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NGOs (UPSC Notes)

by admin

NGOs (UPSC Notes)

This article deals with ‘NGOs (UPSC Notes).’ This is part of our series on ‘Governance’ which is important pillar of GS-2 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here

What are NGOs?

According to the UN, NGOs are organizations that are not part of the government & are not conventional profit businesses. In case NGOs are funded totally or partially by governments, NGOs maintain their non-governmental status by excluding government representatives from membership in the organization.

Other Names

Third Sector Organizations (TSO)
Non Profit Organizations (NPO)
Voluntary Organizations (VO)
Civil Society Organizations (CSO)
Self-Help Organization (SHO)
Non-State Actors

Types of NGOs

NGOs can be classified in two ways

By level of orientation
By level of operation

By Level of Orientation

Charitable	NGOs with activities directed towards meeting the needs of poor
Service	NGOs with activities such as the provision of health, family planning or education
Empowering	NGOs that aims to help the poor develop a clearer understanding of the social, political & economic factors affecting their lives and to strengthen their awareness about their own potential to control their life

By Level of Operation

National	E.g. YMCA and YWCA
International	E.g. Save The Children Org, CARE, Ford Foundation and Rockefeller Foundation

Staffing

Not a single model

Some are highly professionalized & rely mainly on paid staff.
Others are based on voluntary labour and are less formalized.
Many NGOs are associated with the use of international staff working in developing countries, but many NGOs in both the North and South rely on local employees.

Funding

Major sources of funding are membership dues, the sale of goods and services, grants from international institutions, national governments & private donations.
Even though the term NGO implies independence from governments, many NGOs depend heavily on governments for their funds.
Some NGOs, such as Greenpeace, don’t accept funding from government or intergovernmental organizations.

The Theoretical Explanation for the growth of NGOs

Two explanations of why NGOs emerged

1. Market Failure Theory

NGOs emerged to provide services that the public sector can’t or will not provide services for which businesses can’t get a sufficient return on their investments.

2. Contract Failure Theory

NGOs are created to provide services where the parties who want them offered are not in a position to provide these services. These parties are donors or well-wishers of clients receiving services.

Note: The Right to Association is Fundamental Right guaranteed under our constitution. Forming NGOs is part of it.

Relationship between NGOs and the Indian State

State policies have significantly influenced the formation of NGOs, e.g. government-sponsored and aided programs & provided financial assistance to NGOs. In addition, several government committees have acknowledged the need to involve NGOs in social development processes.

Initial years

After independence, some attention was given to the NGO sector by the central government mainly because NGOs were Gandhian in nature, and Balwant Rai Mehta Committee was constituted to look into the work of the Community Development Program. The committee recommended that more emphasis should be laid on NGOs. But after that, the next initiatives came in the 1980s.

From the 6th Five-Year Plan

The government increasingly recognized the NGO sector’s vital role & provided increasing levels of funding. In the past two decades, the government has increased engagement with NGOs at all levels.

GO- NGO Interface

It was launched in March 2000.
The Planning Commission was made the nodal agency.
The message was clear; the government would work with NGOs for the development of India.
The main reason for this was State Minimalism after LPG reforms. NGOs became mediators and managers of development processes.

Government-NGO Collaborations

Although social development has emerged as a significant sector in the 21st century & NGOs are a vital part of it, there is no institutionalized mechanism of collaboration between the Government & NGOs. Evolving long-term & sustainable collaboration between Government & NGOs is the need of the hour.
Andhra Pradesh Model: The Government of Andhra Pradesh has formed a State Level Coordination Committee consisting of NGOs & Governmental officials headed by the CM to promote coordination between the Government and NGOs. All states must learn from this.
CAPART (Council for Advancement of Peoples Action & Rural Technology) & various Ministries have evolved their schemes to be implemented by funding NGOs. For example
1. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: In Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, the government has partnered with NGOs like Sulabh International, Gram Vikas, and WaterAid to promote awareness, build toilets, and implement sustainable sanitation practices nationwide.
2. National AIDS Control Program (NACP): The program works closely with NGOs like HIV/AIDS Alliance and Naz Foundation to provide HIV testing, counselling, treatment, and support services.
3. National Health Mission (NHM): NGOs like CARE India, Child in Need Institute (CINI), and Jan Swasthya Sahyog (JSS) collaborate with the government in implementing NHM interventions.
4. National Skill Development Mission (NSDM): NGOs like Pratham Education Foundation, Gram Tarang Employability Training Services, and Srijan Foundation collaborate with the government to implement skill development projects.
NITI Ayog also wants to involve leading Civil Society Organizations & NGOs in taking forward social sector initiatives of the government.

The role played by NGOs in India

At the international level, the NGOs have proved their mettle and NGOs like Red Cross & Amnesty International are even awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. UN has also accepted its constructive role, and some NGOs are allowed to participate in UN Agencies for their ability to reach people and spread awareness. In India, too, they are playing an important role.

Poverty Alleviation

22% of the Indian population lives below the poverty line (according to Tendulkar Committee Report)
NGOs are involved in poverty alleviation in various ways. For example,
- Oxfam India: It works towards reducing poverty through advocacy, research, and campaigns focused on various social and economic issues.
- Goonj: Goonj addresses the clothing and sanitation needs of marginalized communities.

Woman’s Movement

NGOs play an important role in women’s emancipation by addressing issues of gender inequalities and promoting women’s rights. For example

Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA): SEWA is a trade union and NGO that organizes and empowers self-employed women workers in the informal economy.
Breakthrough India: The NGO aims to end violence against women and girls in India.
Women on Wings: Women on Wings collaborates with rural women artisans and entrepreneurs in India, providing them with business mentoring and market linkages.

