and China — have sent human spaceflights.

Vostok 1 Mission (USSR,1961) Took Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union into space, making him the world’s first human in space.
Mercury Mission (USA, 1961) Alan Shepard was the first American sent to space.
Shenzou (China, 2003) This mission put the first Chinese citizen in space.
Rakesh Kumar Rakesh Kumar was the first Indian sent to space on a Russian Soyuz Space vehicle.

What will Gaganyaan Project include?

  • Gaganyaan is India’s manned mission to space.
  • In the mission, GSLV MK-III will carry a 3-member crew to the Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and safe return to the Earth after the duration of a few orbits to two days.  
  • An extendable version of the spaceship will allow flights up to 7 days & docking capability with the space station.

Key Components of Human Space  Program

  1. Building up a Habitable Module 
  2. Other life support systems like Space Suits 
  3. Astronaut training 
  4. Capabilities for recovering Astronauts safely
  5. Crew Escape System 

Do you know?

Indian Astronauts will be called ‘Vyomanauts‘.

Vyomanauts

ISRO will send a humanoid robot called Vyommitra before sending human to test the safety of spacecraft.

Objectives of Gaganyaan Programme

  • The exponential growth of science and technology in the country.
  • Improvement of industrial growth.
  • Inspiring youth.
  • Development of technology for social benefit.
  • Improving international collaboration.

Benefits / Significance of Human Space Program

  • It will help India in doing Research and Development in space. Indian scientists will get the opportunity to conduct experiments in space through Gaganyaan Mission.
  • It will encourage our scientific community and will help in making India a knowledge-based economy. Significant advancement will happen in material processing, astrobiology, resources mining, planetary chemistry, planetary orbital calculus. 
  • The Manned Space Program is essential to control the resources present outside the Earth. If we plan to set up colonies outside the Earth in the future, such programs will be of great help.
  • It has the added advantage to achieve the status of great power.
  • Indian industry will find significant opportunities as Gaganyaan Mission is expected to source ~60% of its equipment from the Indian private sector. 
  • According to the ISRO chief, the Gaganyaan mission would create 15,000 new employment opportunities. 
  • It will increase India’s soft power and give space to Indian Space diplomacy. India will be the fourth country to launch a human space mission, establishing India’s role as a key player in the space industry.

Challenges

  • The human body is designed according to Earth’s gravity. There is a microgravity environment in space, which affects hand-eye and head-eye coordination. In the absence of gravity, blood and body fluids cannot distribute to the lower part of the body and accumulate in the upper part. Additionally, the size of the heart decreases, bones become weak, and the brain cannot interpret information correctly.
  • Humans in space are subjected to a high degree of radiation, increasing cancer risk.
  • Space is a hostile environment as there is a lack of gravity, danger of radiation and absence of atmosphere.  
  • Financial: These missions require exorbitantly huge investment as they are highly technology-intensive. It will cost ISRO Rs. 10,000 crores.
  • Re-entry and Recovery: The biggest challenge in the case of human flight is the re-entry of the vehicle back into the Earth’s atmosphere and recovery of the module as it is subjected to extreme heat due to friction with the air. Even the slightest deviation can result in disaster. 

International Space Station (ISS)

ISS

  • ISS or International Space Station is a man-made or artificial habitable satellite in Low Earth orbit (between 278 km and 460 km) and travels at 15.7 orbits per day.
  • The space station also acts as a laboratory in space where astronauts stay for an extended period to carry out experiments in microgravity.
  • It is a joint venture of NASA (USA), Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (Japan), ESA (Europe), and CSA (Canada). 
  • It has been operating since 1998 and will continue to operate till 2031.
  • Building a Space Station is an expensive affair, and ISS is the most expensive object ever constructed by man, with a cost amounting to $150 billion.
  • It will be operational till 2031.
  • ISS is the ninth space station. Earlier, Mir, Salyut and Almaz were the Space Stations of the USSR, and Skylab was the Space Station of the USA. 
International Space Station


Other Space Stations

  • Tianhe: Chinese Space Station, operational since 2021.
  • Russian Plans: Russia will withdraw from ISS in 2025 and will launch its space station in 2030. 
  • Bhartiya Antariksha Station: Proposed by ISRO and plans are to launch its first module by 2028.

Uses of Space Stations

  • It acts as a Microgravity Lab. It is used to conduct experiments in biology, physics etc., in a micro-gravity environment.
  • Observe the long-term effects of space exposure on the human body. 
  • Study of cosmic rays, cosmic dust, antimatter and dark matter in the universe.
  • It serves as a Space Terminal. 
  • It can also be used in Space Tourism.

Artemis Accords

  • Artemis is the moon mission of NASA which aims to land the next man and the first woman on the moon by 2024.
  • The long term goal is to build Artemis Base Camp on the Moon’s surface and the Gateway in lunar orbit.  This will allow robots and astronauts to explore and conduct scientific experiments on Lunar surface.

Artemis 1 Mission

  • In 2022, NASA’s Artemis 1 mission successfully lifted off from the Kennedy Space Centre.
  •  It is the first in a series of increasingly complex missions to build a long-term human presence at the Moon .
  • It is an uncrewed flight test that will provide a foundation for human deep space exploration.
  • Future Missions: Artemis I will be followed by Artemis II (Planned for 2024) and Artemis III (Planned for 2026)

Side Topic: Artemis

  • Artemis was a major deity in Ancient Greece. She was daughter of Zeus (Chief Greek God) and twin sister of Apollo (god of sun).
  • The Greeks and Romans associated Artemis with the Moon. Her independence and strength have long inspired women in a wide range of activities. She has also become a modern-day feminist icon.

Side Topic: CROPS

  • CROPS = Compact Research Module for Orbital Plant Studies
  • CROPS is ISRO’s automated platform designed to cultivate plants in a microgravity environment under active thermal management.
  • In January 2025, ISRO was successful in sending cowpea seedlings to space, and at least three (out of eight) seeds sprouted leaves.
  • Importance: It will be important in future manned missions to space.

Axiom-4 Mission

  • Axiom-4 is a private space mission by Axiom Space (with NASA & SpaceX), sending India’s Shubhanshu Shukla to the International Space Station — the first Indian to do so. He is the second Indian to go into space after Rakesh Sharma.
  • Multinational Crew: Launched in June 2025 from the Kennedy Space Centre, the crew included astronauts from India, the USA, Poland, and Hungary, led by former NASA astronaut Peggy Whitson. Shukla is the designated pilot of the Axiom-4 mission.
  • Science in Space:  It will carry out the following experiments:
    • Diabetes research in microgravity
    • Crop seed growth in space
    • Revival, survival and reproduction of Tardigrades (aka Waterbears) in space
    • Cyanobacteria for oxygen generation
  • Boost for Gaganyaan: Shukla is the designated pilot of the Axiom-4 mission, and his hands-on experience with crewed missions will be beneficial for the Gaganyaan Mission as well.

Indian Astronauts

Rakesh Sharma

  • He was the first Indian to travel to space. 
  • He was born in Patiala in 1949 and later joined Indian Airforce as a pilot, from where he joined ISRO.
  • As a cosmonaut, he went to space in a Soviet Spacecraft (Soyuz T-11). 

Kalpana Chawla

  • She was the first woman of Indian origin to go into space. 
  • She did his B. Tech from Punjab Engineering College (Chandigarh) and PhD in Aerospace Engineering from the USA.
  • Her first space flight was on Space Shuttle Columbia in 1997. Unfortunately, in 2003, Kalpana Chawla was part of the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster and lost her life.

Sunita Williams

  • Sunita Williams is American of Indian (Gujarati) descent. 
  • She has done 7 spacewalks and stayed in space for the longest time in a single flight (195 days).

Raja Chari

  • NASA has selected Raja Chari to fly to ISS in SpaceX Crew-3 Mission (with 3 other astronauts). 
  • It is part of NASA’s Artemis program that aims to expand humanity’s horizons in space. 

Anil Menon

  • Anil Menon is a doctor of Indian origin who has worked in SpaceX as a surgeon during its project to launch humans into space. 
  • He has been chosen by NASA as a future astronaut. 

Indian Satellite Launch Vehicles

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Last Update: Jan 2025 (Indian Satellite Launch Vehicles)

Indian Satellite Launch Vehicles

This article deals with ‘Indian Satellite Launch Vehicles‘. This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Satellite Launch Vehicles

Satellite Launch Vehicles

SLV

  • SLV = Satellite Launch Vehicle.
  • It was a four-stage launch vehicle (all stages used solid fuel).
  • Payload that SLV could carry = 40 kg till 400 km. 
  • The first successful launch of SLV happened in 1980 in the project headed by Dr APJ Abdul Kalam.  
  • Later, India also used SLV to place the Rohini satellite in its orbit.
Satellite Launch Vehicle

ASLV

  • ASLV = Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle.
  • ASLV was designed to augment the capacity of SLV. 
  • It was a five-stage launch vehicle (all stages used solid propellant).
  • The payload that ASLV could carry = 150 kg till Low Earth Orbit. 
  • The first successful launch of SLV happened in 1994, and it is retired now.
ASLV

PSLV

  • PSLV = Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle 
  • The first launch using PSLV happened in 1993. 
  • The payload that PSLV can carry = up to 1600 kg till Sun-Synchronous Polar Orbit.
  • PSLV is very reliable, and 57 of its 60 launches were successful.
  • ISRO use it to launch Indian Remote Sensing Satellites (IRS) such as Cartosat, Oceansat etc. and some other historic missions like Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), Chandrayaan-1, IRNSS/ NAVIC, Aditya L1 etc. 
  • It has three variants, i.e. PSLV–G, PSLV-CA and PSLV-XL. The latest version of PSLV, i.e. PSLV-XL, can carry up to 1750 kg. Chandrayaan & Mars missions were launched using this.
  • Stages of PSLV: Four Stages using solid and liquid fuel alternately. 
First – It uses solid fuel, i.e. HTPB- Hydroxyl Terminated Poly-Butadiene.
Second – It uses liquid propellant, i.e. UDMH-Unsymmetrical Di Methyl Hydrazine with Nitrogen Tetroxide as an oxidiser.
– It employs a Vikas engine.
Third – It uses solid fuel, i.e. HTPB- Hydroxyl Terminated Poly-Butadiene.
Fourth – It uses liquid propellant, i.e. Mono Methyl Hydrazine.
– It employs Vikas Engine.
PSLV

PSLV and importance to the Indian Space Program 

  • PSLV was the country’s first operational launch vehicle and is dubbed as the ‘workhorse of ISRO’. 
  • It is highly successful and reliable. It has a record of 97% successful launches, which is one of the most successful in the world.
  • It is used to carry remote sensing satellites to Polar Sun Synchronous Orbits with utmost precision. Till now, India has launched 54 Indian satellites and 222 foreign satellites using PSLV. 
  • It poses potential competition to the west due to its lower launch price and is helping India to earn a lot of revenue.
  • It has also helped India in launching spy satellites and boosting national security.
  • ISRO launched the maximum number of satellites in the world in a single operation, i.e. 104 satellites using PSLV. 

Side Topic: POEM Platform

  • The PSLV Orbital Experimental Module (POEM) has been designed to use Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle’s final and otherwise abandoned stage for in-orbit research.  
  • In general operations, the PSLV is a four-stage rocket where the first three spent stages fall back into the ocean, and the final stage (PS4) — after launching the satellite into orbit — ends up as space junk.

GSLV / GSLV MK-II

  • GSLV = Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle
  • The first launch using GSLV happened in 2001.
  • ISRO made it to launch Geostationary and Geosynchronous Satellites.
  • It can carry up to 2500 kg till Geostationary Orbit (and 5,000 kg till Low Earth Orbit (LEO)). 
  • It can be used to launch Indian National satellites (INSAT) & GSAT  in Geostationary and Geosynchronous orbits. (but most of the Geostationary Satellites are around 3000 kg to 4000 kg, which GSLV MK II can’t take till Geostationary Orbit & we used to be dependent on Ariane Aerospace for their launches)
  • The next version of this launch vehicle is GSLV MK-3.
  • Stages of GSLV: GSLV is a 3 stage vehicle
First Solid propelled
Second Liquid propelled with hypergolic fuels
Third Liquid propelled 

Stage 1 & 2 are directly taken over from PSLV.

GSLV

GSLV MK-III

Earlier (before June 2017), ISRO was in the position to launch only satellites weighing between 2 & 2.5 tons into geostationary orbits. But most contemporary communications satellites usually are in the weight category of 3 to 5 tons & therefore require a more powerful launcher. Moreover, India’s future missions to the Moon, Mars and Venus also need a powerful launcher. Appreciating this need, ISRO has made GSLV-Mark III a vehicle capable of placing 4-ton satellites in geostationary orbit.

GSLV MK-III

Main Features of GSLV MK-III

  • It is the latest version of GSLV.
  • GSLV MK-III made its maiden flight from Sri Harikota in 2017, placing GSAT-19 in Geostationary Orbit. 
  • Later, ISRO used the GLSV Mk-III to launch Chandrayaan-2 Mission (India’s second Lunar Mission). 
  • GSLV Mk-3 can carry
    • Up to 4 tons till Geostationary Orbit
    • Up to 10 tons till Low Earth Orbit (Polar Satellites) 
  • Hence, it has ended India’s reliance on the EU’s Arianespace launch vehicle to send GSAT satellites into Geosynchronous orbits.

GSLV MK-3 is a three-stage vehicle 

First Solid propellant
Second Liquid Propellant
Third Cryogenic Engine uses the Liquid Oxygen & Liquid Hydrogen as oxidiser and fuel, respectively (this stage differs from GSLV Mk-2). 

Compared to solid and liquid propellants, a cryogenic propellant is more efficient. It provides more thrust by burning the same amount of propellant than Earth-based storable liquid and solid propellants.

Note: India had signed MoU with Russia to transfer Cryogenic Engines to India in starting 1990s, but the USA pressurised Russia not to supply these to India, arguing that it would violate MTCR Treaty (although Cryogenic engines are not used in Missiles). Due to this, India’s program suffered.

Significance

  • GSLV Mark III has made India a competitive player in the multimillion-dollar commercial launch market. It will help in earning substantial foreign exchange. 
  • It will end India’s dependence on foreign launch vehicles to put its heavy satellites (GSAT series) in the geosynchronous orbit. (Earlier, India was dependent on France’s Ariane space ).
  • India can also send its astronauts into space using this.  
  • It will boost India’s communication resources as the cost of launching Communication Satellites will reduce
  • Cryogenic Technology used in it can be further used in making Inter Continental Ballistic Missile.
  • It is a massive step in making India a ‘knowledge-based economy’. Till now, only USA (Saturn V), Russia (Proton M), China (Long March 5) & European Space Agency (Ariane), along with one private player (Space X), can launch geostationary and geosynchronous satellites.

