Geography

Ethical Governance is a corruption-free, moral and people-centric government.

People think that concept of Good Governance is modern. But they are wrong. Many times in past, scholars have conceptualized what constitutes good governance.

Kautilya

• Kautilya, in his Arthashastra, wrote, “In the happiness of subjects lies the happiness of king and in the welfare of subjects lies the welfare of king. ” Hence, he has written about Citizen-Centric Government.  
• Kautilya has also highlighted the corruption & given the concept of Kantakshodhana, i.e. king should purge those elements strictly. 

Gandhi’s Vision of Ramrajya

• The vision of Ramrajya, or the ideal state, involves Governance based on Moral Principles like nonviolence, truth, and righteousness. 
• Gandhi said that government which is not working in the people’s interest is morally corrupt. 
• Swaraj, i.e. Self Rule, is one of the pillars of his Ramrajya or Good Governance. 

Aristotle

He has divided the government into two parts 

• Perverted Government: Power is used in the interest of the ruling class
• Legitimate Government: Power is used in the public interest 

Rule of Law

• Rule of Law involves governance based upon rules and regulations 
• In modern times, these rules & regulations are codified in the country’s constitution and laws. 

People’s Participation

• Real democracy doesn’t just mean voting to elect government but the participation of people in governance itself. 
• The mechanism of people’s participation in contemporary times are

Consensus Orientation

• Consensus Orientation in governance involves seeking input from various individuals and groups affected by a decision or policy, aiming to reach a consensus that considers the diverse perspectives and interests involved.
• Ethical Governance is opposite to the ‘Winner takes All’ approach. 

Equity and Inclusiveness

• The distribution of resources should be based on the principle of equity so that different sections of society receive these resources based on their need
• Inclusiveness involves including weaker sections in decision-making.

Effective and Efficient

• Effective government achieves the targets in the stipulated time. 
• An efficient government is one which delivers maximum with minimum resources 

Accountable

• Discussed separately (CLICK HERE)

Transparent

• The literal meaning of Transparency is openness 
• Tools of Transparency include RTI, E-Governance etc.
• Dealt exclusively in a separate article (CLICK HERE)

Responsive

• A responsive government is one which positively responds to people’s demands, needs and aspirations in a timely manner.

For this, we need to take various steps in various fields

1. Political Structure

• Enforce expenditure limits on elections strictly 
• Bring Political Parties under RTI
• Remove excessive protection given to tainted politicians 

2. Statutory Structure

2nd Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) has given various recommendations in this regard

• Amend the Prevention of Corruption Act 
• Integrity Pacts – When Government Organisation signs any contract with a Private organization, sign integrity pacts stating that if Private Organisation is found involved in any wrongdoing, the contract will cancel automatically. 

3. Institutional Structure

• Strengthen and give more teeth to CVC, Lokpal, CBI etc.

4. Social Infrastructure

Take help of society in reducing corruption and increasing Ethical Governance

• Give Civic Education in Schools.  
• False Claims Act (USA): If you think there is wrongdoing in some organization, gather evidence & produce it before the court. If the fine is imposed on that organization, some portion of money from that fine will be given to the litigant. 
• Social Audit: Social Audit is the audit through client or beneficiary groups or civil society groups (i.e. stakeholders) to ensure the social accountability of an organization.

• Conventional: Conventional energy sources refer to the traditional methods of generating power that has been widely used for many years—E.g., Coal, Petroleum etc.
• Non-Conventional: Non-conventional sources of energy are energy resources that are not derived from traditional fossil fuels—E.g. Solar, Wind etc.

Types of Coal

1. Peat

• It has the highest percentage of moisture & gives more smoke.
• Carbon content is 40% (lowest).
• It represents the very first stage of coal formation. 

2. Lignite

• It is also known as Brown Coal and is superior to Peat.
• Under pressure & heat, with time, Peat converts to lignite.
• Carbon content is 40-60%.
• In India, it is found in Neyveli (Tamil Nadu) (largest deposit), Palana (Rajasthan), and Lakhimpur (Assam).

3. Bituminous

• It is also known as Black Coal.  
• It is dense, compact & black in colour.
• Carbon content is 60-80%.
• Almost 80% of Indian Coal is Bituminous. 
• It is found in Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal & Madhya Pradesh.

4. Anthracite

• It is known as Hard Coal.
• When buried deep, all moisture gets expelled & Anthracite coal is formed.
• Carbon content is 80-90%.
• It has a short flame & is the most expensive of all.
• In India, Anthracite coal is found only in Jammu and Kashmir (Kalakot).

Distribution of Coal in the World

1. China

• China has the largest reserves in the world (12%).
• Overwhelming concentrations are found around
  • Hwang Ho river basin, particularly in Shansi
  • Manchurian coal fields 
  • Shantung Hupei fields

2. USA

• The USA has the second largest reserves in the world.
• Main coal regions
  • Appalachian Region
  • Arkansas Rocky Region
  • Illinois 
  • Indiana

3. Australia

• Australia has the fourth largest coal reserves, but they are substantially unexploited.
• Main regions
  1. Queensland
  2. Tasmania
  3. New South Wales
  4. Victoria

4. Russia

• Though coal reserves decreased after disintegration but have substantial reserves.
• Main coal regions
  1. Pechora coal basin
  2. Kuznetsk region
  3. Moscow-Tula region

5. Ukraine

• A substantial amount of coal reserves are found in Donetsk Basin.