Environment Conservation

NGOs play an essential role in environment conservation by raising awareness, implementing conservation projects, advocating for policy changes, and collaborating with local communities. For example

Greenpeace India: Greenpeace focus on climate change, pollution, and deforestation by conducting research, campaigns, and direct actions.
Kalpavriksh: It works with indigenous communities in environmental conservation and promotes environmental education.

Disaster Management

NGOs have always been at the forefront of providing recovery, relief & rehabilitation after natural calamities. The government has also acknowledged NGOs’ role in these situations.
For example
- Goonj: It is an important NGO working in disaster rehabilitation processes
- Center for Science and Environment (CSE): It is involved in advocacy work on resilience and disaster risk reduction.
- All India Disaster Mitigation Institute (AIDMI): It focuses on training and building the capacity of communities and local governments.

Fight against Corruption

NGOs have played an essential role in the fight against corruption in India. For example

India Against Corruption: It has played an important role in the passage of many laws most important being the Right to Information.
Transparency International India (TII): TII works to raise awareness about corruption, promote ethical behaviour, and advocate for strong anti-corruption laws by conducting research, engaging in policy advocacy, and facilitating public campaigns to combat corruption.
Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR): It works toward increasing transparency in political funding, improving disclosure of candidates’ criminal records, and promoting voter awareness.
5th Pillar: 5th Pillar is a Chennai-based NGO known for its “Zero Rupee Note” campaign. They distribute these notes to citizens, encouraging them to use them as a symbolic way to express their refusal to pay bribes.

Giving Voice to the Voiceless

Downtrodden people like Prostitutes, Bonded Workers, Displaced due to projects, LGBT, Undertrials etc., don’t have such power that they can make political parties hear their voices. NGOs take up their causes and give voice to the voiceless.
Bachpan Bachao Andolan & Bandua Mukti Morcha are important NGOs working in this sector.

NGOs as Pressure Groups

Working as pressure groups, NGOs have forced governments to act on juvenile Justice, end corporal punishment in schools, anti-trafficking, environment protection, and resettlement of displaced people, to name a few.

Civil Servants, too, work as an agent of Economic and Social Development, but they don’t have a reach to the ground level in the way these NGOs have. If these NGOs & Bureaucracy work together, they can end all the problems like Naxalism, Poverty etc., that India is facing.

Strengths and Weaknesses of NGO Sector in India

Strengths

Strong Grassroots Links: NGOs work closely with local communities, understand their needs, and develop context-specific solutions.
Ability to Mobilize Resources: The NGO sector in India has successfully mobilized funding from domestic and international sources, including governments, corporations, foundations, and individual donors.
Ability to Innovate and Adapt: The NGO sector in India exhibits a culture of innovation and has pioneered new approaches, models, and technologies to address social challenges effectively.
Collaboration and Networking: NGOs in India actively collaborate, forming networks and alliances to maximize their collective impact
Cost-effectiveness: NGOs operate with limited resources and are adept at optimizing their expenditure.
Long-term commitment to the cause

Weaknesses

Limited finances: NGOs are known as an independent voice, but in recent years NGOs have increased in number & range of activities, but the number of donors hasn’t increased with that pace. Hence, there is large competition for funding. It adds the risk of donors adding conditions which can threaten the independence of NGOs. Additionally, Over-dependence of NGOs on official aid has the potential to dilute their stand to speak on public issues critically.
Fragmentation and Duplication of efforts: Numerous NGOs working on similar issues within the same geographical areas
Low levels of self-sustainability: Ensuring the long-term sustainability of programs is a significant challenge due to factors such as over-reliance on donor funding, difficulty in generating sustainable income streams, and limited integration of projects with government policies.
Political interference: NGOs in India sometimes face political interference, mainly when they work on sensitive issues or criticize government policies.
Capable of small-scale interventions only

Accountability & Transparency Issues in NGOs

India has 2 Million registered NGOs, but there is an accountability & transparency problem. Their credibility is questioned because there is a lack of transparency about their finances.
Main Problems include
- NGOs are registered under multiple acts in India like Societies Registration Act,1860; Indian Trust Act,1882; Bombay Public Charitable Trust Act,1950 & Companies Act. Accountability requirements of all acts differ, with some not requiring any form of annual filing.
- NGOs are required to register annual returns with the Income Tax department, but annual returns filed by NGOs are not subject to public disclosure.
- While receiving Foreign funding, NGOs only need to inform Government of India and file annual reports to Home Ministry under FCRA and no public disclosure is required.

Hence, the statutory framework doesn’t require NGOs to be accountable directly to the Public.

NGOs should build and regain lost public trust through better transparency in functioning. They can adopt the following.
- External auditing
- Increased Information disclosure

Obstructionist Role of NGOs

NGOs running PIL Industry

NGOs are tutoring victims to seek larger compensation when some development project runs on their land. They file bogus affidavits & PILs.

Harming Internal Security

They have a soft glove and apologist attitude towards Naxalites, Insurgents & Terrorists.
They force the government to repeal some acts like AFSPA, which can prove dangerous in some situations.

Try to put Animal Rights above Human Rights

Resulting in Street dog/monkey menace
Animal Right Activists NGOs vs Inconvenience to Public Issue

They Cherry Pick Causes on Donor Priorities

Initially, Chipko Movement was a success, but NGOs failed during Bhopal Gas Tragedy because foreign donors didn’t want to raise their voices against those companies.
There is a particular scene that emerges when we see funding patterns from a particular nation and issues raised by NGOs who receive this fund. French Funded NGOs are soft on Maoists, German-funded are Anti-GM Crops, and US-funded are Anti-Coal.

Intelligence Bureau Report (2014) also brought to the forefront the obstructionist role played by Foreign Funded NGOs and the loss of GDP to the tune of 2% happening due to their protests.