Semi Cryogenic Engine

  • MoU regarding this has been signed between the Russian Space Agency & ISRO.
  • It would be India’s third Rocket Development Program.
  • Project Cost – approx. ₹1,800 crores.
  • It will be able to launch a 6 to 10-ton payload to the height of 36,000 km (more than GSLV-Mk-3). 
  • Currently, only Russia & US has this technology.

Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV)

Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV)
  • Due to the advancement in electronics, small satellites have started to be built on a large scale. Globally, more than 17,000 small satellites are expected to be launched till 2030. Earlier, these satellites were launched as piggybacks with big satellites. But ISRO has developed a Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) to exploit this newly emerging market fully. 
  • India is also building its second launch station in the Thoothukudi district in Tamil Nadu, and it will house one launchpad exclusively for Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) .
  • SSLV made its first successful flight in 2022 and its second in 2023.
  • India’s SSLV has the following features.
    • Weight = 110 ton
    • Payload = Can launch satellites weighing up to 500 kg.
    • Time to integrate for launch = 72 hours (in contrast to 70 days with present launch vehicles)
    • Cost = Rs. 30 crores per launch
    • Stage: Three solid stages followed by a liquid-fuel-based Velocity Trimming Module (VTM) 
    • New Space India Limited (NSIL) is the nodal agency (not ISRO)
  • The new vehicle has been developed to capture the emerging small and microsatellite commercial market, with launches offered on demand. 
  • JAXA (of Japan) was one of the first space agencies to make this type of launch vehicle. A private company named bluShift is also focused on manufacturing Small Satellite Launch Vehicles. In January 2021, their Satellite Vehicle named Stardust1.0 came into operation with a mass of 250 kg and a carrying capacity of 8 kg. 

Private Sector Launch Vehicle: Vikram-S

  • Skyroot is a Hyderabad-based company that has made a Vikram-S launch vehicle to enter the launch market.
  • Properties of Vikram-S Launch Vehicle
    • It is a single-stage sub-orbital launch vehicle. 
    • It is 3D printed. 
    • The core structure is built using carbon composites. 
    • It can carry between 290 kg and 560 kg payloads into sun-synchronous polar orbits.
    • The engine used in the launch vehicle is named ‘Kalam-80’
  • It made its first successful flight in November 2022. It was launched with support from ISRO and IN-SPACe (Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre).
  • It is part of Mission Prarambh, which involves the Indian private sector’s entry into the space launch market.

Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV)

  • In 2016, ISRO successfully launched the first technology demonstrator of the indigenously made RLV. After that, ISRO has conducted various Landing EXperiment (LEX) till 2024. However, many more  experiments such as Orbital Re-entry Experiment (ORE) needs to be undertaken before ISRO readies a reusable launch vehicle for commercial use.
  • In simple words, it is a winged vehicle that will take off vertically like a rocket and glide back to land horizontally like a plane.
  • It will have a two-stage-to-orbit configuration. 

Advantages

  • It will cut down the cost of launching satellites to 1/10th. The main launch cost currently comes from building the rocket, which can be used just once, as the rockets get burnt on re-entry into the atmosphere. 
  • A more developed version of the vehicle could be used for human-crewed missions in the future.  
  • It will also help in reducing space debris.

Note – No sovereign space agency has RLV for satellite launches. SpaceX is also working on this project.

Scramjet Engine

  • ISRO successfully conducted the Scramjet (or Supersonic Combusting ramjet) engine test. India has become the fourth nation to successfully flight-test a scramjet engine after the United States, Russia and China.
  • The scramjet engine uses natural oxygen present in the atmosphere to burn the fuel stored in the rocket. Hence, it reduces the amount of oxidiser carried along with the fuel, bringing down launch costs. 

Benefits

  • It increases lift-off mass as there will be no need to carry liquified oxygen on board. (Note: propellant accounts for nearly 85% of the weight of a rocket, and in that oxygen accounts for almost 60% .)
  • Scramjet does not have rotating parts, so the chances of failure are also measurably reduced. 

Mains Question: India & Satellite Launch Market

  • Satellite Launch is a multi-billion dollar industry, and NSIL (commercial arm of ISRO ) is emerging as a significant player in this sector. 
  • Among 10 countries that have launch capability to launch satellites, only US, Russia, EU, Japan, China and India (6) make their services available commercially.
  • Satellite launch business has two basic categories:
    • Launching satellites into Low Earth Orbit (LEO): India provides services here using PSLV.
    • Launching 3-5 tonne satellites in Geostationary Orbit: After making GSLV MK III, hopefully, India will enter this market in the future. But presently, no commercial deal in this category has been made.
  • India launched SAARC/ South Asian Satellite in 2017, indicating that it is now using satellite technology as a foreign policy tool.  
  • ISRO has made a world record with the launch of 104 Satellites in one launch. With this, India has shown its technological prowess to the world. Out of 104, 101 were foreign satellites. 
  • With the entry of private players like SpaceX, Boeing and Blue Origin, the satellite launch market is becoming more competitive. 
  • For becoming more competitive, India needs to take the following immediate steps.
    1. PSLV’s design should be shared with the Indian private industry.
    2. India should develop more launching sites to perform more annual launches. 
    3. Small satellites below 100 kg are becoming popular nowadays, but they are launched as piggyback with large satellites. Countries like the US, Japan, Russia & China and private players like SpaceX are making LV launch these satellites. ISRO should make a conscious decision to develop a new rocket for launching the small satellites.

Challenges

  • The entry of private giants like SpaceX, Blue Origin, Boeing etc., in this field increased the competition.
  • ISRO is a minor player in the global space industry. Although ISRO is launching a large number of satellites on commercial terms, these are nano and microsatellites, while the main revenue comes from launching heavier satellites.  
  • Indian share is just 2% 
  • According to the Economic Survey, Antrix is marketing only medium and coarse resolution data products, but Commercial potential for the medium and coarse resolution data segment is facing a threat due to Free and Open Access to such data from Landsat-8 of US and Sentinel from the European Space Agency (ESA). 

Indian Satellites

by

Last Updated: Dec 2024 (Indian Satellites)

Indian Satellites

This article deals with ‘Indian Satellites‘. This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here

Introduction

  • A satellite is a natural (moon) or man-made object that orbits around a planet or star. E.g., the Moon is the satellite of Earth and Earth is a satellite of the Sun. 
  • Artificial Satellites are man-made objects orbiting around the Earth which help us to study, communicate and observe the distant universe. Artificial Satellites include Aryabhata, Bhaskara, Rohini, INSAT, GSAT, AstroSat, CartoSat etc. 

Timeline

1957 Sputnik-1 launched by the Soviet Union
1958 Explorer-1 launched by the USA
1975 Aryabhatta – the first Indian satellite was launched (with Soviet Launch Vehicle).
1980 Rohini – the first satellite was launched using Indian Launch Vehicle. 

Theory

Theory behind working of Satellites

If a stone is thrown with some speed in the horizontal direction, it will follow a curved path as it falls to the ground. If the stone is thrown at a higher speed, it follows a path of a bigger radius.

Conclusion: Greater the speed => Greater the Radius of Curved Path

Theory behind working of Indian Satellite

If somehow we could throw the stone with such tremendous speed that the radius of its path becomes a little greater than the radius of Earth, the stone would never fall on the Earth & would keep revolving around it. This is the principle on which Artificial Satellites work. 

Side Topic: Types of Orbits

1. Low  Earth Orbit (LEO)

  • It is situated 400 to 900 km above the surface of the Earth. 
  • As it is situated closest to Earth, satellites have to overcome massive drag due to the atmosphere. Hence,  satellites located in Low Earth Orbit have a shorter life span of 2-3 years.
  • They appear to be moving in the sky & take approx. 1.5 hours for one revolution. 
  • The maximum time LEO satellites are visible from a fixed point on Earth is 20 minutes.
  • Following are placed in LEO
    • Astronomical Telescopes (eg : India’s Astrosat) 
    • Space Stations (eg : International Space Station (ISS))
Low Earth Orbit


2. Geostationary Orbit

  • There is only one Geostationary Orbit at 36,000 km above the earth surface above the equator. 
  • Satellites placed in the Geostationary Orbit revolves around the Earth with an orbital period of one sidereal day (23hours, 56 minutes, and 4.1 seconds). 
  • It is a circular orbit lying in the equatorial plane. 
  • It has a special property of remaining permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, meaning ground-based antennas do not need to track them but can remain fixed in one direction. 
  • Such satellites are often used for communication and broadcast purposes (due to the above property). 
  • Note:  Single Geostationary Satellite can cover about 40% of the Earth’s surface. If three satellites are placed at proper longitude, the whole Earth can be covered. Arthur C Clarke first conceptualized this & the Geostationary orbit is sometimes referred to as Clarke’s Orbit in his honour.
Geostationary Orbit

3. Geosynchronous Orbit

  • Geosynchronous Orbit is also situated at 36,000 km above the Earth’s surface, but it is non-circular & non-equatorial.
  • Satellites placed in the Geosynchronous orbit also revolve around the Earth in one sidereal day, but they don’t appear to be stationary from Earth. 

4. Polar Orbit

  • Polar Satellites pass above both poles of Earth, i.e. they are inclined at 90 degrees from the equator.
  • They are used for earth mapping, earth observation, surveillance & weather.

How it is used for mapping?

The time period of a polar satellite is nearly 100 minutes, and the Satellite completes many revolutions in a day. A Polar satellite covers a small strip of the area from pole to pole during one revolution. The next revolution covers a different area strip since the Earth would have moved by a small angle. In this way, polar satellites cover the entire surface area of the Earth.

Polar Orbit

5. Sun Synchronous Orbit

  • It is a special type of Polar Orbit. 
  • In this, altitude & inclination are set in such a way that it guarantees the same illumination.
  • It has the same application as polar satellites.

6. Junk Orbit / Graveyard Orbit

  • When the life of Geo-Stationary Satellite completes, they are sent above Geostationary Orbit known as Junk Orbit
  • It is an excellent way to tackle space junk. 

7. Halo Orbit

  • It is a specific type of solar orbit located at three Lagrange points (L1, L2 and L3) between Earth and the Sun.
  • Lagrange point is a point in the space where the combined gravitational force of two bodies is equal to the centrifugal force felt by a third body.

Transponders

  • Transponders are part of the payload of satellites. 
  • Since the radio waves have to transverse long distances, the satellite receives the carrier signals at very low power. Therefore, satellites need to significantly boost the power of these signals before re-transmission back to Earth, ensuring that they are detectable by an Earth-based receiver. Transponders perform this function. 
Transponders

Different Types of Transponders

Transponder Band Frequency Range Application
L 1 to 2 GHz GPS
S 2 to 4 GHz Weather radar
C 4 to 8 GHz Communication 
X 8 to 12.5 GHz Military (defence tracking, maritime and air traffic control) and Meteorological (weather monitoring)
Ku 12.5 to 18 GHz DTH, Internet and VSAT services.
K 18 to 26.5 GHz BSS and FSS (Fixed Satellite Service)
Ka 26.5 to 40 GHz High resolution and close range targeting radars

Satellite Systems

Remote Sensing Satellites

  • Remote Sensing is the acquiring of information from a distance. Satellites that are used for such purposes are called Remote Sensing Satellites.
  • These satellites are
    • Placed in Polar Orbits.  
    • Sun-Synchronous (so that illuminance of the point is the same) 
    • Revolves around the Earth in low earth orbit (900 Km) 
  • Spaceborne remote sensing is better than ground surveys and airborne sensing because it is 
    1. Cheaper
    2. Speedier
    3. More Accurate 
    4. Reliable 
    5. Multidimensional
  • IRS-1A, launched in 1988, was India’s first remote sensing satellite. Present examples include Cartosat, Resourcesat, Scatsat, Oceansat, Saral etc.

Applications of Remote Sensing Satellites

1. Defence

  • These satellites act as the ‘Spy in the Sky’ and are used for reconnaissance.
  • They can easily pick up the troop movement and deployments by the enemy.

2. Agriculture

  • Remote Sensing Satellites can be used to
    1. Assess net crop area.
    2. Movement of locust.
    3. Damage assessments.
  • India is divided into 15 Agro-climatic zones based on data from IRS 1A and 1B.
  • Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana is also using the data of these satellites to estimate crop damages.

3. Disaster Management

  • They are used for
    1. Early warning of cyclones, floods etc. 
    2. Monitoring of forest fires.

4. Natural Resource Management

  • Remote Sensing Satellites are used in
    1. Land use mapping 
    2. Mineral prospecting 
    3. Forest surveys 

5. Urban Studies

  • They are used in
    1. Mapping urban sprawl. 
    2. Structural plans for cities. 

6. Governance

  • Geotagging of all the assets created under schemes like MNREGA, RKVY etc., can be done using these satellites. 

7. Fisheries

  • By analyzing the colour of the ocean, surface temperature and wind conditions from the oceans, it is possible to identify areas in the sea where the fish school will assemble.

Side Topic: BHUVAN

  • BHUVAN is an application developed by ISRO using data provided by Indian Remote Sensing Satellites like Resourcesat, Cartosat-1 and Cartosat-2. National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) played an essential role in its creation. 
  • It provides medium to high-resolution imagery, with spatial resolution ranging from 10-100 metres, of entire India over the internet. 
  • The portal is designed to run even on slow internet. Images of Bhuvan includes weather information, administrative boundaries etc. 
BHUVAN

List of Remote Sensing Satellites

  • Starting from IRS 1A, ISRO has launched many Remote Sensing Satellites, including HysIS, ScatSat, Cartosat etc. 
  • Initially, ISRO used to name its Remote Sensing Satellites as 1A, 1B etc. Later, it started to name these satellites based on the application of the satellites like CartoSat, OceanSat etc. 

Important Indian Remote Sensing Satellites are as follows:-

1 . SARAL

  • SARAL= Satellite with ARgos and ALtiKa.
  • It is an Indo-French satellite. 
  • It was launched from Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh.
  • Application:  meteorology, oceanography, climate monitoring etc.

2. Megha Tropiques

  • It is an Indo-French Joint Venture.
  • It was launched in 2011 using PSLV.
  • Application: Study the tropical atmosphere and climate-related aspects such as monsoons, cyclones, etc.

3. NISAR

  • NISAR = NASA-India Synthetic Aperture Radar 
  • Project was started in 2019. The satellite was completed in 2023 and has been sent to India to be launched from Satish Dhawan Launch Station.
  • It is India’s first radar imaging satellite.
  • NISAR is a combined mission of NASA (of USA) and ISRO (of India).
  • Main features
    • It is a dual-frequency (L and S-Band) Radar Imaging Satellite.
    • NISAR is an Earth-monitoring satellite. NISAR will take images of the Earth every week. It is strong enough to take images of a tectonic plate and small changes in land use patterns.
    • Landslides, volcanoes, drought, flood, etc., can be easily be observed through NISAR.
    • Its application includes mapping and monitoring natural resources, assessing soil moisture, mangroves, surface deformation due to seismic activities, etc.