6. Germany

• Germany is the largest coal producer in mainland Europe. 
• Main coal regions
  1. Ruhr Valley
  2. Saxony 
  3. Saar Basin

7. South Africa

• The main coal regions in South Africa include Transvaal, Cape Province, and New Castle.  

Indian Coal

• India has the third largest coal reserves in the world, but coal is of medium quality.
• India coal was not formed in the Carboniferous period. (Hence, it is not Anthracite)
• Most of the Indian Coal was formed in the Gondwana period. Hence, approx. 80% of Indian coal is Bituminous and non-coking grade.
• Since Indian Coal is of non-coking grade, it can’t be used as a reducing agent in metallurgical processes. Hence, coking coal is imported 
• Indian coal has low sulphur but high moisture. Thus it produces more smoke.

Formation of Indian Coal

Coal formation spans millions of years, involving the accumulation and transformation of organic matter. Globally, the formation of coal can be traced back to Carboniferous Period. But in India, most of the coal is from the Gondwana period. Coal formation begins with the accumulation of plant material in swamps and marshes to form peat. As more layers of plant material accumulated, the weight of the overlying sediment and the pressure from the Earth’s crust compressed the peat, gradually transforming it into coal, in the process known as coalification.

In India, Coal occurs in the rock sequences of two geological ages, i.e. Gondwana and Tertiary deposits.

1. Gondwana Coal

• It was formed 570-275 million years ago (due to in Damodar-Mahanadi Rift) 
• Most of the coal reserves in India consist of Gondwana coal.
• Gondwana coal is of Bituminous type.

2. Tertiary Coal

• Tertiary coal belongs to the Oligocene period (15 to 60 million years ago).
• 2% of coal reserves in India is of Tertiary coal
• Tertiary coal has low carbon content, in the range of 40-60%.
• The largest deposit of Tertiary coal is found in Neyveli in Tamil Nadu.

Indian Distribution

1. Bituminous Coal

2. Lignite Coal

3. Anthracite Coal

Only found in one place

Problems of Indian Coal 

• India doesn’t has high-grade coking coal. Hence, India depends on imports to meet domestic requirements.
• Regulatory challenges: A stricter regulatory framework for land acquisition, resettlement and rehabilitation, and environment management leads to a higher cost of compliance for access and extraction of coal.
• Good & low-grade coal are found together in Indian mines. Mining companies do selective mining & extract good coal, leaving bad coal behind. Selective mining is wasteful.
• India does open-cast mining—in contrast to underground mining worldwide. The open cast is cheaper but is associated with high pollution.
• Deep mining techniques used in India are primitive, leading to high causalities.
• Poor connectivity from coal mines to consumer locations via railways leads to a mismatch of demand and supply.
• Mining is primarily done by PSUs (Coal India). Their efficiency is low.  
• The poor financial state of DISCOMs: This has led to a financial challenge in the overall power sector. Several states, including Jharkhand and Maharashtra, have large outstanding dues to coal companies.

Petroleum is obtained from sedimentary rocks of Marine origin of the Tertiary period. 

Theory of Origin

• The origin of Petroleum & Natural gas is considered to be organic. Marine Living Organisms (like fish and microscopic plants and animals) got buried under accumulated sediments of crude mud, silt & sand and underwent a chemical change to form crude oil and natural gas due to high pressure & heat after millions of years. It is the reason why oil is found in many seabed. 
• The point to note is that where ever oil is found on land, that region must have been undersea in the geological history because that is the only way living organisms can be settled there and then pressurized to form oil. 
• E.g. the Middle East has enormous oil reserves because of the same reason. From 500-100 million years ago (MYA), large portions of the modern-day Middle East were submerged under a large, now non-existent sea called the Tethys Sea. Rivers feeding this ancient ocean saturated it with nutrients, giving rise to massive numbers of microscopic animals. They died & fell to the bottom of the sea, which was pressurized to form oil.

Some History

• The first oil well was constructed in the USA in 1859.
• In India, Petroleum was first discovered at Margherita (upper Assam) in 1860 by Assam Railway & Trading Company & then in Digboi in 1869.
• ONGC was established in 1956. Later, ONGC discovered oil in the Gulf of Khambat in 1961 & Bombay High in 1976.

Global Distribution

1. North America

2. South America

3. Europe

4. Asia

5. Africa

Indian Distribution

Side Topic: Grades of Crude Oil

There are various grades of Crude Oil

PYQ: The term ‘West Texas Intermediate’, sometimes found in news, refers to a grade of (UPSC CSE 2020)  

1. Crude oil 
2. Bullion  
3. Rare earth elements  
4. Uranium

• Sedimentary rocks in which hydrocarbons are trapped often hold gas, which may be in association with crude oil or alone.
• It consists primarily of methane, which is lighter than air & toxic. It requires air-tight tanks for storage & similarly, leakproof pipes or trucks for transport, raising capital costs.