Further Reforms required

Need to shift from Protest to Pro-action Mode: This can be achieved by ensuring a ‘think-tank’ way of functioning & also providing alternative solutions.
Outcome Measurement: NGOs should use outcome-based approaches to evaluate the impact of their programs.
Ethical Fundraising: NGOs should adhere to ethical fundraising practices and maintain transparency in their fundraising activities.
Strengthening Governance: NGOs should adopt strong governance practices, like transparent decision-making processes, independent audits, and disclosure of financial information.
Collaboration and Networking: NGOs should promote collaboration and networking among themselves to share best practices, resources, and knowledge.

On the other hand, the government should also distinguish between activist & services provider NGOs.

FCRA

Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act,2010 replaced FCRA,1976
The Act seeks to regulate the flow of foreign funds to voluntary organizations to prevent their diversion towards activities detrimental to the national interest.
NGOs have to register under FCRA to accept foreign contributions & central government can deny certification under certain conditions.
Organizations must renew FCRA certification every 5 years. Dormant accounts can be weeded out using this provision.
NGOs can receive these foreign contributions only through designated banks ( New Delhi Branch of SBI).
Further, the NGO has to report to the central government any foreign contribution within 30 days of its receipt, in addition to filing annual reports.
If any organization receive a foreign contribution of over ₹10 lakh in an instance, the bank concerned would immediately inform the government so that the source of such fund can be tracked.
NGOs cant spend beyond 20% of their foreign funding on Administrative expenses.

Labour Reforms in India

by admin

Last Update: Jan 2025 (Labour Reforms in India)

Labour Reforms in India

This article deals with ‘Labour Reforms in India – UPSC Notes.’ This article is part of our series on ‘Economics’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3. For more articles, you can click here.

The issue with Indian Labour Laws

Labour is in the Concurrent List of Schedule 7. Hence, both Union and State can make laws on labour.
India has 44 labour laws at the Central level & more than 150 at State Level. Many provisions in these acts overlap, making it impossible to comply with all. It has led to bribery & inefficiency in Inspector Raj.
Companies prefer to remain small because if they expand, they come under a net of many regulations, increasing the cost of compliance. Hence, they can’t reap the benefit of economies of scale.

Rise of Contractual Labour: To bypass these laws, companies prefer to hire via contractors to remain outside the scope of labour laws. Hence, it has increased Contractual labour in India.
Companies prefer mechanization over employing more persons due to the difficulty in complying with these acts.
Lack of Social Security: Despite various labour laws aimed at ensuring social security benefits for workers, a significant number of workers in India still lack access to essential benefits such as health insurance, retirement benefits, and unemployment protection.
A large number of unions within an establishment negatively impacts the collective bargaining rights of workers.

Hence, under existing laws, both factory owners & workers suffer because factory owners cant comply with Labour Laws & try to evade them, and labour remains in the informal sector.

Side Topic: Rise of Contract Labour in India

Companies that employ more than a certain number of employees come under many regulations. To avoid this, companies prefer to hire via contractors as these employees are considered employees of the contractor, and the firm stays small enough to be exempt from labour law.
The number of Contract Workers in India has increased at a fast pace. In 2010, 25% of the total workers in India were contract workers.

Hiring via contractors is not an ideal solution for the firms due to the following reasons

It costs more to hire via contractors (15% more expensive, according to the Indian Cellular Association).
Contract workers don’t have loyalty to the firm.
Contract workers don’t accumulate “firm-specific human capital” because contractors keep on changing their postings.

What kind of Labour laws are needed?

A balance between Labour and Employers’ Interests is the need of the hour.
Market evangelists opine that employers should have the power to hire and fire, and there should be no regulation by law. The free market principles and demand and supply should decide the wages and other conditions. But, Government is not ready to completely hand over the control of terms and conditions of employment to the employers.
Labour markets need to be regulated by law much more than goods markets because workers are not commodities; they are human beings and citizens, and individual workers are also the weaker party in any employer-employee relationship.
Hence, the Government of India is equally concerned with protecting the interest of workers and that of the management.

Side Topic: Race to the Bottom

It refers to an economy’s tendency to provide minimum security/protection to its workers.
Reason: Competition between countries to attract MNCs to the setup manufacturing base in their country. In such a situation, MNC will set up a base in the economy with a minimum compliance cost.

New Labour Codes

The Government created 4 labour codes instead of 44 Union Labour Laws i.e.

Code on Wages, 2019
Industrial Relations Code, 2020
Code on Social Security, 2020
Occupational Safety, Health & Working Conditions Code, 2020

The new codes are in line with shifting labour market trends and the welfare needs of unorganized sector workers, including the self-employed.

These Labour Codes are expected to come into effect in 2025. The Union Labour Ministry is working with all the states and Union Territories to harmonize rules under the Labour Codes (as Labour is a concurrent subject under Schedule 7 of the Indian Constitution).

1. Code on Wages

The wage Code is based on recommendations of the 2nd National Commission on Labour.
It consolidates all laws relating to wages.
The code will apply to all industries, trade, business, manufacturing or occupation, including government establishments and gig workers.
The Wage Code has introduced Statutory National Minimum Wage for different geographical areas. Hence, State Government can’t fix the minimum wage below the National Minimum Wage for that area.

2. Industrial Relation Code

The requirement of government permission before layoff has been increased to workers employing more than 300 (earlier 100).
To form a trade union, 10% of the workers must join it.
Removed the need to give one month’s notice before removal if the company employs more than 50 workers.

3. Code on Social Security

It will cover every worker, whether they belong to the organized or unorganized sectors.
Further, the Central Government can notify that this code applies to any other establishment.
Gratuity is to be payable to the employees upon termination if the employee is associated with the organization for at least 5 years.
It proposes National Social Security Council (NSSC), chaired by the Prime Minister.

Note: Earlier, almost 90% of the current workers were not covered under any social security.