4. Spadex Mission

  • Spadex Mission constitutes two satellites – SDX01 or Chaser and SDX02 or Target and acts as a technology demonstrator mission to demonstrate in-space docking.
  • Docking is a process where two satellites are aligned and then joined in space. This technology is essential for India’s space ambitions, such as Indian astronauts on the Moon, sample return from the Moon, the building and operation of Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS), etc.
  • The mission will constitute the following.
    1. Align in the same orbit
    2. Reduce distance between each other
    3. Join and transfer electrical power between them.
    4. Then separate.
    5. After they separate, payloads on both satellites will continue to function for two years.
  • Satellites will be launched using a PSLV launch vehicle.
  • India is the fourth country in the world to have space docking technology.

5. Cartosat Series

  • Cartography is the science of drawing maps.
  • Cartosat satellites: Cartosat series are earth observation satellites in a sun-synchronous orbit. They have high-resolution cameras installed on them. The imagery sent by Satellite is useful for cartographic (drawing maps) applications.

5.1 Cartosat-2

  • Cartosat-2 was launched in 2017.
  • In 104 satellite launches, this was the primary Satellite. 
  • It is primarily meant for military requirements (hence, it can be said that ISRO is moving from Civilian to Military uses too).

5.2 Cartosat 2s

  • It was launched in 2018.
  • It was launched using PSLV-40, which was India’s 100th launch, along with 30 other satellites.

5.3 Cartosat 3

  • Cartosat 3 satellite has high-resolution imaging capability.
  • Application: It is used for large scale urban planning, rural resource and infrastructure development, coastal land use and land cover along with Disaster Management Support Programs like Cyclone and Flood Mapping & Monitoring, Landslide Mapping & Monitoring, Agricultural Drought, Forest Fire, Earthquakes etc.

6. RISAT Series

RISAT (Radar Imaging Satellite) is series of Indian satellites providing all weather, day and night imaging.

6.1 RISAT 1

  • Launched in 2012
  • Provide high resolution images for agriculture, forestry, disaster management.

6.2 RISAT-2

  • Launched in 2009
  • Launched in aftermath of 2008 Mumbai attack, it was intended to provide border surveillance and deter terrorist infiltration

6.3 RISAT-2B

  • Launched in 2019
  • Provide earth observation intended to improve agriculture, forestry, and disaster management services.

6.4 RISAT-2BR1

  • Launched in 2020
  • Applications same as RISAT-2B

7. EOS-01

  • EOS = Earth Observation Satellite .
  • Launched in November 2020 in Polar Orbit using PSLV launch vehicle (PSLV-C49).
  • Applications: Agriculture, forestry and disaster management. 

8. EMISAT

  • DRDO developed EMISAT under Project Kautilya. 
  • It is India’s first Electronic Intelligence Satellite. 
  • Application: EMISAT is meant for electromagnetic spectrum measurement and provides information to armed forces about hostile radars placed at the borders.

9. SCATSAT

  • It is a weather satellite that mainly focuses on Cyclone formation.
  • It has replaced the (earlier) Oceansat.

10. Oceansat Series

  • Oceansat 1 (1999) , Oceansat 2 (2009) and Oceansat 3 (2022) have been launched till date. Latest, Oceansat 3 was launched in 2022.
  • It is a sun-synchronous satellite.
  • Oceansat satellites are designed and developed for ocean studies.

11. Kalam Global Sat

  • It is a global satellite for Disaster Risk Reduction.
  • It was launched at UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction held at Sendai in Japan in March 2015.

12. HySIS

  • HySIS is India’s first Hyperspectral Imaging Satellite (HySIS).
  • It was launched with PSLV in Polar Orbit. 
  • Hyperspectral Imaging Technology combines the power of digital imaging and spectroscopy. Hence, every pixel in the image contains much more detailed information about the scene than a standard colour camera. It is used for mineral prospecting, soil survey, coastal water studies etc.

Side Topic: Indian Data Relay Satellite System (IDRSS)

  • ISRO plans to launch a set of satellites that will track, send and receive information from other Indian Satellites.
  • IDRSS satellites will be of  2,000 kg class and will be launched using GSLV launcher to geostationary orbit around 36,000 km away.
  • In the coming years, these satellites will be vital to ISRO, whose roadmap includes advanced LEO missions such as space docking, space station, and distant expeditions to the moon, Mars and Venus.

Geosynchronous Satellites 

INSAT and GSAT are the backbones of Indian Geosynchronous Satellite systems.

  • Ford Aerospace Corporation of USA built the INSAT series under contract.
  • GSAT series is an indigenous system developed by ISRO to make India self-reliant in broadcasting services. 

Applications

India is considered a leader in the application of space technology to solve problems on Earth.

1. Telecommunication

  • Satellites are responsible for the communication revolution in India.
  • Using satellites, remote and far-flung areas have been effectively connected.

2. Television

India uses geostationary satellites to provide DTH (Direct to Home) services all over the country.

3. Disaster Management & Meteorology

Satellites can be used to provide

  • Warning mechanism for the cyclone.
  • Short term weather forecasting.
  • Impact assessment for droughts and floods.
  • Geosynchronous satellites can also be used in satellite aided search & rescue.

4. Navigation

  • All the navigation systems like GPS, GLONASS, NAVIC, Galileo etc., use geosynchronous and geostationary satellites. 

Important Geosynchronous satellites of ISRO

Earlier, India used the INSAT series, but now the GSAT series is used. INSAT 1 and 2 series (except INSAT 2E) has expired, but many INSAT 3 and 4 series satellites are still functional.

1. INSAT-3

  • INSAT-3A was launched in 2003 using the Arianne launch vehicle, followed by INSAT-3B and 3C.
  • INSAT-3 satellites have C and Ku band transponders and were meant for communication purposes.

2. INSAT-4

  • INSAT-4A was launched in 2005 using the Arianne launch vehicle, followed by INSAT-4B.
  • These satellites are used for telecast purposes. E.g., INSAT-4A is used by TATA Sky and INSAT-4B is used by Sun Direct and DD Direct.

3. CMS-01

  • CMS-01 is the communication satellite launched by ISRO in December 2020.
  • It has replaced GSAT-12, which was launched by India in 2011 and was India’s primary communication satellite. 
  • It will provide telecommunication services to mainland India as well as Andaman-Nicobar and Lakshadweep Islands. 

4. Kalpana 1

  • It was launched in 2002 using PSLV (weighing around 1060 kg).
  • It is India’s exclusive meteorological Satellite and was initially named MetSat.

5. GSAT-7

GSAT 7 series satellites are advanced satellites developed by ISRO to meet the communication needs of the defence services. The satellites of GSAT 7 series include

  1. GSAT 7 satellite (launched in 2013) is mainly used by the Indian Navy for its communication needs.
  2. GSAT 7A (launched in 2018) helps in boosting the connectivity between the ground radar stations, airbases and the airborne early warning and control aircraft (AEW&C) of the IAF (Indian Air Force).
  3. GSAT 7B (to be launched shortly) will primarily fulfil the communication needs of the Army and enhance surveillance in border areas.

6. SAARC or South-Asian Satellite / GSAT-9

  • PM Narendra Modi announced it at the SAARC Summit of 2014, and it was launched in 2017 using a GSLV launch vehicle.
  • It points to India’s having started to use space diplomacy to strengthen the “neighbours first policy”. 
  • It is a communication satellite with Ku band transponders. South Asian countries, namely Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Nepal, Maldives and Afghanistan, will get at least 1 Ku transponder each. It will provide the nations with capability in teleeducation, telemedicine, broadcasting, Direct-to-Home services (DTH) and VSAT capacity. 
  • It was the first Indian Satellite to use Electric Propulsion. 
  • India has borne all the other costs for the launch of the satellite.

7. GSAT-11

  • It was launched in Dec 2018. 
  • It is the ISRO’s heaviest Satellite (5855 kg).
  • GSAT-11 is aimed at providing broadband internet from space to untouched areas.

8. GSAT – 29

  • It was launched in  2017 with Indian Launcher GSLV Mk – III with operational Cryogenic Stage from Sriharikota (first Satellite to be launched with GSLV MK III – Earlier all GSATs were launched with the help of French Agency Ariane Aerospace.) 
  • Application: Drive India’s Broadband Internet from space to the untouched areas by providing the throughput data rate of 16 Gbps.

Some Satellites of other countries

1. Amazonia 1

  • Amazonia-1 is a Brazilian satellite launched by ISRO using PSLV (C51).
  • It is a sun-synchronous remote sensing satellite that will be preliminary used for monitoring deforestation in the Amazon forests.

2. Laser Communication Relay Demonstration (LCRD) Satellite

  • NASA has launched the LCRD, the first Satellite to use a laser communication system. Till now, radio communication has been used to transmit data via satellites. 
  • It is advantageous because it uses optical communication, which uses a shorter wavelength can transmit more data in a shorter time. Moreover, optical communication systems are lighter and are cheaper to launch.

3. Ravana 1

  • The Sri-Lankan satellite was launched with Japanese (JAXA) help.

4. Ibuki 2

  • Japanese satellite to observe Greenhouse Gases.

Mission Shakti – Anti Satellite Missile

What is Mission Shakti?

  • Mission Shakti is an Anti-Satellite Missile. 
  • It is made by DRDO (not ISRO). 
  • It is the modified version of the Ballistic Interceptor Missile. 
  • It can detect, target & destroy space objects. 
  • To show it’s working, an obsolete (Indian) satellite at 300 km was tracked with sensors and destroyed. 
Mission Shakti
  • Note: Outer Space Treaty prohibits placing any weapon in earth orbit or on the celestial body. But none of the treaties is against such tests. 

Importance

  • It has made India a Space Power as India is the 4th country after the US (1958), Russia (1964) & China (2007) to have this capability.
  • It will create a ‘credible deterrence‘ against attacks on India’s growing space assets (especially China).
  • It will help India to avoid any chance of repeating the experience of what happened in the nuclear domain. If NPT-like mechanisms come in the space domain, India will be on the safer side.

Against

  • It has created huge space debris. Earlier, 2007 Chinese tests produced 2000 space debris. NASA criticized India for the creation of Space Debris.
  • It will lead to Arms Race in Asia. Pakistan will get an excuse to get this technology from China to claim parity.

ISRO and Indian Space Program

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Last Updated: Jan 2025 (ISRO and Indian Space Program)

ISRO and Indian Space Program

This article deals with ‘ISRO and Indian Space Program.’ This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here

Evolution of World Space Journey

Timeline of developments in the Space Technology

Space Program of India

  • Indian Space Program is operated by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO).
  • Vikram Sarabhai is known as the father of the Indian Space Program. 

Objectives of Space Program

India has historically viewed space technology applications primarily for societal development. Hence, the objectives of the Indian Space Program are

  1. Using Space Technology for the socio-economic benefit of people.
  2. Make India self-reliant in space technology.
  3. Peaceful use of outer space.

Indian Space Policy, 2023

Vision behind the Policy

  1. To augment space capabilities
  2. Unlocking India’s potential in the Space sector through enhanced private participation. 
  3. Use space as a driver of technology development.

Under the policy, different stakeholders are assigned the following roles to achieve the above vision

Government– Encourage advanced research & development.
– Provide a stable and predictable regulatory framework. 
Non-Govt Entities (NGEs)– Offer space-based communication services.
– Establish and operate ground facilities for space object operations.
Dept of Space– Nodal department for implementation of the Indian Space Policy-2023.
ISRO– Focus primarily on research and development.
– Share products, processes, technologies,  and best practices with Non Government Entities (NGEs).
IN-SPACe– Work with industry to establish India as a preferred service provider at the global level.
NSIL– Responsible for commercializing space technologies and platforms created through public expenditure.

Department of Space (DoS)

  • Nodal Agency for Space-related activities in India is the Department of Space (DoS). 
  • ISRO is the primary R&D wing of DoS.
  • Other Agencies of DoS include
Physical Research Lab (PRL) Ahmedabad
Semi Conductor Lab Chandigarh
National Atmospheric Research Lab Chittor
North Eastern Space Applications Centre Shillong

ISRO

  • It is the primary body of Space Research under the Department of Space. 
  • Present Chairman  = Dr S Somnath
  • It is headquartered in Bangalore.

Timeline

1961 Space Research started under the Department of Atomic Energy under Homi Bhabha.
1962 Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCSR) established & worked to establish TERLS (Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Centre) started.
1969 ISRO was formed.
1972 – Department of Space (independent department) formed.
– ISRO was brought under the Department of Space.
1975 Aryabhatta – the first Indian satellite was launched (with Soviet Launch Vehicle).
1980 Rohini – the first satellite was launched using Indian Launch Vehicle. 

Regional Centres of ISRO

ISRO has its various regional centres like

  1. ISRO Satellite Application Centre, Bengaluru (ISAC): Design and fabricate satellites. 
  2. Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, Thiruvananthapuram (VSSC): Develop satellite launch vehicles (like PSLV and GSLV).
  3. Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota (SDSC): Satellite launching station of India. 
  4. Space Application Centre, Ahmedabad (SAC): Conceptualize and carry out different space research projects. 
  5. Liquid Propulsion System Centre, Mahendragiri, TN (LPSC): Development of satellite propulsion systems. 
  6. ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network, Bengaluru (ISTRAC) 
  7. Master Control Facility, Bhopal and Hassan (Karnataka): Observe and control all geostationary satellites.
  8. National Remote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad: Act as a key player in earth observation program and disaster management.
ISRO and Indian Space Program

Side Topic: Equivalent of ISRO of other nations

USA NASA
Russia RKA
China CNSA
Europe ESA
Japan JAXA

Antrix

  • Antrix is the private arm of ISRO. 
  • It was incorporated in 1992 and awarded ‘Miniratna‘ status in 2008. 
  • Its main functions include
    1. Promotion and commercialization of space products.
    2. Providing technical consultancy services.
    3. Deals with the transfer of technologies developed by ISRO.  
    4. It also offers various services and space products to international customers worldwide.

New Space India Limited (NSIL)

  • NSIL is the commercial arm of ISRO. 
  • It was incorporated in 2019 as a Government-owned enterprise.
  • It is responsible for commercializing space technologies and platforms created through public expenditure. E.g, Providing launch services for satellites.
  • The launch of a Brazilian satellite named ‘Amazonia-1’ in 2021 was the first commercial deal of NSIL.

Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre (IN-SPACE)

  • It is headquartered in Ahmedabad.
  • It is an independent nodal agency.
  • IN-SPACE has its own directorates for technical, legal, safety and security, monitoring and activities promotion.
  • IN-SPACE acts as an interface between ISRO and Non-Government entities.
  • It aims to stimulate private investment and innovation in the space industry.
  • The government has also set up Rs. 1000 crore Venture Capital Fund under IN-SPACE to fund space start-ups.

Satellite Launching Stations / Launch Pads

  • Presently, India has only one launch station at Sriharikota in Andhra Pradesh with two launch pads.
  • India is building its second rocket launch station in the Thoothukudi district in Tamil Nadu. 
  • Note: Satellite launching stations (including that of India) is located on the east coast and as close to the equator as possible due to the following reasons:-
    • The Earth’s rotation provides an additional boost, and the strength of the boost is higher closer to the equator.
    • In case of failure, debris would fall into the Bay of Bengal, potentially saving property and lives.

Side Topic: Satellite Launch Stations of other countries

USA Cape Canaveral (Florida)
France French Guyana (in South America)
Iran Emamshahr
China Jiquan
Japan Uchinoura
Russia Kapustin Yar

Achievements of Indian Space Program

  • India has emerged as one of the 6 most important countries in the field of space research. 
  • India is self-reliant in launching remote sensing and communication platforms.
  • With GSLV MK-III, India is now in the elite club which can launch heavy Geo-Stationary Communication Satellites. 
  • World Record was created by ISRO by launching 104 Satellites in a single launch.
  • ISRO is launching satellites for other countries as well and earning foreign exchange (Eg: Amazonia-1 (Brazil).
  • Space program contributes to national security in the form of improving surveillance capability.
  • The space program is helping India emerge as technological power and knowledge-based economy. 

Challenges to Indian Space Program

  • Indian Space Program needs to move from research and development to a commercial level.
  • India should boost the frequency of launches. This will reduce the cost & make it cost-competitive.
  • There is a need to develop capabilities to build a much larger number of satellites than the current 3-4 per year. 
  • Most of the space launches are for socio-economic development. ISRO needs to move ahead and work for the country’s military and defence needs as well.

Side Topic: Cases in news

Nambi Narayanan Case

In 1994, Nambi Narayanan, who was working on Cryogenic Engine and was on the verge of making it, was arrested for selling secrets. CBI later found that the charges were false, and he was discharged in 1996. The case was fabricated by IB Officials in connivance with the CIA because the US didn’t want India to develop a Cryogenic Engine as it would have challenged the monopoly of the US, Russia, and France.

Devas Antrix Case

In 2005, Antrix Corporation signed an agreement with Devas Multimedia to lease S-band transponders on two ISRO satellites (GSAT 6 and GSAT 6A) for a price of ₹1,400 crore, which is significantly lower than the market price. In 2009, the Devas – Antrix deal was exposed. This was named Antrix – Devas S-band spectrum scam. After a CBI investigation, the deal was annulled. Subsequently, Devas made an appeal in the International Court, which has declared that the annulling of the agreement by the Government of India was “unfair” and inequitable”. 

Glance at ISRO’s flagship missions

1 . Indian Regional  Navigation Satellite System  (IRNSS) 

  • IRNSS or NAVIC is India’s indigenous GPS.
  • It is already operational.  

2. Reusable  Satellite  Launch Vehicle 

  • This mission will reduce the cost of delivering satellites into orbit to 1/10th of the present cost.  

3. Cryogenic  Engine (GSLV MK III)

  • GSLV MK III with Cryogenic Stage has been developed successfully.
  • It can be used to launch payloads of up to  4 tonnes into the geostationary orbit. 

4. Chandrayaan 2

  • After the unprecedented success of Chandrayaan-1, ISRO decided to launch Chandrayaan-2 in July 2019. 
  • It had Rover and Lander.
  • Mission achieved a partial success.

ISRO-CHANDRAYAAN 2 (3D Animation)

CHANDRAYAANØ Expanding the boundaries Of human knowledge

5. Aditya  Space  Satellite

  • Aditya Mission aims to  study the Corona of Sun.
  • It has been successfully placed in the halo orbit around L1 (Lagrangian Point)

6. Venus  Exploration Program/ Shukrayaan

  • Mission was approved in 2024 and is scheduled to be launched in March 2028
  • The Venus mission is meant to study the planet from an orbit around it.
  • Venus is often called Earth’s twin because it is similar in mass, density, and size. Therefore, studying Venus may offer scientists clues about the evolution of Earth.
  • France is also collaborating with India on its mission to Venus. 

7. Gaganyaan

  • Gaganyaan is a 3-ton ISRO spaceship to carry a 3-member crew to 400km for 3 days and safe return to the Earth after a few orbits to two days. Mission is likely in 2026.
  • The extendable version of the spaceship will allow flights up to 7 days and have docking capability with space stations. 

8. Second Launch Station

  • India is building its second rocket launch station in the Thoothukudi district in Tamil Nadu. 
  • The project will house one launchpad exclusively for Small Satellite Launch Vehicles (SSLV).
  • Presently, India has only one launch station at Sriharikota in Andhra Pradesh with two launch pads.

9. Space Parks

  • The government is making a 100-acre Space Park in Bangalore.
  • Private industry players would be allowed to set up facilities to make subsystems and components for satellites. 

10. Village Resource Centre

  • 473 Village Resource Centres (VRCs) have been established by ISRO.  
  • It uses Satellite Communication (SATCOM) network and Earth Observation (EO) satellites.
  • VRCs provide services like telemedicine (by connecting sick people in villages through VSAT network to the doctors), Tele-education (providing a virtual classroom facility to far-flung villages), and providing advisories related to agriculture. 
  • There is a need to upscale VRCs and link all village Panchayats. 

Outreach Programs of ISRO

  • YUVIKA Program: Program aims to inculcate and nurture space research enthusiasm in young minds. Under this 1-month program, 3 students from each of state and UT is selected provided that the student has just finished 9th standard and is waiting to join 10th standard.
  • Young Scientist Program: It is an ISRO program for school students aiming to teach and nurture space research fervour in young minds.
  • Samvad with Students: Under the ISRO program called Samvad with Students, the ISRO chairman meets the students during his outstation visits, addresses their queries, and quenches the scientific thrust.
  • ISRO-Student Collaborations: ANUSAT (Anna University Satellite), Student Satellite (STUDSAT), SRMSAT (SRM University), Jugnu (IIT Kanpur) etc.

This marks the end of the article titled ‘ISRO and Indian Space Program.’ For the rest of the articles, CLICK HERE.

India-Russia Relations

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Last Updated: Jan 2025 (India-Russia Relations)

India-Russia Relations

India-Russia Relations

This article deals with ‘India-Russia Relations.’ This is part of our series on ‘International Relations’ which is an important pillar of the GS-2 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

History of Relations

Timeline of India-Russia Relations

Pre-Independence Relations

  • In the early 19th century, the Russian Tsar expanded to Central Asia. Britishers perceived this as a threat to British Indian Empire. To stop Russian advancement, they started Anglo-Afghan wars, aiming to make Afghanistan a buffer between the Russian and British Empire. This whole episode culminated with the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907, under which Russians accepted the British as the paramount power in Afghanistan. 

Initial years after Indian Independence

  • India adopted the policy of non-alignment. 
  • Till 1953, when Stalin was alive, he wasn’t very keen on India. Stalin did not appreciate the non-aligned posturing of India.
  • After the death of Stalin, Indians and Soviet interests started to converge on the following issues
    • Indian protest at the UN about extending the Korean War north of the 38th parallel.
    • Indian support for the People’s Republic of China to enter the UN. 
    • Finally, the formation of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) in 1954 and the Baghdad Pact in 1955 under the leadership of the USA was perceived by India as an attempt by the US to encircle India. India also condemned American support to Pakistan with arms. These events brought India closer to USSR. These events brought India closer to USSR.

Relations during 1962 War

  • Nikita Khrushchev favoured the improvement of ties with the US, while Mao tried to criticize it and promote his image as the sole representative of revolutionary movements. This difference between the Soviets and China led to the Soviets favouring India during the 1962 Chinese aggression. 

Relations during the Indo-Pakistan War of 1965

  • After 1962, India adopted the path of defence modernization. The Soviets decided to use it as an opportunity to build ties with India before any western country could fill this strategic space and emerged as the topmost defence supplier for India by the late 1960s. 
  • In the 1965 Indo-Pak war, India appreciated the role of the Soviets during mediation through the Tashkent Declaration. 

Relations post 1965 and leading up to War of 1971

  • In the 1970s, the US explored options of undertaking rapprochements with China and India began to fear a Beijing-Washington-Islamabad axis. 
  • India acted hastily. Since 1969, India and the USSR negotiated a diplomatic and strategic engagement. India speeded up the negotiations and, in 1971, concluded a twenty-year ‘India-Soviet Treaty of Peace and Friendship‘ with the clause of Collective Security  (i.e. if India is attacked, Soviet Union will come to help & vice versa). Shipments of arms began to arrive from Russia to India. 2021 marks the 50 years of the signing of the Indonesia-Soviet Treaty.
  • USSR has sided with India on the Kashmir issue and vetoed all resolutions against India in UNSC. 

Initial hiccups in the post-fall of the USSR

After the Cold War ended, the initial years of Boris Yeltsin’s rule were not smooth. Due to the fall of the USSR, both India and Russia were attracted towards the west without any convergence. During this period 

  • Rupees-Rouble Trade suffered as the value of Rouble declined steeply. In response, Russia asked India to pay in Dollars. 
  • Russia denied the cryogenic engine under USA pressure due to MTCR. 
  • Militancy in Chechnya and Kashmir presented a problem to both nations. 

End of the 1990s

  • Nuclear Tests of 1998 brought India Russia closer.
  • At that time, the world was divided into two groups.
    1. USA, Japan and EU: placed sanctions on India. 
    2. Russia: Supported India arguing that India is surrounded by China & Pakistan & had the right to protect using Nuclear deterrence.

Putin’s Visit in 2010

  • During this visit, India and Russia signed a “Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership” (SPSP). 
  • One of the critical drivers for this move was India’s assertion for a multipolar world. The resurgence of Russia in the world to project itself as an independent pole in the international system suits India as it will prevent any form of unipolar assertion by either the US or China.

Crimea Issue

  • Russia annexed Crimea from Ukraine, where the Russian Black Sea Fleet is placed permanently and has been an outlet of Russia to the Mediterranean Sea. Although Western countries placed sanctions on Russia due to Russian expansionist policy, India supported the Russian decision.

Present Collaborations

India and Russia are presently collaborating on the following projects

  1. International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC)
  2. BRICS and Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
  3. S-400 Triumf Air Defence Systems
  4. Joint development of Kamov-226 helicopters
  5. Development of Far East Russia
  6. Sputnik – V vaccine against Corona developed by Gamaleya Research Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology was used by India.

Convergence of Interests

Russia needs India

  • To bypass western sanctions, Indian help is required.  
  • Act as a hedge against forthcoming Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP)  driven by the US & EU.
  • India is the market for the Defence Industry of Russia. 
  • India is a significant market for oil.

India needs Russia

  • To secure energy supply at a cost-effective price.  
  • To get cutting edge defence technology (no country provide its new technology). 
  • Russia is a good market for Indian pharmaceuticals, manufactured goods, dairy products etc.  
  • Russian Veto at UN matters for India. 

India-Russia Economic Cooperation

India-Russia Economic Cooperation
  • Indo-Russian trade flourished during the Cold War based on the Rupee-Rouble agreement. However, the foundation of this agreement was dismantled in 1992, which led to a decline in trade.
  • Annual Indo-Russian trade is $8.1 billion (2021).  The target is to increase it to $30 Billion in a decade. 
  • ONGC Videsh has invested $5 billion in Sakhalin I project in Siberia and Imperial Energy Ltd. 
  • Russia has developed Kudankulam nuclear energy project (1000 MW).
  • India and Russia are also in the advanced stages of talks of signing a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) between Indian and Russia-led Eurasian Economic Union (EEU).

Problems in trade with Russia

  • There are no direct overland trade routes possible today, though the International North-South Transit Corridor (INSTC) will try to establish that connectivity.
  • Supreme Court in 2012 declared 2G licenses as null and void after Russian AFK Sistema had teamed up with Shyam Telecom. It sent negative sentiments in Russian business houses.
  • Custom clearances and inspections are complex & time-consuming.
  • Russian importer needs to get a license to import. Russian businessmen demand Indian exporters to pay for these charges.
  • Product-specific approvals are required. 
  • Banking & finance issues due to strict norms in Current Account & Capital Account convertibility. 

Defence Relation

  • Defence Cooperation is more important than economic cooperation. India is going for massive weaponization, and Russia is the most crucial ally in this regard as 2/3rd of Indian military hardware comes from Russia. 
  • Following weapons of India are of Russian origin
Defence Cooperation in India-Russia Relations

1 . IAF

  • 32 out of 41 fighter Indian Air Force squadrons are Russian. These include
    1. MIG 21,23,27 and 29
    2. Sukhoi 30- MKI
  • New Deals have been signed for the following systems
    1. Joint Production of Kamov -226 Helicopter
    2. India has started receiving deliveries of S-400 Air Defence Systems

2. Army

  • T-72 & T-90 constitute 60% of 4168 battle tanks .
  • Indian army personnel will use AK-203, and a joint production facility to manufacture more than 600,000 Kalashnikov rifles will be set up in Korwa. 

3. Navy

  • INS  Vikramaditya (Gorshkov:) Aircraft Carrier 
  • Akula II class (INS Chakra): Nuclear Submarine
  • India and Russia conduct Joint Armed exercises known as  INDRA. 
  • Even after increased bonhomie with the US, the Indian government has already declared that Russia is India’s primary defence supplier.

Defence relations are changing

  • India is trying to diversify its arsenal because dependence on one nation in defence is a strategic liability. MMRCA (Rafale) Deal with France vouches for that.  
  • Russia is also trying to diversify its relations in response to the Indian position & is engaging with Pakistan to sell weapons. 

Issues in Indo-Russian Defence Relations

  • CAATSA, i.e., Countering American Adversaries through Sanctions Act of US, has the provision of Sanctions against American adversaries if they are doing trade with them. These adversaries include Russia, Iran and North Korea. It is presenting difficulty in payments. 

Space Cooperation

Space Cooperation in India-Russia Relations
  • Space cooperation between two countries goes back four decades. 2015 marked the 40th anniversary of India’s first satellite “Aryabhatta” on a Russian ( USSR) launch vehicle ‘Soyuz.’ 
  • In 1984, Indian astronaut Rakesh Sharma visited space in the Soyuz T-10, an issue of great political prestige for India. 
  • After the fall of the USSR, relations deteriorated for some time. In 1992, Russia denied providing cryogenic rocket engines to India as a non-signatory to MTCR. The sudden suspension of the deal came as a severe setback to the Indian space program. But relations have been stabilized again. Various MOUs have been signed between ROSCOSMOS and ISRO since then.
  • Earlier, India was using GLONASS as an alternate to US-controlled GPS. 