Global Distribution

Indian Distribution

• In India,
  natural gas is found along with oil reserves. India does not have
  exclusive natural gas reserves. 
• Oil &
  Natural gas Commission(ONGC) does the exploration of Natural Gas.
• According to
  the estimate, the total Natural Gas reserve is about 450 billion cubic
  metres.

• In India, potential Natural
  Gas sites in India are
  1. Bombay High
     
  2. Gujarat
  3. Assam
  4. KG Basin
  5. Kaveri Basin
• After 1990, production of
  natural gas increased phenomenally yet production falls short of demand,

• Shale oil, often known as “tight oil,” is found in lesser quantities and deeper than conventional crude reserves. Its extraction requires creating fractures in oil and gas-rich shale to release hydrocarbons through hydraulic fracking.
• Note: Shale is Sedimentary Rock 
• It is colourless, odourless & lighter than air.
• In India, potential Shale Gas reserves are in
  1.  Cambay
  2. Gondwana 
  3. Krishna-Godavari (K-G) Basin  
  4. Cauvery Basin 
  5. Ganga Basin 
  6. Assam – Arakan Basin 
  7. Barmer Hill Formation (Rajasthan)

Two main sources of Uranium are Pitchblende (containing 50-80% Uranium) & Uraninite (containing 65-80% Uranium).

Naturally occurring Uranium is composed of

Global Distribution

Significant uranium deposits are found in

1. Kazakhstan
2. Canada (Athabasca Basin)
3. Australia
4. Niger
5. Namibia

Distribution in India

In India, Uranium is found in the following areas

India produces 2% of the total Uranium produced in the world. 

Important Note 

• Uranium Corporation of India Ltd. (UCIL) is responsible for mining uranium ore for commercial purposes.  
• Uranium mined by the UCIL is used for both weapons and civil nuclear programs. The imported Uranium is used for civil nuclear energy purposes only. 

Uranium Mining Issues 

• Uranium contamination of groundwater due to Mining
• Uranium deposits in India are primarily of low grade (less than 0.15% Uranium). 
• Problems with land acquisition
• Issues of rehabilitation and resettlement of affected persons

• In nature, there is more Thorium than Uranium. 
• Two primary sources of Thorium are Monazite sands & Allanite. 
• As such, Thorium found in Monazite is fertile but can be converted to fissile material Uranium.

Global Distribution

Significant uranium deposits are found in

1. Brazil
2. Australia
3. USA
4. Egypt

Distribution in India

• India has the largest reserve of Thorium in the world.
• Main reserves include 
  • Monazite beach sand in Kerala 
  • Found in Andhra (largest producer), Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Kerala and West Bengal

• Minerals containing one or more metallic elements are called metallic minerals.
• Metallic Minerals provide a strong base for the development of the metallurgical industry & hence the process of industrialization.

• Iron ore is the most critical mineral on which a nation’s economy hinges.
• In 2018, India became the 2nd largest producer of Steel in the world, following China.
• India has the largest reserve of iron ore in Asia.
• Haematite and Magnetite are the two primary varieties of iron ore found in our nation.
• Due to its superior quality, Indian iron ore is in high demand in the global market.
• In the country’s north-eastern plateau region, the iron ore mines are located adjacent to the coal fields, adding to their advantage. 

4 Main Ore Types

1. Magnetite

• It is also known as Black Ochre.
• It has a high iron content of up to 70%. 
• As the name suggests, it has magnetic properties. 
• The largest concentration of Magnetite is found in Sweden, Liberia & former USSR. It is found in India as well.
• It is used in Electronic industries. 

2. Haematite

• It is the industrially most important ore.
• It contains 50-65 % iron content 
• It is known as Red ochre. 
• The largest concentration of Haematite is found in the Lake Superior Region, Labrador & Quebec in Canada, Guinea Highlands in Venezuela, Brazil etc. & the Dharwarian & Singhbhum rocks of India.
• In India, it is found in the Chotanagpur Plateau region, Dharawar & Cuddapah systems of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu (Salem, Tiruchi) & Goa.
• The main use of Haematite is in the iron & steel industries. 

3. Limonite

• Limonite has less than 50% iron content.
• It is yellow in colour.
• It is used as pigment for paint manufacturing.

4. Siderite

• Siderite is the carbonate of iron. It is found interbedded in sedimentary rocks. 
• Iron content is 20-30%. Hence, it is economically unviable to extract.
• It acts as a source of Manganese & Magnesium.

Distribution in World

Distribution in India

The country’s total reserves of iron ore were about 20 billion tonnes in 2004-05. Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Karnataka, Andhra, Telangana, and Tamil Nadu contain over 95% of the country’s iron ore deposits.

1. Odisha

• Iron ore occurs in a series of hill ranges in Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj and Jhar. 
• Important mines are Gurumahisani, Sulaipet, Badampahar, Mayurbhanj, Kiruburu (Kendujhar) & Bonai (Sundergarh).