4. Occupational Safety Code

It applies to factories with at least 10 workers (using power) and 20 workers (if not using power).
Annual health checks are to be made mandatory in factories.
National Occupational Safety Advisory Board to recommend standards on related matters.
The code empowers the respective State Governments to exempt any new factory from this code to generate employment and economic activity in the sector.

Issues with New Labour Codes

These Codes dilute workers’ rights in favour of employers’ rights, and together undermine the very idea of workers’ right to association and collective action.
National minimum wage is very low and can lead to the process of labour cheapening.
Unnecessarily wide jurisdiction of the government in certain cases.
The central and the state government have wide discretion in providing exemptions from these codes.
Overlap between the definitions of gig workers, platform workers and unorganized workers.
Certain code like social security and occupational safety do not apply to all the workers.
Other emerging challenges like dealing with new kind of workforce like “crowd-work” or “on-demand” work.

Will Labour Reforms prove to be magic wand to propel Employment Intensive Growth?

Labour reforms will help to create jobs, as mentioned in the discussion above.

These Labour Reforms are desirable conditions but are not going to guarantee employment-intensive growth. A large number of other things are also required.

Companies from China, where wage levels are increasing, will move to India not only because of Labour Reforms or Low Wages but along with that they need other things as well.

Skilled Labour: India will have to invest in Skilling the workforce.
Infrastructure: For fast movement of raw materials & finished products.
Taxation Policies: Governments’ Taxation policies must be attractive enough for foreign manufacturers to set up manufacturing units in India.
Upgradation of Supply Chain Logistic Management.

Schemes of the Ministry of Labour

1. Shramev Jayate Karyakaram

This scheme has various components

1. Shram Suvidha Portal

To promote self-certification.
Under the scheme, Labour Identification Number (LIN) is given to companies.
The Portal also allows the companies to file online compliance for labour laws.

2. Transparent Labour Inspection Scheme

Random selection of Units for inspection
Inspection Report has to be mandatorily uploaded to the Portal within 72 hours of the inspection.

3. Universal Account Number (UAN)

It is a single Employee Provident Fund (EPF) Number.
A Provident Fund account is portable if an employee changes companies. Earlier, on changing jobs/companies, an employee would have to open a new EPF Account.

4. Apprentice Protsahan Yojana

Reimbursing 50% of the stipend paid to apprentices during their first two years of training.

2. Atma Nirbhar Bharat Rozgar Yojana

If a firm has up to 1000 workers, then Government will contribute 12% (of workers) and 12% (of employer) (i.e. 24%) in EPFO for new workers.
If the firm has more than 1000 workers, then Government will pay 12% (of workers) only.

Side Topic: Contributions to EPF

Under the law, if a company is employing a worker at a wage below ₹15,000, under that condition, the employer and employee have to mandatorily make the following contribution to Employee Provident Fund (EPF) and Employee Pension Scheme (EPS). Due to these contributions, employers prefer to give informal jobs to the employees.

3. Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Mandhan (SYM)

It was announced in 2019.
Under the scheme,
1. The beneficiary will get a pension of ₹3,000 per month.
2. Beneficiaries of the scheme include workers working in the unorganized sector having monthly salaries below ₹15,000.
3. The pension will start once they attain the age of 60.
4. To get the benefits, the beneficiary will have to make a monthly contribution of ₹55 from the age of 18 or ₹100 from the age of 29.

4. e-Shram Portal

The Labour Ministry started this Portal in 2021 for Unorganized Sector Workers.
The Portal is the first-ever national database for unorganized workers in India, containing the name, Aadhar ID, occupation, address, educational qualification etc.
The workers who register get Universal Account Number (UAN).
Under the scheme, the workers must register on the e-Shram Portal. In return, Government gives a card, and workers become eligible for the Pradhan-Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana benefits.
1. Rs. 1 lakh for partial disability
2. Rs. 2 lakhs for accidental death

As of 31 December 2022, over 28.5 crore unorganized workers have been registered on the e-Shram portal.

5. PM Street Vendor’s Atmanirbhar Nidhi Scheme (PM SVANidhi)

PM SVANidhi Scheme was launched in 2020 to empower street vendors by offering loans of up to Rs. 10,000 with a one-year tenure and free onboarding on digital payment platforms.
Beneficiaries are also eligible for the second tranche of loan up to `20,000 with 18 months tenure after timely repayment of the first tranche.

6. National Carrier Service

It aims to bridge the gap between

Workers who need jobs and Employers who want to hire them.
People who are seeking career guidance and training and those who can provide the counselling and training.

7. PENCIL

PENCIL Portal is an electronic portal to combat the menace of child labour and trafficking in India.

8. Rehabilitation of Bonded Labourers

Labour Ministry provides financial assistance for the rehabilitation of rescued bonded labour.

Zero-Budget Natural Farming

by admin

Last Updated: Jan 2025 (Zero-Budget Natural Farming)

Zero-Budget Natural Farming

This article deals with ‘Zero-Budget Natural Farming.’ This is part of our series on ‘Economics’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 and GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

Zero-Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) means

Zero Budget, i.e. Zero Budget means Farming without spending money to purchase inputs (seeds, fertilizers etc.). It reduces the cost of agriculture.
Natural Farming, i.e. Farming without using chemicals. Natural inputs like biofertilizers, earthworms, cow dung etc., are used instead.

Renowned Indian agriculturist Subash Palekar developed this technique of Farming.

Why in the news?

It was first introduced in Karnataka. Later, Himachal and Andhra governments also started to promote it.
NITI Aayog is promoting ZBNF.
Budget 2019 was also announced to encourage ZBNF.

ZBNF consists of following

It is based on the basic premise that soil has all the necessary nutrients which could be made available through the intermediation of microorganisms. It consists of the following.