Energy Cooperation

  • Russia is an energy supplier, while India has a huge energy demand. As India is a net importer of energy, Russia is in a strategic position to cooperate.
  • The former Soviet Union played a significant role in building India’s energy sector in the following way
    1. Developing tens of hydropower stations
    2. Developing India’s coal industry
    3. Finding oil in Indian soil 
    4. Helping in setting up India’s energy major ONGC.  
  • India has invested 
    1. $5 billion in the Sakhalin-1 project, controlling 20 per cent stakes in the venture. 
    1. Purchased Imperial Energy, a London-listed oil major in the Tomsk region. 
    2. India is also interested in the Timon Pechora basin and Vankor in East Siberia. 
  • Both India and Russia are extending civil nuclear cooperation to 3rd countries, e.g. Bangladesh.

Indo-Russian Cooperation to develop Russia’s the Far East

About Russian Far East

  • The region consists of 1/3rd of Russian territory
  • It is resource rich region with
    1. 98% of Russian diamonds
    2. 90% of Russian Borax reserves
    3. 50% of Russian Gold reserves
    4. 40% of seafood and fish resources
    5. Abundant reserves of coal and petroleum
  • It is located at the strategic location and with the melting of Arctic ice due to global warming, it can act as Europe’s Gateway into Asia.
  • But the region is underdeveloped and sparsely populated due to harsh climatic conditions.
  • Despite being rich in resources, the region contributes just 5% to Russian GDP. Hence, Russian is looking for partners to develop this region.

Eastern Economic Forum

  • With the aim of developing the Russian Far East, Russia established Eastern Economic Forum in 2015.
  • Various countries have shown interest in investments in the Russian Far East. The notable among them are
    1. China: China has proposed to extend One Belt, One Road to Russian Far East
    2. South Korea: Shipbuilding projects, gas liquefying plants etc
    3. Japan: Japan is also keen to invest but the US sanctions are making it difficult.
  • India participated in the 5th Eastern Economic Forum (2020), which aims to support the economic development of Russia’s resource-rich the Far East. 

Indian Strategy for Russian Far East

  • India has unveiled the “Act Far East” policy to boost India’s engagement with Russia’s Far East region. 
  • India has extended a $1 billion line of credit for the development of this region. 
  • Eastern Maritime Corridor (EMC): India and Russia has operationalised maritime route between Chennai and Vladivostok to bypass Europe to reach Russia. This has reduced the time for cargo to reach Russia to 24 days from the current 40 days.
  • Several Indian companies have been successfully set up in the Russian Far East region, such as KGK in Vladivostok in the field of diamond cutting and Tata Power in Kamchatka in coal mining. Oil and Natural Gas Corporation purchased stakes in the Sakhalin-1 project in the region.
  • Geopolitical interests: Involvement in RFE will help India to counterbalance China’s influence in Russia and in the Indo-Pacific region. 
Far East Russia and India

Initiatives of Other Countries in the Russia’s Far East

China– Polar Sea Route has Russian Far East as important component.
– China is connecting its Heilongjiang province with the Russian Far East.
South KoreaInvested in Ship building, gas liquefaction plants etc.
JapanInvestments in petroleum sector as Japanese dependence on Russian oil has increased post Fukushima incident.

Multilateral Engagements

  • Russia has supported India’s bid for a permanent seat in UNSC. 
  • Russia has been favouring Indian entry to the Nuclear Supplier Group. 
  • Both countries are on the same page regarding the reform of multilateral institutions like IMF and the World Bank.  
  • Both countries are a member of important international organizations like
    1. BRICS
    2. Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) 
    3. G-20  

People to People Cooperation

  • Programs like ‘Namaste Russia’ have been run in Russia.
  • Institutes like Jawaharlal Nehru Cultural Centre, both the countries have had good cultural links. 

Downturn in Relations

  • During the Cold War, defence ties were the most important elements of our relationship. In the post-Cold War era, the US, France and Israel have emerged as direct competitors to Russia in providing defence supplies to India. Russian share in India’s defence imports has decreased from 79% (2008) to 62% (2017).
Defence Relations between India and Russia
  • India’s growing proximity to the United States: Rapidly expanding ties and growing defence relationship between India and the US corroborated by the fact like joining Quad led by the USA, signing of logistic agreements like BECA, LEMOA, COMCASA etc. with the US has impacted the India-Russia Relations. 
  • One dimensional trade: Trade has been one-dimensional, i.e. defence based. The trade between India and Russia in 2017-18 was $11 billion, which is far below potential.  
  • Russian leaning towards China: Russia has sold advanced military technology to Beijing and endorsed China’s One Belt One Road. There has also been concern about Moscow leaning toward Beijing in forums like the BRICS. Also, China and Russia inaugurated the first cross-border pipeline to China from Russia’s far-east regions. Russia accounted for 77% of Chinese arms imports in 2016-2020.
  • Increasing bonhomie between Russia and Pakistan: In 2014, Russia lifted the arms embargo on Pakistan and is the second-largest weapons supplier to Pakistan, accounting for 6.6% of its arms imports.  
  • Issues wrt Taliban: Russia showing an inclination towards Taliban in Afghanistan while India continues to have concerns about the group. Hence, India and Russia have divergent interests in Afghanistan.
  • Issues with Quad: Russia is critical towards the concept of Quadrilateral Security Dialogue and has termed it as Asian NATO designed to contain China and Russia.

Steps taken to address this

  • Despite the threat of US sanctions under the Countering America’s Adversaries Through Sanctions Act (CAATSA), India has remained firm on buying the S-400 Triumf air defence missiles system. 
  • Reinforcement of Defence Ties: India has finalized the following defence deals with Russia in recent times
    1. Joint production of Kamov-226 helicopters.
    2. S-400 Air Defence System
    3. Nuclear-powered submarine (Chakra III)
    4. AK-203 Guns
  • INDRA upgraded to Tri-Services Joint Exercises.
  • Improving trade relations: In 2017, trade between countries increased by 20%. Two countries decided to reach the $30 billion investment goal by 2025.
  • Indian Prime Minister participated in the Eastern Economic Forum of 2020 and announced to make substantial investments in Far East Russia.
  • Indian Defence Minister undertook a trip to Russia for its ‘Victory Day’ parade even during the COVID-19 pandemic. 
  • India and Russia are developing the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) to address connectivity issues. 

Is Russia still important?

  • Russia is a time-tested friend who has helped India on numerous occasions earlier. Increasing Russo-Pak Ties is just a symbolic gesture by Russia to tell India that they can find friends. 
  • Russian Defence partnership is important because they give Transfer of Technology in cutting edge technology which other countries including the US willn’t offer. In the US, all the defence system manufacturing is under private companies, while in Russia, they are state-controlled. Hence, the way in which Russia can help by supplying arms to set diplomatic relations on the right track can be done by the US (INS Vikramaditya, Nuclear Subs, Sukhoi, etc.) 
  • Along with that, joint production deals in high-end products like Kamov Helicopters, Brahmos Missiles etc., matter to India if it wants to develop the domestic defence industry. US and western powers never agree to such agreements.
  • In Civil Nuclear Aspects, only Russia has given the best deals, like in Kundankulam. Other nations care too much about financial aspects and want to increase profits. 
  • If India wants to book its seat in UNSC, Russian support is critical. 
  • On various multilateral forums, Russia and India share space. BRICS & SCO are the most important.   
  • Russia has significant energy resources, and India needs Russia to satisfy its hunger for energy. 
  • Overall, as mentioned by PM Modi, Russia remains our principal Defence Partner. About 70 per cent of our weapons and equipment are of Russian or Soviet origin. 
  • Military Exercise with Pakistan should not be seen from a narrow perspective. In the age of Realpolitik, every nation wants to have maximum manoeuver space. India conducts military exercises with China too.

=> Overall, it can be concluded that, as Modi said in his joint statement (2016 meet) Old friend is better than two new friends, India shouldn’t abandon Russia because of what Russia can provide, no other nation in the world can do that. India should diversify its defence partnership, but Russia should remain India’s topmost priority, who was always there when India needed. 

India-Iran Relations

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Last Updated: Jan 2025 (India-Iran Relations)

India-Iran Relations

India-Iran Relations

This article deals with ‘India-Iran Relations.’ This is part of our series on ‘International Relations’ which is an important pillar of the GS-2 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Brief History

  • With the creation of Pakistan in 1947, India and Iran lost their geographical contiguity. 
  • In 1950, India and Iran signed a Treaty of Friendship and Perpetual Peace, marking the beginning of diplomatic relations between independent India and Iran. 
  • In 1953, Central Intelligence Agency orchestrated a coup to remove Iran’s elected Prime Minister, Mohammad Mossadegh and instituted the rule of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. 

From 1953 till 1979 (Under Shah’s regime)

  • In Cold War Politics
    • Shah of Iran allied with the U.S.A. after signing the Baghdad pact in 1954. 
    • India was non-aligned.
  • Along with that, due to its affiliation to CENTO, Iran also developed proximity with Pakistan. 
  • During the 1965 and 1971 wars, Iran provided military assistance to Pakistan. 
  • Hence, nothing significant happened during this period. 

Period between 1979 – 1990s

  • In 1979, Islamic Revolution happened in Iran, and Iran came under the control of the theocratic regime of Ayatollah. 
  • Post-1979, India and Iran began to establish proximity.
    1. During the Iran-Iraq war, India remained neutral.
    2. In 1983, both countries established an India-Iran Joint Commission (J.C.) to promote economic cooperation and organize foreign minister-level meets.
    3. During the 1990s, Afghanistan came under Taliban rule. Northern Alliance was fighting against Talibs. Pakistan supported the Taliban while India & Iran supported the Northern Alliance.
    4. Meetings between heads of government started. In 1993, Narasimha Rao visited Tehran, while in 1995, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani visited India. In 2001, Vajpayee and Khatami signed the Tehran Declaration, while, in 2003, Khatami signed the New Delhi Declaration on his visit to India.
    5. During this period, India started to import gas & oil from Iran in massive amounts. 

Post 2005-06

  • But after 2005-06, relations dipped due to Iran’s nuclear program, as a result of which Iran was placed under Western sanctions. India was forced to reduce trade with Iran under western pressure. 
  • Initially, India maintained that Iran had the right to have its nuclear program. But Western Pressure on India to reduce trade relations with Iran was too enormous for India to ignore. 
Timeline of India-Iran Relations

Geo-political dynamics of Iran

Iran is the leader of Shia World

There is a Shia-Sunni divide in the whole Islamic world

  • Iran = Leader of Shias
  • Saudi Arabia = Leader of Sunnis 
Shia versus Sunni
  • Due to this, Iran supports Shia militias like Hezbollah, Houthi rebels (in Yemen), Fatemiyoun (made up of Afghan Shias), Zainebiyoun (Pakistani Shias) etc.

Developing Nuclear Weapon

  • Iran wanted to develop a Nuclear Weapon for the regime’s security. 
  • But Saudis & Israel are U.S. allies, and they don’t want this because it will disturb the Balance of Power in the Middle East in Iran’s favour. 

India-Iran Cooperation

India-Iran Cooperation

1. Strategic Aspects 

  • Iran is critical in the fight against Al-Qaeda, ISIS, Taliban etc., which pose a danger to India. 
  • Iran is the crucial player in the stability of Afghanistan, which is important for Indian security considerations. 
  • Iran is also important for securing Sea Lanes of Communication (SLoC) by combating piracy in the Indian Ocean region. 
  • India aspires to become a net security provider in the Indian Ocean region, where Iran is a significant stakeholder. 
  • Due to the sectarian divide, India can use Iran to contain Pakistan (a Sunni country).

2. Energy Cooperation

  • Iran has the fourth-largest reserve of oil and second-largest reserve of Natural Gas globally.
  • Iranian crude offers many benefits to India, including a long credit cycle, payment in the local currency, and shorter voyage on freight costs.
  • ONGC Videsh Ltd has stakes in the Farzad-B gas field in Iran (the world’s biggest natural gas field).
  • India also wants to set up joint-venture fertiliser plants in Iran to exploit cheap natural gas. 
  • IPI Pipeline (Iran -Pakistan- India) is also on the cards from Iran to India. But India fears the safety of the IPI pipeline passing through Pakistan, and India favours that Iran takes responsibility for the pipeline’s security.

3. Cultural Relations between India and Iran

  • India’s sizeable Shia population has an emotional connection with Iran.
  • Lucknow is influenced by Persian (/Irani) culture.
  • Hyderabad’s Qutb Shahi Dynasty was Persian (/Irani) in origin. 

4. Connectivity

Chabahar Port in Iran is the key in all connectivity projects of India as

  • It provides an alternate route to Afghanistan. 
  • It provides connectivity to Central Asia and Europe via International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC).
  • It is an essential part of the Ashgabat Agreement.

5. Other Points of Cooperation

  • Indian Wheat and Pharmaceuticals are in great demand in Iran. Even during sanctions, wheat and pharmaceuticals were exported to Iran from India because these two items were out of the ambit of sanctions.  
  • India and Iran have stakes in the Indian Ocean, and both can cooperate for regional security from piracy.  

Challenges in India-Iran relations

Economic Challenges

  • Due to Western sanctions, it is difficult for Indian companies to trade with Iran. 
  • India stopped oil imports from Iran under US pressure. Before that, India imported about 2.5 billion tonnes of Iranian oil a month, which accounted for more than 10% of its energy needs. 
  • Due to decades of harsh economic sanctions, Iran faces massive unemployment and inflation. These conditions are creating massive unrest in Iran.

Political Challenges

  • Fundamental authority in Iran rests with Supreme Leader Khamenei, an unelected cleric.
  • India has enormous stakes in Saudi Arabia, U.A.E. and Israel. Indian bonhomie with Iran can upset these Middle Eastern powers at odds with the Iranian regime.  

Involvement in Proxy Wars

  • While Iran itself is facing an economic crisis at home, the Iranian regime is fighting and supporting a large number of proxies in the Middle East as part of its foreign policy. These include
    • Saudi versus Iran Cold War in the Middle East is going on.   
    • Irani militias are supporting Bashar al Assad in Syria.
    • Yemen, where Iran is supporting Houthi rebels. 
    • Iran is supporting Hezbollah in Palestine and Lebanon. 

Kashmir Issue

  • In many of his sermons, Iran’s supreme leader Ayatollah Khamenei has supported the terrorists in the Kashmir conflict. 