Details of Important Mines

2. Jharkhand

• There are some of the oldest iron ore mines & steel plants in this region. 
• The most important mines are Noamundi and Gua in Poorbi and Pashchimi Singhbhum districts. 

3. Chhattisgarh

Bailadila (Bastar) , Dalli Rajhara (Durg) & Dantewara are important mines in Chattisgarh

Details of Important Mines

4. Karnataka

In Karnataka, Iron ore is found in the following areas

• Sandur-Hospet area of Ballari/Bellary district.
• Baba Budan Hills and Kudremukh of Chikkamagaluru district.
• Parts of Shivamogga, Chitradurg & Tumakuru districts.

Details of Important Mines

5. Maharashtra

• Found in districts of Chandrapur, Bhandara and Ratnagiri. 

6. Telangana

• Found in Karimnagar and Warangal district.

7. Andhra Pradesh

• Found in Kurnool, Cuddapah and Anantapur districts. 

8. Tamil Nadu

• Found in Salem and Nilgiri districts. 

9. Goa

• Iron ore is found in North Goa. 
• Mormugao port provides an additional advantage from where Iron ore is exported to Iran & Japan.

• India is 5th largest producer of Manganese in the world.
• About 1/5 of Indian Manganese is exported mainly to Japan.

Uses

• Manganese is needed during iron forging. If Manganese is not added to iron, iron breaks. It makes steel anticorrosive, hard& tough.
• It is used to produce alloys by mixing with Copper, Bronze, Nickel etc.
• It is also used in manufacturing insecticides & pesticides, photography and dry battery.

Global Distribution

Distribution in India

Almost all geological formations include deposits of Manganese. However, it is mainly associated with the Dharwar system.

Note: Manganese was mined for the first time in Srikakulam (1892) in Andhra Pradesh.

• Copper is a soft brown metal found in igneous & metamorphic rocks.
• The main ores of Copper are Cuprite, Malachite, Chalcocite & Bornite.
• In the electrical industry, Copper is a crucial metal for producing cables, electric motors, transformers, and generators.
• It is alloyable, malleable and ductile and a good conductor of heat and electricity. Since gold is a soft metal, Copper is mixed with it to strengthen jewellery.
• The most important alloys of Copper include
  1. Brass: Alloy of Copper and Zinc
  2. Bronze: Alloy of Copper and Tin

Global Distribution

Distribution in India

Indian share in world production is 4%. India isn’t self-sufficient and imports Copper from Zimbabwe, Australia, USA & Mexico.

• Gold is known as the international currency.
• Properties: durable, doesn’t rust, luster, malleable & ductile. 
• It is used as an ornament as well as to mint coins (historically).

Global Distribution

Distribution in India

About 90% of production is from Karnataka & rest is from Rajasthan, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Bihar & Andhra Pradesh. Three important gold fields in India.

1. Karnataka

1.1 Kolar Gold Mines, Mysore

• Mining started here in 1871.
• It still contributes 60 % of the total production of the country.
• The mine is more than 3000 m deep, and almost all gold has been extracted.

1.2 Hutti Goldfield, Raichur dist.

• It is the only gold-producing company in India. 

2. Andhra Pradesh

• Ramgiri Goldfield and Anantapur.

3. Placer or Alluvial gold

• Gold is obtained from sand & sedimentary deposits of the river.
• It is found in the Subarnrekha river in Jharkhand &  Lo in the Singhbhum district of the Chotanagpur plateau.

• Indian Peninsula is traversed by a large number of rivers which have existed for a much longer period than the Himalayan rivers. As such, the peninsular rivers have reached a mature stage and almost reached the base level of erosion. 
• Due to the low gradient, the velocity and the load-carrying capacity of the river are low, and the rivers form big deltas at their mouths. It is especially observed in the east-flowing rivers pouring into the Bay of Bengal. 
• But the west-flowing rivers of Narmada and Tapi and those originating from the Western Ghats and emptying their water in the Arabian Sea form estuaries instead of deltas.
• Some of the rivers also have waterfalls. E.g., The Jog Falls on the Shravati (289 m), Sivasamandram on the Cauvery (101 m) and Dhuandar (15 m) on the Narmada 

• Geologists think of the Sahyadri-Aravali axis as the primary water divide in the past. 
• It assumes that the existing Indian Peninsula is the remaining part of a bigger landmass, with the Western Ghats located in the middle of the landmass dividing the entire drainage into two symmetrical parts – one flowing in the east and the other flowing in the west. But the western part of the Peninsula cracked and submerged in the Arabian Sea and disturbed the symmetrical plan of the rivers on either side of the watershed during the early Tertiary period.
• During the collision of the Indian plate, a second major distortion was introduced in the Peninsular block, and it was subjected to subsidence and consequent trough faulting through which now flow the main west-flowing Peninsular rivers, i.e. the Narmada and the Tapi. 

Although the general direction of flow of the Peninsular Rivers is from west to east, a careful study reveals at least three main directions of flow.