Beejamurtha: Seeds treated with cow dung and urine.
Jeevamurtha: Soil rejuvenated with cow dung and other local materials to increase microbes.
Mulching: Use straws and other organic matter to retain soil moisture and build humus.
Intercropping
Rainwater harvesting

Benefits of Zero-Budget Natural Farming

Environment friendly: Input costs are near zero as no fertilizers and pesticides are used.
Higher Yields: Yields of various cash and food crops were higher when compared with chemical Farming. E.g., yields from ZBNF plots were found on average to be 11% higher for cotton than in non-ZBNF plots.
Increase farmer’s income as it is not input intensive.
Cut toxins in food, and ZBNF products are suitable for health.
Improve soils and prevent soil degradation.
It leads to optimum use of water and reduces water consumption up to the tune of 85%.
Climate Resilient: Model ZBNF farms were able to withstand drought and flooding, which are big concerns with regard to climate change.

Challenges of Zero-Budget Natural Farming

Low awareness among farmers about ZBNF
Experts have also cautioned against the large-scale adoption of ZBNF as it could lead to a large-scale decline in crop yield and hamper food security in the long run.
Due to different Agro-climatic conditions in different parts of India, ZBNF cant be practised in all parts of India.
There is a lack of scientific studies to prove the efficacy of ZBNF.

Organic Farming in India

by admin

Last Updated: Jan 2025 (Organic Farming in India)

Organic Farming in India

This article deals with ‘Organic Farming in India.’ This is part of our series on ‘Economics’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 and GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

A system of farm design for agriculture production without synthetic external inputs such as chemicals, fertilizers, pesticides and synthetic hormones or genetically modified organisms

As of 2023, 45 lakh farmers are engaged in Organic Farming, and 60 l ha is under Organic Farming in India. Additionally, Sikkim was the first Indian state to become completely organic.

Need for Organic Farming in India

More From Less: ‘Green Revolution’ is input-intensive and has reached a plateau with diminishing returns. Organic Farming is not input-intensive and fetches higher prices. Hence, it can help farmers increase the return rate on investments.
Organic farming products are healthier and safer than non-organic farming products.
Organic Farming is more sustainable and helps maintain the soil’s good health.
With increasing disposable income and a sizeable middle class, there is a ready market for Organic Products, especially in metropolitan cities.
Export Potential is high because of higher demand in Western countries.
It has indirect benefits in the form of eco-tourism, protection of biodiversity etc.
Climate Change Mitigation: Organic farming practices like organic manure usage, agroforestry, and soil conservation techniques help sequester carbon in the soil, contributing to climate change mitigation.

Challenges and Concerns

Productivity per field decreases: Sikkim used to be a surplus state wrt food production. Now it has to import from other states.
Limited availability of Organic Inputs: Organic Farming requires specific inputs such as organic fertilizers, pesticides, and seeds. However, the availability and accessibility of these inputs are often limited.
Organic Farming caters to a very small and particular class of market. There are logistic problems in delivering products to that market.
Certification and Standards: Obtaining organic certification is a rigorous process and can be time-consuming and costly for small to medium Indian farmers.
To start organic Farming, the existing field has to be left fallow for a minimum of 5-6 years to cleanse it of chemical fertilizers. It poses a burden on poor farmers.
The growing period of organic products is long, decreasing the avenues of multiple cropping.
The shelf life of organic products is low.
Lack of awareness and education: Many farmers in India are unaware of organic farming practices and the benefits it offers.
Climate Change Vulnerability: Climate change poses a significant threat to agriculture as increased weather variability, extreme weather events, and changing pest and disease patterns can impact organic crop production

Case Study of Sri Lanka

The Sri Lankan Government was promoting Organic Farming with vigour due to the great demand for organic products (especially organic tea) in the Western markets. But this decreased the crop yield exponentially, leading to food shortage and inflation.
Hence, the Sri Lankan government has changed its stance and again started encouraging farmers to use fertilizers and pesticides so that their output returns to its previous normal.

Government Programs to promote Organic Farming

National Mission on Natural Farming (NMNF): The scheme targets to cover 1 crore farmers to promote natural farming. Natural Farming is ‘chemical-free’ farming that uses inputs produced from livestock and plant resources. Initially, the scheme will focus on districts with high fertilizer consumption.
Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY): Form a group of 50 farmers in a cluster to start Organic Farming. Every beneficiary farmer is given ₹20,000 per ha for 3 years for practising Organic Farming.
Bhartiya Prakritik Krishi Padhati (BPKP): Under the scheme, Rs. 12,200 per hectare is given to the farmer per 3 years if they don’t use any chemicals on their land.
National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture: The scheme promotes Organic Farming and is part of the National Action Plan to Combat Climate Change.
National Cooperative Organics Ltd. (NCOL): Established in 2023 to promote the organic farming in India through efficient marketing and establishment of supply chains.
Organic Certifications:
- Participatory Guarantee System of India (PSG-India): Implemented by Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmer’s Welfare
- National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP):Managed and operated by Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA)
Organic Value Chain development in Northeastern Region Scheme: To link growers with consumers to support the development of the entire value chain starting from inputs, and seeds certification, in the Northeastern region.
Organic e-Commerce Platform (www.jaivikkheti.in) for directly linking farmers with retail & bulk buyers.
Namami Gange: Union govt. promotes natural farming in a 5-km belt along the Ganga River.
FSSAI Regulation on Organic Farming, 2018: It has standardized the definition of Organic Farming, set the mandatory labelling requirements & has given a Voluntary Logo (Jaivik Bharat Logo) of Organic Food.
Large Area Certification Program (LAC): The Government of India’s initiative to provide certification to areas which are traditionally involved in doing organic Farming (such as Tribal belts, Hills, Deserts, Islands etc.)
Agriculture Ministry has launched the ‘Jaivik Kheti Portal’ to connect farmers doing Organic Farming with buyers.
In the north-eastern states, the Government has started ‘Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North Eastern Region’ to strengthen organic agriculture in the North East.