Issue of Farzad-B gas field

  • ONGC Videsh Limited discovered the gas in the Farzad-B gas field in 2008. As India was waiting for the contract, Iran asserted that India would not receive preferential treatment and compete with other bidders. India is upset that Iran wishes to auction the Farzad-B field even when India asserted in 2017 that it is willing to put in $11 Billion in the project. India says that it expects preferential treatment in the Farzad-B field as Indian firms in 2008 had discovered gas in the field.

Chabahar Port Issue

The idea of India’s involvement in Chabahar port came up in 2003 when Iranian President Khatami visited India, and a deal was signed between the two states. Post-1947, the partition has deprived India of physical access to Afghanistan and Central Asia. Chabahar port was envisaged as a project to correct this historical injustice. 

There are two distinct ports in the Chabahar project, Shahid Beheshti and Shahid Kalantari. India’s investment is restricted to the Shahid Beheshti port.

In 2016, the Trilateral Agreement was signed between India, Iran and Afghanistan. Under this agreement, India committed to developing Chabahar port and the land-based route connecting Chabahar port to Zahedan along the border with Afghanistan. India has committed to invest $500 million in this project.

Importance of Chabahar Port

India- Iran Relations

Its importance can be seen in two aspects

1 . Strategic Importance

  1. Alternate Route to Afghanistan and Central Asia
    • The route is from Chabahar to Zaranj to Delaram . 
    • It will help to end Afghanistan’s dependence on Pakistan for trade.
  2. Counter China at Gwadar Port
    • It will help to counter the Gwadar port of Pakistan built by China. 
    • Chabahar is located 72 kilometres west of Pakistan’s Gwadar port.
  3. It will help in Anti-Piracy Operations.

2. Economic importance

  • Increased connectivity with energy-rich Central Asia is in line with India’s Connect-Central Asia policy.
  • It will act as a lynchpin in  International North-South Transit Corridor that connects India to Central Asia, Russia and Europe.

Still an Issue

  • U.S. sanctions: Due to economic sanctions on Iran, it is difficult for India to fund the project. Although the U.S.A. has provided a sanctions waiver for the Chabahar port, it has been difficult to find equipment suppliers and partners due to worries that the U.S.A can target them. 
  • With the Taliban in power in Afghanistan, the rationale to reach Afghanistan is gone.
  • Saudi Arabia and Israel will be antagonised because of Indian association with such mega projects in Iran. 

Issue: Increasing Chinese influence in India

  • Belt and Road Initiative (B.R.I.): Under the B.R.I. umbrella, China is presently strengthening its ties with Iran, Saudi Arabia, U.A.E., Egypt and other Middle East countries using engagements such as the construction of stadiums, railways, industrial parks, 5G highways, clean energy project etc.
  • 25-year comprehensive strategic cooperation agreement: Iran and China have signed an agreement under which China would invest $400 billion in Iran over 25 years in its economy, infrastructure and industries.
  • Gwadar-Chabahar connectivity: Iran proposed a tie-up between Gwadar and Chabahar.  
  • Bandar-e-Jask port: Iran has offered this port to China, located just 350km away from Chabahar to China.
  • In 2019, a joint naval exercise was conducted between China, Iran, and Russia in the Gulf of Oman.
  • China is offering its G.P.S. to Iran and has committed to building infrastructure for 5G. 
  • China continued to buy Iranian oil even after the U.S. sanctions waivers expired, although in smaller volumes. In contrast, India stopped buying Iranian oil last year after U.S. waivers ended.

Issue: US out of Iranian nuclear deal

  • In 2015 an agreement, the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) or Iran nuclear deal, was reached between Iran and the P5+1 group — U.S., U.K., France, Russia, China and Germany — on Tehran’s nuclear program. The JCPOA was designed to stop Iran from producing its atomic weapons and set up a framework limiting the amount and degree to which Iran could enrich uranium. 
  • However, in 2018 U.S.A. unilaterally announced to decertify the nuclear deal on account of non-compliance by Iran and announced two rounds of economic sanctions on it. 
  • Dec 2020: New President Joe Biden has declared that his administration will revive the Iran Nuclear Deal. 

Limitations agreed by Iran under JCOPA

JCOPA
  1. Low enriched Uranium stockpile can’t exceed 300 kg.
  2. Enrichment of Uranium cant exceed 3.67% (for weapons, 90% enrichment is required, but after 20% enrichment, 90% can be achieved very quickly). 
  3. UN & IAEA Inspectors can inspect facilities. 

In return, Iran gets the termination of all economic and diplomatic sanctions imposed on it by the U.N. Security Council (UNSC), the European Union (E.U.) and the U.S.

US has pulled out of the deal and imposed sanctions

Sanctions include

  • No individual or company can trade with Iran. 
  • Sanctions re-imposed are “extraterritorial” in nature, i.e. they apply to not just American individuals and businesses but also non-American businesses or individuals.

US problems and Reasons for withdrawal

  • The deal doesn’t have binding restrictions on Iran’s Ballistic Program.
  • Many of the restrictions in JCPOA have sunset clauses, i.e. provisions will become less strict over the years.  
  • The deal doesn’t prevent Iran to prevent the sponsorship of terrorism in the region. 

Implications of US withdrawal from JCOPA on India

  • Higher Oil price 
    • Iran was India’s third-biggest supplier.
    • India faced the added cost of having to recalibrate Indian fuel refineries that are used to process Iran’s special crude.
    • Iranian oil came with discounts on freight and favourable payment terms, including non-dollar payments.
  • Indian projects impacted 
    • Chabahar project: Chabahar port is nominally exempted from U.S. sanctions, but suppliers are reluctant to deliver equipment.
    • It has prevented ONGC Videsh to invest in the Farzad B gas field.
  • Remittance: More than 50% of the total remittance received by India last year came from the gulf region. Any disturbance in the region would lead to a decline in such remittances.
  • The security of the Indian Ocean Region has been disturbed due to the volatile situation at the Strait of Hormuz impacts Indian trade negatively. It also allows outside powers to set base in the Indian Ocean, impacting the Balance of Power. 
  • Giving Space to China: If India succumbs to U.S. pressure while China remains firm, then India will lose strategic space to China.

Approach of Other nations to deal with this

  • China is routing transactions through the Bank of Kunlun. U.S. sanctions on this bank are ineffective since it is carefully insulated from the U.S. financial system. (India must learn from this)
  • European countries have attempted to bypass sanctions through a unique mechanism called INSTEX.

Indian payment approach

  • India has given the responsibility to UCO Bank to route the payment as it has no exposure to the U.S. financial system.  
  • Oil payments are being made in rupees only against earlier arrangements of 45% rupees and 55% Euros. 

India-Bangladesh Relations

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Last Updated: Jan 2025 (India-Bangladesh Relations)

India-Bangladesh Relations

This article deals with ‘India-Bangladesh Relations.’ This is part of our series on ‘International Relations’ which is an important pillar of the GS-2 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Brief History

  • Bangladesh became  Independent in 1971 with the military & political assistance of India.  In 1970, the Bengali Awami League Party won the Pakistani National Elections. But West Pakistan refused to recognize the election results and used brutal force to suppress the agitation by the Awami League Party. This situation led to a near war scenario, with armed East-Bengalis forming the Mukti Bahini (freedom force). India’s support to the Mukti Bahini by training and the supply of arms became imminent with millions seeking refuge in India. Pakistan’s pre-emptive strike at India provided the Indian army with the much-needed excuse to attack East Pakistan. By December 1971, Bangladesh emerged as an independent state.
  • Independence was won under the leadership of Sheikh Mujibur Rehman. He and his party Awami League was  Anti-Pakistan (and Anti-China)  and Pro-India (and USSR). India was the first country to recognize Bangladesh as a separate and independent state and established diplomatic relations with the country immediately after its independence in December 1971. From 1971 to 1975, came the era of Sheikh Mujibur Rehman who assumed power. In 1972, India and Bangladesh signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation which became the foundation of the modern India-Bangladesh relations.
  • In 1975, Mujibur Rehman was assassinated due to a military coup by Zia-ur-Rehman. It ended the honeymoon period between Indo-Bangladesh relations. The regime thus formed was Pro-China, US & Pakistan and Anti-India & USSR. Later, he established Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) .
  • Hence, due to historical reasons, BNP has a propensity to incline its policies to favour Pakistan and China while the Awami League favours a partnership with India. The BNP is not favourably disposed to India and has at times stated that it is suspicious of India.
India Bangladesh Relations

Sheikh Hasina’s government faced massive anti-government protests due to the quota system for government jobs, and she was forced to flee to India—currently, Mohd. Yunus is leading an interim government in Bangladesh, and the policies are anti-Awami League and pro-BNP. 

Various aspects of Indo-Bangladesh Relations

Geopolitical Importance

  • Bangladesh shares a border of 4,096 km with India (longest border of India).
  • Bangladesh can act as an outlet for the North Eastern States which are land-locked and have a shorter route to the sea through Bangladesh. Eg: Chittagong and Ashuganj ports are just 70 and 40 km from the Indo-Bangladesh border with the North-Eastern States.
  • Act-East policy: Bangladesh can act as a ‘bridge’ to India’s economic and political linkages with South East Asia.
  • Bangladesh is an integral part of India’s ‘Neighbourhood First Policy.

Security Importance

  • Bangladesh can also help India to overcome the strategic vulnerability of Chicken Neck by providing an alternate route.
  • Bangladesh is also important for the Security of the Bay of Bengal  & tackling pirate activities.
  • Various Joint exercises of the Army ( Sampriti) and Navy (Milan) take place between the two countries.
  • Bangladesh can help to contain insurgency in the North-East.
  • In 2013, the nations also signed an extradition treaty.

Economic Importance

  • Bilateral trade between India and Bangladesh has reached $15.9 billion (FY 2022-23) apart from large unaccounted informal trade. But trade potential between two countries is 4 times this amount.
  • Bangladesh presents investment opportunities for Indian companies.
  • India and Bangladesh can cooperate in the blue economy(deep sea fishing, hydrocarbons, disaster management etc).
  • India is also developing business haats  (trading centres)  on Tripura-Bangladesh and Meghalaya – Bangladesh border.
  • India has announced 3 lines of credit to Bangladesh in last 8 years amounting to $8 billion.  

Cultural Importance

  • Bangladesh is closely linked to India through its shared culture and ethnicity with West Bengal.
  • The Bengali language acts as a bridge between West Bengal, Tripura and Bangladesh.
  • Rabindranath Tagore is equally famous in Bangladesh (‘Amar Sonar Bangla’  was written by him).

Multilateral Cooperation

India and Bangladesh are co-partner in various multilateral Groups

  • Most important of which are SAARC & BIMSTEC.
  • Bangladesh supports India’s bid for observer status at OIC  and helps in countering Pakistan’s statement on Kashmir at OIC Forums. 

Energy Sector Cooperation

  • Bangladesh is an energy deficit country. India is providing 600 MW of power to Bangladesh since 2010.
  • Maitree thermal power plant is being developed as a joint venture between the National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) of India and the Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB) at Rampal. 
  • Rooppur nuclear power plant (Bangladesh’s first nuclear power plant) is being made by  Russia’s Rosatom and  Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL).
  • Many Indian public sector units such as Indian Oil Corporation etc. are working with their Bangladeshi counterparts in the oil and gas sector of Bangladesh.
  • ONGC Videsh Ltd has acquired two shallow-water blocks in Bangladesh.

Connectivity

  • Passenger train service ‘Maitree Express’ between Kolkata and Dhaka operates 3 days a week. 
  • Regular bus services are present between Kolkata-Dhaka, Shillong-Dhaka and Agartala-Kolkata via Dhaka. 
  • Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepal (BBIN) – Motor Vehicles Agreement (MVA) will significantly boost connectivity by road.

To reduce the influence of China

  • ‘Neutral’ Bangladesh helps to counter China’s One Belt One Road (OBOR) strategy.

Diaspora

  • About 10,000 Indian citizens are estimated to be living in Bangladesh. Most are engaged in the Ready-Made Garments (RMG) sector or as professionals in MNCs, Indian or Bangladeshi companies.

Other Collaborations

  • India-Bangladesh Fuel Pipeline supply diesel to Bangladesh from Siliguri.
  • India and Bangladesh has sign MoU to collaborate in vaccine production.

Issues in Indo-Bangladesh Relations 

India and  Bangladesh resolved the most contentious land boundary issue. But  there  are  still  some  contentious  issues  that need to  be  resolved

  1. Teesta  Water  Treaty:  Teesta originates in Sikkim and enters Bangladesh after passing through West Bengal. There is conflict on water sharing between West Bengal and Bangladesh.
  2. Ganga Water: Treaty was signed in 1996 but India constructed Farakka Barrage to supply water to Hooghly and in the dry season, Bangladesh doesn’t get a fair share of water. India constructed the Farakka dam in West Bengal, about 11 miles from Bangladesh’s border. India maintains that it needs the barrage for the purpose of flushing the Hooghly River to make it free from silt and therefore keep the port of Calcutta operational and also to meet the demand from Kolkata for industrial and domestic use, and for irrigation purposes in other parts of West Bengal. 
  3. Religious Persecution of Minorities: Post the ousting of the Hasina government, minorities (mainly Hindus) are facing state and Islamist persecution. Minority religious places and leaders have come under the attack of Islamic fundamentalists. 
  4. Border Issue:  India and Bangladesh have a 2,979 km land border and 1,116 km of the riverine boundary. Due to the porous border, there is rampant smuggling, trafficking in arms, drugs and people.
  5. Illegal  Immigration / NRC Issue:   Historically people of Bangladesh have been moving into the region of Brahmaputra valley due to the lack of habitable and arable land in Bangladesh. India perceives this movement as illegal immigration into Indian territory. According to the NRC draft, 40 lakh people living in (just) Assam are Bangladeshis. India’s initiation of the National Registration of Citizenship and Citizen Amendment Act has ignited popular resentment in Bangladesh. 
  6. Chakma Refugee Issue: The Chakmas and Hajongs living in the Chittagong Hill Tracts fled erstwhile East Pakistan in 1964-65 since they lost their land to the development of the Kaptai Dam. In addition, they also faced religious persecution as they were non-Muslims and did not speak Bengali. They eventually sought asylum in India. The Indian government set up relief camps in Arunachal Pradesh and a majority of them continue to live there even after five decades. According to the 2011 census, 47,471 Chakmas live in Arunachal Pradesh alone.
  7. Transit  Rights:  India wants transit rights to develop its North-East but Bangladeshis see it as an infringement of its sovereignty.
  8. Security  Concerns:  Bangladesh provides safe havens to insurgents active in North East.
  9. Tipaimukh  Hydro-Electric  Power  Project built by India on the  Barak river at the junction of Mizoram, Assam and Manipur for electricity generation (capacity = 1500 MW) and irrigation. Bangladesh says that the dam will affect the water supply downstream and affect the flow of water in summers.
  10. Rohingya crisis: There are 11 lakh Rohingyas refugees in Bangladesh. India is providing financial help to Bangladesh via ‘Operation Insaniyat’ but Bangladesh expects India to put pressure on Myanmar for the repatriation of Rohingyas.
  11. Bangladesh uses China card to supplement its bargaining capacity against India. 
  12. Growing Islamic radicalisation in Bangladesh can destabilise the Indian Subcontinent. The Islamic NGOs of foreign nations have been promoting Wahhabism in Bangladesh. Pakistan has links with many such NGOs in Bangladesh which it uses to target India.
  13. India and Bangladesh compete in some sectors like Textile in the world market.