1. Cauvery, Krishna, Godavari, Mahanadi and several smaller rivers drain southeast into the Bay of Bengal.
2. Narmada, Tapi and several small streams originating from the Western Ghats flow westward into the Arabian Sea.
3.  Chambal, Betwa, Ken, Son, and Damodar (tributaries of Ganga and Yamuna) flow in a north-easterly direction.

Origin

• Western flanks of Amarkantak Plateau in Madhya Pradesh

Length

• 1310 Km (largest west-flowing river)

Flow

• After rising from the Amarkantak Plateau, it flows through the rift valley between Vindhya & Satpura ranges.
• For 1078 km, it flows through Madhya Pradesh. Later, it forms the boundary between Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh for 32 km and between Maharashtra and Gujarat for another 40 km. Finally, it meets the Gulf of Khambhat after travelling for 160 km in Gujarat, forming an estuary.
• There are several islands in the estuary formed by Narmada, of which Aliabet is the largest.
• Near Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh), the world-famous Dhuandhar Falls (15 m) lies on it.

Hydro Projects

• Various Hydro-projects like Indira Sagar, Sardar Sarovar, Omkareshwar, Bargi and Maheshwar have been constructed on it.

Origin

• Near Multai Reserve Forest in the Satpura Range (Madhya Pradesh)

Length

• 730 km (second largest west-flowing river)

Course of River

• Tapi originates from Multai Reserve Forest and flows through the plains of Vidharbha, Khandesh and Gujarat, passing through (large areas of) Maharashtra and (small parts of) Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. 
• It finally falls into the Gulf of Khambhat near Surat, making an estuary.
• Note: Almost the whole of its course is below Satpura.  
• Important industrial area of Surat (famous for the textile industry) and Nepanagar (famous for the paper and newsprint industry) lies in its basin. 
• It is also known as ‘The Twin or Handmaid of Narmada’. 

Hydro Projects

• Various Hydro-projects like Hathnur Dam, Girna Dam and Dahigam Weir (in Maharashtra) and Kakrapar Weir and Ukai Dam (in Gujarat) have been constructed on it.

Origin

• Vindhya Ranges

Length

• 533 Km

Course of River

• After rising from Vindhya Ranges, it flows through Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat and empties itself in the Gulf of Khambat.

Origin

• West of Ajmer in Aravalli Range

Length

• 482 km

Course of River

• It rises west of Ajmer from the Aravalli range and flows southward.
• It is unique as it flows through the Thar Desert.
• It is known as Sagarmati in the upper course.
• Near Govindgarh, it joins Sarsuti/Saraswati (which originates from Pushkar Lake), and from this confluence, it gets its proper name as the Luni.
• It is finally lost in Rann of Kachchh. 
• Note: River is named so because its water is brackish below Balotra.

• The Western Ghats are the source of about 600 small streams that run west and ultimately drain into the Arabian Sea. 
• The Western Ghats receive large rainfall from the southwest monsoons, large enough to feed many streams. Although it consists of 3% of the areal extent of the basins of India, they contain about 18% of the country’s water resources.
• The hydroelectric potential of these rivers is nearly 9500 MW, of which nearly 5500 MW is operational.
• Since these streams receive significant water from the monsoons, they drain excess rainwater to the Arabian Sea. Because of the relatively abundant water available in these rivers, some river water diversion programs have also been undertaken. E.g., 
  • Periyar (west-flowing) – Vaigai (east-flowing) diversion project was developed during the British period, shifting excessive water from Periyar to Vaigai. 
  • Kurnool-Cuddapah Canal, which was initially planned for irrigation as well as navigation 

6.1 Mandovi and Zuari (Goa)

• Mandovi (Mahadayi) and Zuari are the main rivers of Goa.
• Both originate in the Western Ghats.
• They finally fall into the Arabian Sea.
• Famous Dudhsagar Falls lies on the Mandovi River. 
• Currently, the Mahadayi river water dispute is going on between Goa, Karnataka and Maharashtra.

6.2 Kalinadi, Sahravati & Netravati (Karnataka)

• Kalinadi, Shravati and Netravati are the major rivers of Karnataka, which originate in the Western Ghats and fall into the Bay of Bengal.
• Among them, Shravati is famous for Jog Falls (Gerosoppa Falls), which lies on it.

6.3 Bharatpuzha, Periyar and Pamba (Kerala)

• Bharatpuzha, Periyar and Pamba are the main rivers of Kerala, originating in the Western Ghats.
• Periyar River is vital for agriculture and hydroelectric power.
• Pamba drains into Lake Vembanad.

Origin

• From Ranchi Plateau in Jharkhand

Length

• 395 km

Course of River

• After originating from Ranchi Plateau, it flows southeast and forms a boundary between West Bengal and Odisha.
• It has a large number of waterfalls on it as it leaves Peninsular Plateau.
• Finally, it joins the Bay of Bengal, forming an estuary. 

Origin

• Northern foothills of Dhankarnaya (Chhattisgarh).