State Specific Schemes

Andhra Pradesh Community Managed Natural Farming (APCNF) Program: Program empowers small farmers to switch to Natural Farming.
Prakritik Kheti Khushhal Kissan (PK3) Yojana, Himachal Pradesh: To promote Natural Farming in the state in order to lower the cultivation cost and increase profits.

Owing to these steps, Sikkim has become the first state in India (and the world) to become fully organic. Other states, such as Tripura and Uttarakhand, are on the verge of becoming organic. Furthermore, MP has the largest area under organic Farming among all the states.

Nuclear Energy in India

by admin

Last Updated: June 2025 (Nuclear Energy in India)

Nuclear Energy in India

This article deals with ‘Nuclear Energy in India.’ This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here

Installed capacity of Nuclear Power in India

India has been actively pursuing nuclear power as a part of its energy mix to meet its growing electricity demands and reduce its dependence on fossil fuels.

Target: Indian Government has set the target of producing 100GW of nuclear power by 2047. To achieve the above target, the government has launched the Nuclear Energy Mission for Viksit Bharat.

Nuclear Plants in India

India has 22 operating reactors (as of Dec 2023) .

Problems with India’s Nuclear Power

India’s domestic Uranium Reserve can support only 100 GW of energy.

Our future depends upon the development of the third stage of the Nuclear Program, without which it will remain dependent on imported Uranium, as it is the case with Oil currently.

High Cost

Increased Cost due to New Safety Regulations: Due to new safety regulations following the Fukushima tragedy, nuclear reactors now cost substantially more per MW than thermal, solar, and wind plants. E.g., the Jaitapur plant (AREVA) is expected to cost 20 crore/ MW in comparison other sources cost 4 crore/ MW.
Some argue that the Total costs of a Nuclear Lifecycle, which involves the mining of Uranium, transportation, handling of waste generated etc., is significantly more than the economic value generated during the lifetime of the functioning of the plant

Alternative Energy Options

Experts opine that India should focus on renewable energy like solar and wind, which are considered safer, environmentally friendly, and have rapidly declining costs. Investing in renewables can also help address energy access issues in rural areas and reduce dependence on fossil fuels.

Public Opposition and Social Concerns

Nuclear power projects often face opposition from local communities and environmental groups due to concerns about radiation risks, potential accidents, and the long-term impact on public health and the environment.

Current Nuclear reactors consume a significant amount of water

Hence most of upcoming plants will be set up near sea coasts. It will put pressure on the coastline & Western Ghats.

Long Gestation Period

There are long gestation periods which increase the costs of the plant significantly.

Non-proliferation and international obligations

India hasn’t signed the NPT and has faced scrutiny regarding its nuclear weapons program.

Target of Terrorists

Nuclear installations will be the favourite targets of terrorists, which can cause irreversible damage to people.

Should Nuclear Energy be used?

Strong arguments which justify the use of nuclear energy are

No GHG are emitted in Nuclear Power generation, a significant contributor to climate change. Hence, it helps to fight Global Warming.
Nuclear Energy is helpful in achieving Paris Pledge. India has also pledged to generate 40% of its energy from Non-fossil sources.
Energy security and independence: Nuclear energy reduces dependence on imported fossil fuels, enhancing energy security for countries.
Job creation and economic benefits: Nuclear power plants require skilled workers for operation, maintenance, and construction, thus creating employment opportunities.
Increases the image of the country as a technologically advanced nation
Non-fluctuating sources of renewable energy as Solar and wind energy, depend on sunshine, wind speed etc. On the other hand, Nuclear power plants provide a continuous and reliable source of electricity.
Baseload power and grid stability: Nuclear power provides a stable and consistent baseload power supply, essential for maintaining grid stability. It can complement intermittent renewable energy sources,
It generates very limited waste in quantity (although far more hazardous in quality).

Arguments against use of Nuclear Energy

While there are strong arguments in favour of nuclear energy, there are also valid concerns regarding high cost, waste disposal, potential accidents, the proliferation of nuclear weapons, and the high cost of building and decommissioning nuclear plants.

Costs of power from new nuclear reactors are increasing significantly post Fukushima Disaster. New PHWR power costs between Rs. 6.2-6.5/Unit
In case of any nuclear leakage & accident in nuclear power plants, the damage is immense & incurable.
Nuclear projects face opposition from local communities and environmental groups due to land acquisition issues, the need for large water reservoirs for the reactors, & concerns about a possible tsunami scenario
Major Nuclear Companies like Toshiba-owned Westinghouse, Areva etc., are on the verge of Bankruptcy, pointing towards the fact that Nuclear Energy has become unviable.
Investing in Solar and Wind Energy is a better option. The cost of Solar Energy has decreased to around ₹4.5 / kWh compared to ₹6.5 kWh of Nuclear Energy.
Uranium contamination of groundwater due to mining. E.g.,: in Rajasthan

Anti-Microbial Resistance

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Last Updated: Jan 2025 (Anti-Microbial Resistance)

Anti-Microbial Resistance

This article deals with ‘Anti-Microbial Resistance – for UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

What is Anti-Microbial Resistance?

Anti-Microbial Resistance (aka Antibiotic Resistance) happens when microorganisms (such as bacteria, parasites, viruses and fungi) evolve when they are exposed to the antibiotic and develop resistance mechanisms to it or acquire that resistance from another bacterium.