Conclusion: India should adopt the Gujral doctrine of unilateral support to its smaller neighbours to gain their confidence especially given China’s presence.

Things done by India

  • India has played the main role in Bangladesh’s Independence.
  • Land Boundary issue solved: In 2015 the enclaves of India and Bangladesh in each other’s countries were exchanged and strip maps were signed.   India lost some land and EEZ but accepted the agreement for sake of friendship.
  • Maritime Issue solved: India accepted the settlement of the maritime boundary arbitration between India and Bangladesh, as per the UNCLOS award in 2014 where India lost a large chunk of EEZ.
  • SAARC satellite launched by India provides free access to transponders to Bangladesh.
  • The Visa  regime in India has been liberalized for  Bangladeshi tourists and businesses
  • Border Haats have been developed on Bangladesh-Meghalaya & Bangladesh – Tripura border.
  • 130 km India-Bangladesh Friendship Pipeline Project (from Siliguri (India) to Parbatipur (Bangladesh) has been constructed to transport petroleum to Bangladesh. 
  • India is exporting 660 MW of electricity daily, will add 500 MW more.
  • India provides duty-free, quota-free access for Bangladeshi exports to India.
  • India also gives a line of credits and loans to Bangladesh and provides developmental aid.
  • Indian companies are investing in Bangladesh. E.g., Tata is establishing a three billion USD steel plant in Bangladesh.

Issue: Teesta Water Dispute

54 rivers pass from India to Bangladesh. Being a lower riparian state, Bangladesh is affected by dams built on them.

About Teesta

Teesta Issue
  • Teesta originates in Sikkim & after passing through West Bengal, it enters Bangladesh
  • It is very important for irrigation on both sides.
  • The problem arises due to the severe shortage of water in the dry months.

Issue

  • India has built three Projects on Teesta like Gajoldoba Barrage (in Jalpaigudi) to divert water to other areas. As a result, Indian regions started to prosper but Bangladeshis are raising voice against this.
  • Radical Islamic Parties like Jamaat-i-Islami is using this issue to consolidate people against Sheikh Hasina.
  • In 2011,  Teesta Accord was drafted which proposed to divide Teesta waters between India & Bangladesh in the ratio 50:50% respectively. But, West Bengal Government is acting as an impediment to signing this Accord.

Importance of Teesta Accord for India

  • PM Hasina is an important ally of India who has adopted a zero-tolerance policy against Anti-Indian terror outfits and has helped India in containing the influence of China in the Bay of Bengal region. Signing the deal will consolidate her position in Bangladeshi polity.
  • Not signing such a deal give oxygen to radical elements. Jamiat-e-Islami is becoming powerful by portraying Sheikh Hasina as a puppet of India.

Bangladesh’s trust in India will increase if there are more water-sharing agreements.

Teesta & Indian Internal Politics

  • Teesta is the “lifeline” of north Bengal; ruling parties have never touched it for fear of losing the northern base. 

China Factor in Bangladesh 

  • Bangladesh is part of the One Belt One Road (OBOR project) & has also attended the OBOR Summits.
  • China is increasing its Defence Partnership with Bangladesh. Recently, Bangladesh procured two submarines from Beijing.
  • China is using Bangladesh as an outlet for Kunming Province by investing Chittagong Port Project).
  • Bangladesh is part of the BCIM project.
  • China is financing 25 energy projects in Bangladesh including  Bangladesh’s 2nd Nuclear power plant.
  • Bangabandhu-1, the first communication satellite of Bangladesh will be launched with Chinese help.
  • As part of its soft diplomacy, China is training Bangladeshi personnel, including Chinese language teachers.

But points in Indian favour

  • During the freedom struggle,  Communist China helped Pakistan and opposed the creation of Bangladesh.
  • China also cast a veto in the Security Council to block new Bangladesh’s entry into the United Nations.
  • The issue of China building dams on the Brahmaputra unilaterally impacts Bangladesh as well.

New Moore Island Issue

  • New Moore Island is a small uninhabited offshore sandbar landform in the Bay of Bengal, off the coast of the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta region. It emerged in the Bay of Bengal in the aftermath of the Bhola cyclone in 1970 and disappeared at some later point. For nearly 30 years, India and Bangladesh have argued over control of a tiny rock island in the Bay of Bengal but later in 2010, the rising sea levels have resolved the dispute for them as the island was submerged.
  • New Moore Island, in the Sundarbans, has been completely submerged. Its disappearance has been confirmed by satellite imagery and sea patrols. Bangladesh was using the argument of extension of its continental shelf according to which it can demand up to 350 NM EEZ.  Although the island was uninhabited and there were no permanent settlements or stations located on it, both India and Bangladesh claimed sovereignty over it because of speculation over the existence of oil and natural gas in the region.
  • The Resolution: In the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PAC), the dispute was settled in July 2014 by a final verdict not open to appeal and in favour of Bangladesh. The Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) verdict awarded Bangladesh with 19,467 km2 out of 25,000 km2 disputed area with India in the Bay of Bengal. However, New Moore Island has fallen in India’s part of the Bay of Bengal.
New Moore Island Issue

Land Boundary Agreement

  • When India became independent, Sir Radcliffe demarcated the boundary between India and Pakistan as well as India and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). While dividing the territory in East Pakistan, Radcliffe did not pay attention to small patches of land called ‘enclaves’.
  • These enclaves were, in the pre-independence era, called Chitmahals and they were used by the Raja of Cooch Behar and Maharaja of Rangpur as stakes in the game of chess. In 1947, kings were asked whether to join India or Pakistan (Cooch Bihar joined India and Rangpur joined Pakistan (now Bangladesh)). Hence, Feudal belonging of land in earlier times  is the genesis of the problem
Indo-Bangladesh Land Boundary Agreement

Timeline of Events

1958 Nehru-Noon Agreement to solve this issue but didn’t fructify because of deterioration in the situation.   
1974 – Awami League was in power.  Mujibur Rehman and Indira Gandhi went for Land Boundary Agreement.
– In this, physical exchange of enclaves was to take place.
– But this needed ratification by Parliament with Special Majority.
– Bangladesh ratified this but India failed.
 
1975 Mujibur Rehman was assassinated.  
1982 Until complete exchange takes place, India decided to give a corridor known as Tin Bagha Corridor on lease so that Bangladeshis can use that to come to their enclaves. It was opposed by most of the opposition parties.  
2011 & 2015   – 2011: Awami League came to power (Congress Government in India at that time ).
– India and Bangladesh agreed on a protocol that required Constitutional Amendment. This was passed in 2015 (100th Constitutional Amendment Act ).
– As per this protocol, India gave 111 enclaves and Bangladesh gave 51 enclaves. 
– People living in these enclaves were given the following options
1. They can choose to stay back and acquire new citizenship status.
2. Or can leave the enclave and go back to the country whose citizenship they have.  

Potentials & Prospects

  • North-East India, Bangladesh & Myanmar should create a tourist circuit.
  • Bangladesh is an electricity deficient country.  The hydropower potential of northeastern states and  Bhutan can be harnessed to satisfy the need of Bangladesh. 
  • India can jointly develop Bangladeshi ports  (like Ashuganj)  to connect them with our northeast.
  • BIMSTEC  and  SAARC  have opened up avenues for the multilateral exchange of goods and services.
  • India and Bangladesh can cooperate on climate change as West Bengal and Bangladesh are low lying areas and will face large scale submergence of land due to ocean level rise.

India-Pakistan Relations

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Last Updated: Jan 2025 (India-Pakistan Relations)

India-Pakistan Relations

This article deals with ‘India-Pakistan Relations.’ This is part of our series on ‘International Relations’, which is an important pillar of the GS-2 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Brief History

Common History

  • Pakistan was part of India before 1947. 
  • Pakistan was formed based on the flawed Two Nation Theory. 

J&K Conflict

  • Post-independence, one of the first issues faced by India and Pakistan was the accession of Kashmir. Pakistani Army, under the guise of Tribals, attacked Kashmir. But Maharaja of Kashmir signed ‘Instrument of Accession’ with India. As a result, Indian forces were airlifted to Kashmir, culminating in the creation of Pakistani Occupied Kashmir and the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. Since then, J&K has remained the core issue between India & Pakistan. 

Indo-Pakistan Wars

In the subsequent period, India and Pakistan have fought three wars 

  • War of 1965: India lost to China in 1962, which encouraged Pakistan to take away Kashmir from India via force. But the 1965 war was a military stalemate, and USSR brokered peace between India and Pakistan via Tashkent Agreement. 
  • War of 1971: In December 1970, Pakistan held a general election in which Awami League based in East-Pakistan (led by Sheikh Mujibur Rehman) won the election. The PPP and Awami League failed to reach a power-sharing agreement, and consequently, Awami League supporters in East Pakistan initiated a massive protest to seek autonomy. The Pakistani Army began to suppress the Bengalis in East Pakistan, due to which they began to leave their country and take refuge in India. India’s R&AW saw it as an opportunity to break East Pakistan away from West Pakistan’s control. The R&AW began to train and support the Mukti Bahini movement. Witnessing renewed unrest, the Pakistani Military launched a strike on India in North India. India perceived the attack as an attack on the sovereignty and decided to retaliate militarily. The Indian forces entered deep inside East Pakistan and captured around 90,000 Prisoners of War (POW). Bangladesh was finally born out of the conflict. The crushing defeat of 1971 came as a big blow to Pakistan. 
  • Kargil War of 1999: India fought a brief but bitter conflict with Pakistani-backed forces when they occupied the positions on the Indian side of Line of Control (LOC) in operation code-named as Koh-e-Paima. The plan was to control the heights and push Mujahideens into the valley to create instability.

Cross-border Terrorism

  • Most of the terrorist attacks in India have their origin in Pakistan.
  • India has been a victim of terrorism several times
    • 2001: attack on Indian Parliament 
    • 2008: Mumbai attacks 
    • 2016: Pathankot Airbase Attack
    • 2016: Uri attack on Military base 
    • 2019: Pulwama Attack
  • These attacks have seriously impacted India’s relations with Pakistan. 

Present stalemate in talks

  • India has consistently repeated that Talks cannot resume until Pakistan actually cracks down on state-funded terrorist organizations in the last years. This boycott includes suspension of trade and refusal to attend meetings hosted by Pakistan (including SAARC meetings).  
  • Pakistan has also used various international and regional platforms to raise its voice over the Kashmir issue and the revocation of Article 370 by India in August 2019. 

Timeline

1947
As part of its pullout from the Indian subcontinent, Britain divided it into secular (but mainly Hindu) India and Muslim Pakistan on August 15 and 14.
1947/48 The first India-Pakistan war over Kashmir was fought after armed tribesmen (Lashkars) from Pakistan’s North-West Frontier Province (now called Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa) invaded the disputed territory in October 1947.
1954
The state’s constituent assembly ratified the accession of Jammu and Kashmir to India.
1963
Following the 1962 Sino-Indian war, the foreign ministers of India and Pakistan – Swaran Singh and Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto – held talks under the auspices of the British and America regarding the Kashmir dispute.
1964
Following the failure of the 1963 talks, Pakistan referred the Kashmir case to the UN Security Council.
1965
India and Pakistan fought their second war.
1966
On January 10, 1966, Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistani President Ayub Khan signed an agreement at Tashkent (now in Uzbekistan), agreeing to withdraw to pre-August lines.
1971
India and Pakistan went to war a third time over East Pakistan.
1972
Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi signed an agreement in  Shimla.
1974
The Kashmiri state government affirmed that the state “is a constituent unit of the Union of India”. However, Pakistan rejected the accord with the Indian government.
1988
The two countries signed an agreement that neither side would attack the other’s nuclear installations or facilities.
1989
Armed resistance in the Kashmir valley began.
1998
India detonated five nuclear devices at Pokhran. Pakistan responds by detonating six nuclear devices in the Chaghai Hills.
1999
Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee met with Nawaz Sharif in Lahore. Kargil war was an armed conflict between India and Pakistan later in the same year.
2001
Tensions along the Line of Control remained high, with 38 people killed in an attack on the Kashmiri assembly in Srinagar.
2007
On February 18, the train service between India and Pakistan was bombed near Panipat. Sixty-Eight people were killed. (Samjhauta Express)
2008
Pakistani terrorists attacked Mumbai including Taj Hotel killing 166 people.
2012
In November, India executes Pakistani national Kasab, the lone survivor of a fighter squad that killed 166 people in a rampage through the financial capital Mumbai in 2008, hanging him just days before the fourth anniversary of the attack.
2016
In September, India launched “surgical strikes” on terrorist units in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir, less than two weeks after an attack on an Indian army base left 19 soldiers dead.

2019
In the early hours of February 26, India conducts air attacks against what it calls Pakistan-based rebel group Jaish-e-Mohammad (JeM)’s “biggest training camp”, killing “a very large number of terrorists”.
2020-21
Following the abrogation of Article 370 in J&K, Pakistan has been violating ceasefire violations.

Important Issues

Issue 1: Issues related to Indus Water Treaty,1960

Indus Water treaty

  • It was signed in 1960.
  • It was brokered by World Bank.

Treaty allocates the water in the following manner:-

Eastern Rivers

The water of the following rivers belongs to India exclusively:-
1. Sutlej
2. Ravi
3. Beas
Western Rivers

The water of the following rivers belongs to Pakistan.
1. Chenab
2. Jhelum
3. Indus
However, India can make limited use and build run of the river hydro Projects to generate hydroelectricity. Pakistan has the right to raise objections on the Indian projects if Pakistan is not satisfied with the design of Indian projects on these rivers. 
Indus Water treaty
  • Treaty also established a ‘Permanent Indus Commission (PIC)‘ with each country having one commissioner to share data and cooperate in all the matters related to the treaty. 
  • It is said to be the most successful water treaty globally as it has survived the India-Pakistan wars. 

Should India (unilaterally) review Indus Water Treaty?

Why in the news?

  • Pakistan is stopping India from doing projects like Kishanganga Hydro-Electricity Project (HEP) and taking India to the International Court of Arbitration on minor grounds.
  • Pakistan is sponsoring terrorist attacks in India. In such a situation, the Indian government believes that treaties signed under goodwill shouldn’t be obliged.