Length

• 857 Km

Course of River

• The river originates in the foothills of Dandakaranya and then travels through a saucer-shaped basin called ‘Chhattisgarh Plain’. A number of hills surround this basin, and as a result, it is joined by many tributaries like Ib, Mand, Hasdo and Sheonath on the left bank and Ong, Tel and Jonk on the right bank.
• Later, it enters Odisha, where Hirakud Dam is built on it.
• It forms a gorge on reaching the eastern ghats and empties itself in the Bay of Bengal, forming a (birdfoot) delta. Bhubaneshwar is located on the apex of the Mahanadi delta.

Tributaries

• Left Bank:  Ib, Mand, Hasdo and Sheonath
• Right Bank: Ong, Tel and Jonk

Origin

• Trimbak Plateau of Western Ghats near Nashik (Maharashtra)

Length

• 1465 km (It is the largest Peninsular river and next only to Ganga and Indus Systems)

Other names

• Vridha Ganga
• Dakshin Ganga

Course of River

• From Trimbak Plateau, it flows eastwards till Nashik, from where it leaves the Western Ghats and opens up.
• Subsequently, it receives a large number of tributaries. These include right bank tributaries like Manjra and left bank tributaries like Penganga, Pranhita (Wardha and Wainganga join to form Pranhita), Indravati, Sabri & Sileru.
• After Maharashtra, the river enters Telangana and subsequently to Andhra Pradesh. In Andhra, the river divides itself into two streams, i.e. Gautami Godavari and Vashishta Godavari, before pouring into the Bay of Bengal, forming a delta characterised by a number of Paleochannels & Mangroves associated with lagoons.

Tributaries

A large number of tributaries.

Origin

• Western Ghats near Mahabaleshwar (Maharashtra)  

Length

• 1400 km (it is the second largest Peninsular river)

Course of River

• It rises in Mahabaleshwar, and after passing through Karnataka, it enters Andhra.
• Finally, it merges with the Bay of Bengal, forming a birdfoot delta (Mississippi type). 
• During the flow, it receives tributaries like Koyna,  Ghataprabha, Malprabha, Bhima, Tungabhadra, and Musi are its important tributaries.
• It finally meets the Bay of Bengal, forming a large delta.

About Tributaries

• Koyna is a small tributary but is very famous for Koyna Dam. The Dam was probably the primary cause of the devastating earthquake of 1967.
• Tungabhadra is formed by the merging of the Tunga and Bhadra rivers.
• Musi joins Krishna near Wazirabad. The famous city of Hyderabad is located on its banks.

Origin

• Taal Kaveri on the Brahmagiri hills, situated in Coorg Plateau

Length

• 800 Km

Another name

• Dakshina Ganga or Ganga of the South

Course of River

• It originates at Taal Cauvery and then flows eastwards to reach the Bay of Bengal. 
• About 3% of the Kaveri basin falls in Kerala, 41% in Karnataka and 56% in Tamil Nadu.
• This river is perennial with comparatively lesser fluctuations in flow as its upper catchment area receives rainfall during summer by the southwest monsoon and the lower catchment area during the winter season by the retreating northeast monsoon. 
• It is one of the best-regulated rivers, with 99% of its irrigation potential already harnessed. Major dams include Krishna Raja Sagar Dam (Mysore) and Mettur Dam. 
• During the course, it joins various tributaries. These include left-bank tributaries such as Hemvati and Shimsa and right-bank tributaries such as Kabani, Bhavani, Noyil and Amravati. 
• It finally falls into the Bay of Bengal, a few kilometres above Tiruchirapalli, forming the quadrant Delta in the Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu.

Origin

• Varushand Hills

Course of River

• It flows south of Cauvery and lies entirely in Tamil Nadu. It flows through dry channels, tends to get lost intermittently, and reappears on the surface.

Origin

• Ganga originates as Bhagirathi from Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh in the Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand. 
• Alkananda joins Bhagirathi at Devaprayag. But before the river reaches Devaprayag, the Dhauliganga, the Pindar, and the Mandakini rivers pour into the Alaknanda. 
• Below Devaprayag, the combined water of the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda flows under the name of the Ganga. 

The flow of Ganga in Plains

• Ganga enters plains at Haridwar. 
• From here, it flows in south and southeast directions for a distance of 770 km to reach Allahabad, where the Yamuna joins it. After that, it passes through the Bihar plains. 
• It ceases to be known as Ganga as it turns southeast and south of Farraka near Rajmahal Hills. It splits into Padma in Bangladesh and Hugli in West Bengal. 
• After travelling 220 km further down in Bangladesh, the Brahmaputra (or the Jamuna as it is known here) joins it at Goalundo.
• Further, it meets Meghna and joins the Bay of Bengal.
• The Ganga and the Brahmaputra form the largest delta in the world before entering the Bay of Bengal. The delta comprises a web of distributaries and islands covered by dense forests called the Sundarbans. 