History

2010	It became a topic of debate in India when the British journal Lancet named an enzyme as New Delhi Metallo-beta-lactamase-1 or NDM-1, which had antimicrobial resistance
2016	Resistance to Colistin was detected in China. Colistin is the last resort of antibiotics.
Sept 2016	United Nations held a high-level meeting to tackle Antimicrobial Resistance. Note: It was only the fourth time the general assembly held a high-level meeting for a health issue (previously, it was for HIV non-communicable diseases such as heart disease and diabetes and Ebola).
2017	A US woman died from an infection that was resistant to all 26 available antibiotics.
2023	Muscat Conference on Antimicrobial Resistance held. Muscat Manifesto was released, calling for 1. Accelerating the political commitments in the implementation of One Health Action 2. Recognize the impact of AMR on humans as well as Animals.

Causes of Anti-Microbial Resistance

Significant sources of resistance:

Overuse of antibiotics by human beings (over prescription)
Doctors prescribing broad spectrum antibiotics
Self-medication
Overuse of antibiotics in the veterinary sector
Environmental antibiotic contamination due to pharmaceutical companies and hospital discharge.
Lack of new antibiotics being developed
Patients not finishing treatment
Poor infection control in hospitals

Ways to control Anti-Microbial Resistance

Prescriber

Prescriber should

Follow guidelines
Perform Antimicrobial susceptibility tests
Maintain hygiene, disinfection and sterilization in the hospital

Farmer

Farmers should

Follow guidelines.
Use only animal-specific antibiotics
Maintain hygiene

Public

Public should

Follow the prescription and don’t self-medicate himself
Public awareness and education should be carried out

Politician

Politician should

Establish Antibiotic Resistance related laws
Make National Plans and Guidelines
Invigorate the antibiotic development of pharmaceutical companies

Researcher

Researcher should

Develop a new generation of antibiotics
Develop Molecular Techniques for identifying resistance genes.

Initiatives taken by Government

1. Red Line Campaign

Red Line Campaign for Anti Microbial Resistance

2. National Surveillance System for Anti-Microbial Resistance

The program keeps a close watch on such cases.

3. National Action Plan on Anti-Microbial Resistance

The program was started April 2017
It focused on
1. Hand Hygiene and Sanitation programs
2. One Health Strategy

4. National Health Policy, 2017

It had specific guidelines for the use of antibiotics and limiting the use of antibiotics.

5. Schedule H1 of Drugs and Cosmetic Rule, 1945

Schedule H1 was added to the Drugs and Cosmetic Rule 1945. Drugs in Schedule H1 are required to be sold in the country with the following conditions:-

Their sale has to be registered in the register with the name of the prescriber and patient
Drugs shall be labelled with the symbol Rx & drug warning.

International Steps

1. By WHO

WHO is providing technical assistance to countries to develop national action plans to combat Antimicrobial Resistance and strengthen their surveillance systems.

One Health Approach: The One Health approach recognizes the interconnectedness between human, animal, and their shared environment. It emphasizes the importance of addressing health issues comprehensively by considering the interdependencies and interactions between humans, animals, and their shared environments. The ‘One Health’ approach calls for optimal antibiotic use in both humans and animals.

2. High Level Meetings at United Nations

High-level meetings on antimicrobial resistance are being held at the United Nations General Assembly. The last such meeting was held in September 2024.

3. New Antibiotics

For example, ODLs are a new class of antibiotics discovered by the University of Illinois and Nosopharm, a French company.

Mother & Child Health

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Mother & Child Health

This article deals with ‘Mother & Child Health – for UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Why government should invest in Mother and Child Health?

Question: Imagine government as an investor. Given fiscal and capacity constraints, where would it invest to reap maximum benefits?

According to the Economic Survey, low-cost maternal and early-life health and nutrition programs offer very high returns because:

Spending on a mother is an economical option as a healthy mother is more likely to give birth to a healthy baby who learns better and stays in school longer. Additionally, a newborn’s most rapid physical and cognitive development occurs in the womb.
The success of subsequent interventions—schooling and training—is influenced by early-life development. E.g. Government’s investment in skills training can reap the best results only if Child has developed full Cognitive & Physical Health at an early age.

Important Indicators

Neo-Natal Mortality Rate

It is the number of deaths of children below the age of 1 month per 1000 live births.
According to NFHS-5 (2019-2021), India’s Neo Natal Mortality Rate is 24.9

NFHS-5 (2019-2021)	24.9
NFHS-4 (2015-2016)	29.5

Neo-Natal Mortality depends upon Mother’s health, as the leading cause of Mortality during the first month differs from the next 11 months. It depends on Utero Nutrition which is determined by the Birth-Weight of Children.
India has high Neo-Natal Mortality because Indian women begin pregnancy at low weight. Along with that, they don’t gain weight during pregnancy, resulting in low birth weight of the child.

Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)

Number of deaths of children below the age of 1 year per 1000 live births.
According to NFHS-5 (2019-2021), India’s Infant Mortality Rate is 35.2.

NFHS-5 (2019-2021)	35.2
NFHS-4 (2015-2016)	40.7

Note: IMR is an important indicator for determining the socio-economic status of any country because, more than any age group, the survival of infants depends upon their socio-economic environment.

Child Mortality Rate (CMR)

CMR is the number of deaths of children in the age group of 0-4 years per 1000 live births.

Under Five Mortality Rate (U5MR)

Number of deaths of children in the age group of 0-5 years per 1000 live births.
According to NFHS-5 (2019-2021), India’s U5MR is 41.9.

NFHS-5 (2019-2021)	41.9
NFHS-4 (2015-2016)	49.7

U5MR is an internationally accepted standard instead of Child Mortality Rate. Hence, India is moving towards it.

Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR)

The Maternal Mortality Rate is the death of mothers during or within 42 days of childbirth per 1 lakh live births.
According to NFHS-5 (2019-2021), India’s MMR is 97.