Yes, India should review the treaty

  • In 1960, India gave the most genuine deal to a lower riparian state, hoping that Pakistan would ensure peace. But Pakistan didn’t keep its end of the bargain.
  • Kashmir has been suffering because they cant utilize the waters of three rivers, i.e. Indus, Jhelum and Chenab. Even Kashmir Assembly has passed a resolution to revoke the Indus Treaty twice.
  • Given the climate change and melting of the glaciers, a review of the treaty is the need of the hour. 
  • IWT does not provide mechanisms and provisions to deal with groundwater in the Indus Basin. Internationally accepted Campione Rules outline the need to include the water of an aquifer (that is, underground water or fossil water) while determining reasonable equitable share.
  • The Harmon Doctrine: It postulates that every state is sovereign in its water resources and has right to do whatever it likes within its territorial jurisdiction.

Other points to keep in mind

  • It can worsen India’s terror problems as Pakistan uses Indian control over water to recruit terrorists & justify the fight for Kashmir to control Indus.  
  • India is a lower riparian state in many rivers like Satluj, Brahmaputra etc. China can stop water & India will not have a moral high ground to oppose it.
  • Effect on India’s other lower riparian state: The abrogation of the Indus Water Treaty will send an alarming signal to friendly lower riparian countries such as Bangladesh, which receives around 90% water from rivers passing through India. 
  • Indus Water Treaty was signed under the guarantee of the World Bank. India still needs funds from World Bank.
  • It will help Pakistan to Internationalize the Kashmir Issue.
  • Legally, abrogating the treaty isn’t workable. There is no clause in the Indus Water Treaty regarding one party unilaterally denouncing the treaty. Treaty can be modified when both countries ratify the modifications. 
  • Brahma Chellaney (expert on International Water Affairs) believes that future wars in Asia could be driven by issues related to water. The Abrogation of the Indus Water Treaty has the potential to result in such conflict. 

Side Note: Indian Projects on Tributaries of Indus which were contested by Pakistan

ProjectRiver
Kishanganga Project – Kishenganga Project was constructed by India on the Jhelum river.
– It is a run-of-the-river project designed to divert the water of the Kishanganga River to a power plant in the Jhelum River basin. In 2010, Pakistan appealed to the International Court of Justice against the project.
– In the final award of 2013, ICJ has allowed India to complete the construction of the Kishanganga dam with minor modifications.
Wullar Barrage / Tulbul Project 1985 – India constructed barrage on Jhelum river near Wullar lake.
– Pakistan saw it as a violation of the Indus water treaty because of less water flow in the river Jhelum.  
Salal Dam – The issue emerged in 1978 when India constructed Salal Dam 64 kilometres away from the Indo-Pak border on the Chenab River. Pakistan objected to the construction of the Salal Dam. 
– In 1978, after negotiations, India decided to lower the height of the Salal Dam and assured Pakistan that the dam would be used only for the generation of power. 
Ratle Dam India is building the Ratle Hydroelectric project on Chenab. Pakistan has objected to its construction.
Pakal Dul Dam Chenab
Miyar Dam Chenab
Lower Kalnai Dam Chenab
Baglihar   Dam – In 2005, Pakistan objected to India’s 450 Megawatt Baglihar Dam constructed on the Chenab River.
– A neutral expert was appointed for arbitration. The verdict was announced in 2011 in favour of India. 

Issue 2: Kashmir Issue

  • Kashmir issue involves three contesting nationalisms, i.e. Indian, Pakistani & Kashmir.  
  • At the time of independence, a Princely State could either join India or Pakistan, as was announced in the provision by Lord Mountbatten. Kashmir posed some difficulty because it was a Muslim-majority state ruled by a Hindu monarch, Maharaja Hari Singh. Initially, Hari Singh was reluctant to join either India or Pakistan. Meanwhile, Pakistan launched a campaign by sending its troops disguised as tribesmen to annex the Kashmir state forcefully. He approached Delhi and signed Instrument of Accession acceding Kashmir to India, after which Indian forces landed in Kashmir to stop falling the whole Kashmir valley into the hands of invaders. 
  • Under the influence of Mountbatten, JL Nehru took the issue of J&K to the UN for dispute resolution. It was decided in the UN that two states would maintain the status quo, i.e. Pakistani infiltrators who came to Kashmir would withdraw & then a plebiscite would take place. India alleged that the stalemate over Kashmir could not end. A plebiscite could not happen as Pakistan did not withdraw its troops from the PoK, which was a necessary condition for restoring peace leading to a future plebiscite.
  • Later it became part of Cold war politics. This issue was regularly supported by the US because Pakistan was part of the capitalist block & India stalled all such moves with the help of the veto power of Russia. 
  • In the Shimla Agreement of 1972, it was decided that India & Pakistan would resolve this issue bilaterally & any third power wouldn’t be involved.        
  • The situation deteriorated at the end of the 1980s and the start of the 1990s. The reasons for this were as follows
    1. In 1989, as Soviet rule ended, Pakistan’s ISI started developing confidence that a successfully trained Mujahedeen campaign could also be launched in Kashmir. Hence, they started a proxy war against India by weaponizing & training militants. 
    2. In the 1980s, various social and religious organizations that wanted to resolve the Kashmir issue peacefully formed the Muslim United Front (MUF). They participated in the 1987 elections but were badly defeated. The MUF alleged that the elections were rigged, after which the MUF candidate Mohammad Yusuf Shah was imprisoned. As the MUF cadres were suppressed, they began to cross over to Pakistan for support, where ISI started to train them with arms and ammunition. The JKLF militants attacked a Hindu Kashmiri Pandit, Tika Lal Taploo, in 1989 and asserted that Kashmiri Pandits should leave the valley immediately, resulting in the mass exodus of Kashmiri Pandits.
  • From 1999 to 2002, the ISI used Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammad in a ‘fidayeen phase‘ of the campaign. The idea was to attack army camps, zero down on targets, terrorize the Kashmiri population and cause a psychological blow to the Indian forces, Indian people and the Indian state.  
  • Kashmiri Intifada: Burhan Wani was the commander of Hizb-ul-Mujahedeen of South Kashmir. On July 8, 2016, the Indian armed forces killed Wani in an encounter. His death led to an upsurge in the valley. Lakhs of people attended his funeral. The ISI, through social media, instigated the youth to resort to stone-pelting against the Indian forces. Stone pelting in 2016-17 has emerged as a cult in Kashmir.  
  • Repealing Article 370: On August 5, 2019, the President of India gave assent to the constitutional amendment, which abolished Article 370 of the Indian constitution. It led to a major upsurge in the state. 

Gilgit-Baltistan Issue

  • Gilgit Baltistan was part of the erstwhile princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. It has been under Pakistan’s control since 1947, following the invasion of Kashmir by tribal militias and the Pakistan army.
  • In 1949, it was renamed as ‘Northern Areas of Pakistan’ and put under the direct control of the Pakistan federal government.
  • In 2020, it was made the fifth province of Pakistan. 
Gilgit-Baltistan Issue

India’s stand on Gilgit-Baltistan

  • India believes that the entire Union Territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh, including areas of Gilgit and Baltistan, are “an integral part of India”.
  • Before this move, Pakistan’s federal institutions had maintained that Gilgit-Baltistan is an UN-disputed area. Its residents cannot be declared citizens of Pakistan until India and Pakistan resolve the issue of Jammu and Kashmir.

Importance of Gilgit-Baltistan

  • Strategic Location: Gilgit Baltistan lies at the intersection of the Indian Subcontinent, Central Asia and China.
  • Large Territory: The territory of Gilgit Baltistan is more than five times larger than Pakistan occupied Kashmir. It consists of two ethno-geographically distinct regions: Baltistan, which was part of Ladakh, and Gilgit.
  • Water and Energy Security: Gilgit Baltistan is also significant due to its water and energy resources. Before entering Pakistan, the Indus River passes through it. Important glaciers like Siachen Glacier are located here. The hydroelectric potential of the Indus River makes it vital for energy security as well.
  • Chinese Interference: China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) passes through Gilgit Baltistan, and China is building large-scale infrastructure in this area.

Issue 3: Terrorism

  • Almost all terror attacks in India originate from Pakistan. For example
    • 2001: Parliament Attack 
    • 2008: Attack in Mumbai
    • 2016: Pathankot Airbase Attack  
    • 2016: Uri Attack
    • 2019: 44 CRPF men killed in an IED attack in Pulwama 
  • Terrorist groups which attack India are active in Pakistan & terrorists are trained on Pakistani soil. E.g., Jaish-e-Mohammad, Hizb-ul-Mujahidin etc., operates from safe havens in Pakistan. 

Why Pakistan is using terrorism as tool ?

  • The realisation that Pakistan can’t defeat India in a conventional war. As a result, the Deep State in Pakistan has nurtured Islamic Radical Groups (Mujahideens) as strategic assets. 
  • After the success of Afghan Mujahideens against the USSR, the Pakistani Deep State started to use it as a strategy against India in Kashmir.  
  • It is part of ISI and Pakistan Army’s ‘Bleeding India by Thousand Cuts‘ approach.
  • Whenever the governments of two nations have tried to indulge in confidence-building measures (Bus Diplomacy, Sports, Summits, Kartarpur Corridor), the Pakistani deep state has used cross-border terror activities to derail such Indo-Pak dialogue.

What should be India’s response?

India is responding in a very responsible way and has always stressed on making this area terrorism free. India believes that all the nations in Asia must ensure that their lands are not used for terrorist activities.

  • Diplomatic Isolation of Pakistan: But Pakistan hasn’t responded to these urges. Hence, India should expose Pakistan on various International and regional platforms and isolate Pakistan on the international front.
  • Use Financial Action Task Force (FATF) to blacklist Pakistan (Pakistan is already in Greylist). 
  • Mossad Way: India should carry out covert operations inside Pakistan to kill high-value human targets.
  • Conducting Surgical Strikes on the training camps in Pakistan to neutralise the terrorists (as was conducted by the Indian army post-Uri attack). 
  • Pressurising China to stop giving unconditional support to Pakistan.
  • Support Balochis and other sub-entities in their fight for independence to bleed Pakistan as a counter-strategy. 
  • Economic Efforts: Indian government has already withdrawn the “Most Favoured Nation” or MFN status accorded to Pakistan to punish it for supporting terrorism in India. 
  • India should take a leading role in the process to adopt a universal definition of terrorism and steps needed to tackle it under the Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism (CCIT).

Issue 4: Siachin Glacier

India-Pakistan Relationship

Importance of Siachen glacier

  • It is the largest source of fresh water in the Indian sub-continent.
  • Siachin is the source of the Nubra river that feeds the mighty Indus.
  • Siachen is near Karakoram pass, forming almost a triangle with India, China & Pakistani Occupied Kashmir.

Disagreement

  • Line of Control in J&K is as per the Shimla Agreement of 1972. But the boundary was specified only till NJ-9842, from where Siachen starts. Both countries claim Siachin belongs to it.
  • The matter was non-controversial till the 1980s. In 1984, the Indian R&AW realized that Pakistan Army had purchased specialized clothing for very low temperatures from a supplier in London. The R&AW alerted the Indian army, and during one of the operations, the military found a Pakistani expedition team in a place near Siachen. Before the Pakistani expedition could resort to any adventurism, the Indian army launched Operation Meghdoot, and Indian troops captured it. Now India controls the heights.

Should Siachen be demilitarised?

Yes, it should be demilitarised

  • India lost around a thousand army personnel due to weather-related casualties, and ₹7,500 crore was spent on military operations in the last 4 years. 
  • At Siachen glacier, temperatures dip to as low as – 45° C, making it the world’s highest & the most challenging battlefield.  
  • Due to global warming, glaciers are becoming very unstable. As a result frequency of Avalanches has increased. 
  • Demilitarization would increase trust and confidence between India and Pakistan.

No, it shouldn’t be demilitarised

Siachen is strategically important to India for a number of reasons such as 

  1. Saltoro Ridge at Siachen overlooks the entire region and provides an advantage of height.
  2. Control of the area prevents Pakistani and Chinese troops from linking up.
  3. Pakistan’s control over Siachin will make Leh and Kargil vulnerable as control over Siachin will give Pakistan the ability to oversee the Ladakh region and the crucial Leh-Srinagar highway.

Way Forward : India can demilitarise the Siachin Glacier provided that present situation is recorded and Pakistan assures to maintain status quo .

Issue 5: Sir Creek Issue

Sir Creek is a 96 km strip of water that is disputed between India & Pakistan. Originally named Ban Ganga, Sir Creek is named after a British representative. The Creek opens up in the Arabian Sea and roughly divides the Kutch region of Gujarat from the Sindh Province of Pakistan. The dispute lies in interpreting the maritime boundary line between Kutch and Sindh.

Sir Creek Issue
  • The dispute lies in the interpretation of the maritime line between Pakistan & India.
  • Pakistan lays claim to the entire creek as per the Sind Government Resolution of 1914 signed between then Government of Sindh and Rao Maharaj of Kutch. 
  • India sticks to its position that the boundary lies mid-channel, as depicted in another map drawn in 1925. Further, India supports its stance by citing the Thalweg Doctrine in International law.   
  • The issue involves losing a vast amount of Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) rich with gas and mineral deposits. 

Problems arising due to unresolved dispute

  • A maritime boundary isn’t properly demarcated, which creates confusion for fishermen. Their boats cross boundaries & they end up being arrested by the other side.
  • Creates security problems as well like
    • Terrorists are frequently using this route to enter India.
    • Even 2008 Mumbai Attackers used this route.
  • Cartels (drugs & illegal weapons etc.) transact their business in the disputed waters so that they are beyond the reach of both Indian and Pakistani agencies.
  • It creates problems in exploiting resources as the region is rich in oil and gas below the sea bed.

Areas of Engagement

The focus should be on low hanging fruits for building amicable Indo-Pak relations

  • People to People contact by opening religious tourism to places like Kartarpur Sahib Nankana Sahib (birthplace of Guru Nanak Dev ji), Katas Raj Temple (Hindu temple in Pakistan), Ajmer Sharif (Sufi shrine in India) etc.
  • Trade and Commerce: India and Pakistan collectively constitute 90% of the region’s GDP, and peace between the two states could yield a 405% rise in trade at the bilateral level.
  • Electric grid: Pakistan is an electricity deficit while India has become surplus. 
  • Medical tourism
  • Energy pipeline: TAPI, IPI pipelines etc.
  • Social networking platforms have led people from the two states to establish a connection.
  • Bollywood and Pollywood: Hindi and Punjabi movies have a huge demand in Pakistan. 

It is advised that both countries shift their focus from geopolitics to geoeconomics to boost their economies and bring millions out of poverty. Both countries should remove their preconditions to start the talks.