• Thar desert is the 9th largest desert in the world. 
• It lies to the west of Rajasthan Bangar. 
• t is a region of undulating topography with the presence of movable longitudinal sand dunes called the “Dhrian“. 
• The region receives deficient rainfall below 150 mm annually. Hence, an arid climate with low vegetation cover is found here. Thar desert is also known as Marusthali due to this. 
• It is believed that this region was under the sea during the Mesozoic era. It can be corroborated by the evidence available at the wood fossils park at Aakal and marine deposits around Brahmsar, near Jaisalmer. 
• Although its surface features have been shaped by physical weathering and wind, its underlying rock structure is an extension of the Peninsular plateau. Mushroom rocks, shifting dunes, and oasis are prominent desert land features found here (primarily in its southern part). 
• The majority of the rivers in this area are ephemeral. Luni River flowing in the Southern part is of significance. It is a water deficit zone because of the high evaporation and low precipitation. There are some streams that, after flowing for a while, dry up and join a lake or playa, presenting a typical example of inland drainage. The brackish water of lakes or playas is also the primary source of salt.
• This region is also famous for Great Indian Bustard, found in the Great Indian Desert Park (near Jaisalmer).

• Depression in deserts is filled with water occasionally. It evaporates later, leaving behind salts & minerals. The cycle of deposition & evaporation goes on & is a source of
  • Borax. 
  • Gypsum. 
• Examples of Playas include Pokharan, Thob etc.

• Peninsular Plateau is the largest physiographic unit of India, stretching from Aravallis in the north-west to the Shillong plateau in the north-east and Kanyakumari in the south. It is triangular in shape. 
• It occupies 50% of the Indian landmass, consisting of numerous small plateaus and mountains measuring around 16 lakh square km. 
• It is an ancient tabular block containing Archean Gneiss, Schist and the Dharwar rock system. In the Deccan plateau, igneous Basalt rocks are also found.
• It is among India’s oldest and most stable landmass. It has undergone minimal structural changes since its formation. It has never been submerged beneath the sea except in the few places where marine transgressions have been made, and that too locally. Along with that, it has not experienced any tectonic activity except for Bhima Fault formed along the Bhima river.
• Due to old age, the rivers in this region attained their base level and developed broad and shallow valleys. 
• Plateau’s general elevation is from west to east, also vouched by the river movement (except in the Narmada-Tapi rift valley).

• The entire peninsular plateau was formed during the pre-Cambrian era, i.e., 500 MYA (Million Years Ago).
• Later, the Indo-Australian plate (containing Peninsular Plateau) started to move towards the Eurasian plate. Around 70 MYA during the tertiary period, it passed over the Reunion hotspot, and highly fluid basaltic lava broke through the surface, forming a basalt flood province called Deccan Traps. 

The entire Peninsular Plateau consists of several smaller plateaus and hill ranges.

• It lies in the north-western part of the Peninsular Plateau. It lies to the south-east of Aravallis and north of Vindhyachal Range. 
• Chambal, Betwa and Ken drain the Malwa Plateau before joining the river Yamuna.
• It consists of an extensive lava flow, thus covered with black soils.
• It is devoid of vegetation, and due to gully erosion by rivers like Chambal, deep ravines have developed, and the region has been made unfit for agriculture, converting it into Badlands. 

• It is a part of the Peninsular Plateau, which extends east of the Malwa Plateau and is known as Bundelkhand.
• It lies in Madhya Pradesh & Uttar Pradesh.
• It has an average elevation of 300-600 m 
• It is made up of Granite & Gneiss rocks.
• It is a drought-prone region.
• River streams such as Betwa and Ken flow through it. The erosional work of these rivers has converted this region into an undulating (wave-like) area.

• Bagelkhand lies to the east of Bundelkhand. 
• It is made up of limestone and sandstone.
• It is drained by Son and Mahanadi rivers.  
• The general elevation is between 150 m to 1,200 m.

• The Chhattisgarh Plain is the only plain region in the Peninsular plateau that is worth naming.
• It lies between Maikal Range and Odisha Hills. 
• It is saucer-shaped and is drained by the Mahanadi River.
• The general elevation is between 250-330 m. 

a. Maharashtra Plateau 

• It lies in Maharashtra and forms the northern part of the Deccan Plateau.
• It is formed due to fissure eruption and lava flow. Hence, most of the rocks of this region are basaltic rocks of lava origin.
• It has ‘step-like topography‘ due to horizontal lava sheets. Hence, it is also known as ‘Deccan Traps.”
• Maharashtra Plateau has ‘Black Soil’, also known as ‘Regur’. It is well suited for the cultivation of Cotton.
• Important rivers of south India like Godavari, Bhima, Krishna, Vardha and Venganga flow through it. The erosional activity of these rivers has converted the region into a number of shallow and broad valleys flanked by flat-topped steep-sided hills and ridges. E.g., Godavari flows between Satmala and Balaghat.

b. Karnataka Plateau

• It lies to the south of the Maharashtra plateau. 
• It is also known as Mysore Plateau.
• The general elevation is between 600-900 m.
• It is primarily made up of Archean formations.
• Karnataka plateau has two parts, Malnad and Maidan.
  1. Malnad means ‘Hilly and Forested land.’
  2. Maidan means ‘plains’. It is a rolling plain made up of granite. 

• The famous Baba Budan hills lie in the Malnad region, and it is renowned for its coffee plantation (the famous Café Coffee Day chain is based here).
• The region is highly dissected by the fast-moving rivers emerging from the Western Ghats.
• River Kaveri originates from the Malnad. It jumps from Malnad to Maidan to make the famous Shivsamudram Falls. Here, river Kaveri has two islands, i.e. Shivsamudram Island and Srirangapatnam Island (famous for the Treaty of Srirangapatnam). The lake between the two islands is known as Ranganathitoo Bird Sanctuary. Due to excessive water, the Shivsamudram region is famous for sugarcane.
• River Tungabhadra (a tributary of Krishna) also originates from the Malnad region. 

c. Telangana and Rayalaseema Plateau

• It is made up of Archean Gneiss with an average elevation of 500-600 m.
• This region is semi-arid as it lies in the rain-shadow zone of the western and eastern ghats.
• It is a highly dissected region by the rivers passing through this region, i.e. Godavari, Krishna and Penneru.

d. Dandakaranya Plateau

• It is the mineral-rich region of Chhattisgarh and Odisha, touching parts of Maharashtra.
• It is drained by the Indravati river.
• Richest mines of India are found in Dandakaranya Plateau
• It is badly affected by naxalism and is a part of the ‘Red Corridor.’

• It is the north-east extension of the Peninsular Plateau.
• It is separated from the Peninsular Plateau by Rajmahal -Garo Gap / Malda Gap. It is formed by the down-faulting, which was later filled by the sediments of river Ganga and its tributaries. 
• This region is made up of Dharwar rocks of the Archean Rock System, shales and schists with granite intrusions.
• Coal, iron ore, sillimanite, limestone, uranium, and other minerals are abundant in the Meghalaya Plateau.
• The Meghalaya Plateau is divided into numerous hills such as Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, Barail and Mikir Rengma (Karbi-Anglong Plateau). Out of all, Khasi is the highest. Shillong, situated in the Khasi hills, is the highest point of the Meghalaya Plateau.
• This region receives ample rainfall from the south-west monsoon. The Meghalaya plateau has severely degraded as a result. Chirapunji exhibits a barren rocky surface devoid of any vegetation.

• It extends from Gujarat (Jobat) to Bihar (Sasaram).
• It has an average elevation of 450 to 600m.
• It is a BLOCK MOUNTAIN formed due to rifting. The southern boundary of the Malwa Plateau has escarped downwards due to faulting, and as a result, a block mountain and rift valley have formed. Vindhya is the block mountain (horst), while in the adjoining rift valley (graben), the Narmada river flows towards the west.
• Vindhyas act as the ‘Water divide of India.’    
• It is a source of many north-flowing rivers like Chambal, Sindh, Betwa & Ken ( tributaries of Yamuna).
• It contains limestone and marble (property of the Vindhyan System of rocks).
• Kaimur Range is an extension of Vindhyas.

• Satpuras are a series of seven-block mountains (Sat = 7 and Pura = Mountains). It is not a continuous range in contrast to Vindhyas. 
• They run in the west-to-east direction, starting from Rajpipla Hills (Gujarat) to Gawilgarh (Maharashtra), followed by Mahadev Hills (Madhya Pradesh)and ending with the Maikal Hills (Chhattisgarh). 
• It runs through Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. 
• It forms the boundary between Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh and between Maharashtra and Gujarat.
• Dhupgarh near Panchmarhi in Mahadeo Hills is the highest peak of Satpuras. 
• Important rivers like Narmada, Son and Tapi originate from Satpuras.
  • Narmada and Son originate from Amarkantak 
  • Tapi originates from a place known as ‘Multai’.
  • Narmada flows in the rift valley between Vindhyas and Satpuras, while Tapi flows south of Satpuras.
  • Both Narmada and Tapi are west-flowing rivers in contrast to all other peninsular rivers, which are east-flowing.
• Amarkantak, situated in the Maikal Hills of Satpura, is important as 
  • Rivers Narmada and Son originate here. It represents an example of ‘radial drainage’.
  • Famous Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve (famous for Tigers) is situated here.
• Important fauna of the region includes Tigers, Elephants, Barasingha, Black Panther etc.
• Important tribes of the Satpuras include Khonds, Mundas and Bhils. 
• It has great economic importance.
  • Tropical Deciduous Forests of Satpura provide the best grade teak in the world apart from Sal and Tendu (minor forest produce).
  • The paper industry of India is concentrated in this region. Vallabhgarh, which is the largest paper mill in Asia, is situated in this region.

• The Eastern Ghats are a series of discontinuous hills starting from the Vaigai river in Tamil Nadu to the Mahanadi River in Odisha.
• There is no structural and geological homogeneity. All the hills have formed in different geological events. 
•  Eastern Ghats consists of (from south to north)
  • Shevaroy and Javadi in Tamil Nadu
  • Palconda and Nallamalai in Andhra Pradesh 
  • Garjat in Odisha
• They are cut by four major rivers of South India, i.e. Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri & Mahanadi.
• Eastern Ghats are much older than Western Ghats.
• They are not as high as the Western Ghats. 
• The highest peak of Eastern Ghats is Mahendragiri (in Garjat Hills) 
• They receive lesser rainfall than the Western Ghats. Hence, the vegetation of this region is Tropical Deciduous.