NFHS-5 (2019-2021)	97
NFHS-4 (2015-2016)	130

Schemes of Government to reduce MMR , IMR , CMR

Pradhan Mantri Suraksheet Matritva Yojana (SMY)

Launched by Health Ministry in 2016
It provides Ante-Natal (before birth) check-ups for pregnant women on the 9th of every month by specialist doctor

Janani Suraksha Yojana

Launched by Health Ministry in 2005
To promote Institutional delivery of pregnant women instead of home births, which can be risky

LaQshya Program

LaQshya, or Labour Room Quality Improvement Initiative, was launched in 2018 by Health Ministry.
The scheme aims to upgrade the Labour Room infrastructure, ensure essential supplies’ availability, and enhance healthcare providers’ skills.

Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana

Launched by Health Ministry in 2017
Under the scheme, ₹5,000 is given to eligible mothers. The benefits are provided in the following manner:
1. First instalment: ₹1,000 is given upon early registration of pregnancy, usually within the first trimester (up to 180 days).
2. Second instalment: ₹2,000 is given upon receiving at least one antenatal check-up after six months of pregnancy.
3. Third instalment: ₹2,000 is given upon the birth of the child and registration of the child’s birth, along with the submission of the child’s immunization details.
It is applicable for first two children

Integrated Child Development Program

It is a flagship scheme which aims to improve the nutrition, health status & school dropout ratio of children in the age group 0-6 years.
In 2016-17, other schemes like Anganwadi Services and National Crèche Scheme were brought under this scheme.

To Combat Diseases among Pregnant Women & Infants

Anaemia: Major problem in Pregnant women. Iron Folic Acid Supplements are given by the government
Diarrhoea: A large number of infants die because of this. The government gives ORS and Zinc Tablets.

Indian Healthcare Sector

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Indian Healthcare Sector

This article deals with ‘Indian Healthcare Sector – for UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Society’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Healthcare Data

Healthcare Expenditure

Global Burden of Disease Report (2018) by LANCET

Other Relevant Data

Doctor-Population Ratio	1:834 (against the WHO norm of 1:1000)
Number of Hospital Beds per 1000	0.7 (against the WHO norm of 3.5)

Political & Constitutional Angle

Health is under the State List. But there is debate regarding whether it should be moved to the Concurrent List, given that even after 70 years of independence, the state of Health in India is still poor. The Centre can only make model laws to which states can voluntarily subscribe.
Article 47 of the Indian Constitution (Directive Principle of State Policy) speaks about raising its people’s nutrition levels and living standards and improving public health as among its primary duties.
Article 21, i.e. Right to Life is Fundamental Right under the Indian Constitution.

Health and SDG

Sustainable Development Goals also talks about Health and SDG-3 aims to ensure healthy lives and promote well being for all at all ages.

Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Healthcare

Primary Healthcare

Primary Healthcare is the first level of contact between people & health system
It includes family planning, immunization, treatment of common diseases, health education etc.
In India, it is provided through a network of
- Primary Health Centres in Rural Areas
- Family Welfare Centres in Urban Areas

Secondary Healthcare

Secondary Healthcare denotes the second Tier of the health system.
It includes
- District Hospitals
- Community Health Centre (CHC) at Block Level

Tertiary Healthcare

Tertiary Healthcare denotes the third tier of the health system.
It provides specialized consultative care.
Tertiary Healthcare is provided through Medical Colleges & Medical Research Institutes.

Rural Healthcare System

State of Health Services in India

Health services in India need a booster shot, vouched by the following data.

Prominence of Private Sector: According to Economic Survey, out of 4% of expenditure on Healthcare in India, Public Sector accounts for just 1.15%
High Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (OoPE): The OoPE in India is as high as 62% compared to the world average of 18%. High OoPE pushes 39 million people every year under the poverty line.
Indian Doctors are not willing to serve in Rural Areas due to various factors, such as a lack of adequate healthcare infrastructure and low opportunity for professional growth.
The dominance of the Medical Council of India has hindered the development of nurses and other health cadres.
Hesitancy/Ignorance of common people: Even after a person has TB symptoms, they delay visiting a doctor (for a minimum of 5.2 months, even in Delhi). As a result, their disease becomes worse, and they infect more people.

With the implementation of the Ayushman Bharat program, the strengthening of SCs and PHCs is being done by converting them into Health and Wellness Centres (HWCs) in a phased manner to deliver comprehensive Primary Healthcare services through these Centres.

Health Schemes

1. National Health Mission

National Health Mission (NHM) is a flagship program of the Indian Government that aims to provide affordable, accessible, affordable, and quality healthcare to all citizens.
It is Core Scheme (60:40 Division)

National Rural Health Mission (NRHM)	In areas having a population below 50,000
National Urban Health Mission (NUHM)	In areas having a population above 50,000

2. Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Jan Aushadhi Pariyojana (PMBJP)

The scheme aims to provide affordable generic medicines to the masses to reduce out-of-pocket expenses. These are made available through Jan Aushadhi Stores.

3. Rogi Kalyan Samiti

Rogi Kalyan Samiti is a registered society consisting of citizens of the area who act as trustees to manage hospital functions.
It acts as a check and increases the accountability of doctors.

4. Universal Immunization Program (UIP)

Under Indian Immunisation Program, Vaccine is given for 12 life-threatening diseases

National (11 Diseases)	1. Diphtheria 2. Pertussis (Whooping Cough) 3. Tetanus (DPT) 4. Polio 5. TB 6. Rotavirus Diarrhoea 7. Hepatitis B 8. Meningitis & Pneumonia caused by Haemophilus Influenza Type-B 9. Measles 10. Rubella 11. Pneumococcal Pneumonia (latest entry in 2021, earlier it was given in select districts of Himachal and Bihar)
Sub-National (1 Disease)	12. Japanese Encephalitis

5. Menstruation Health

Government is running following schemes for Menstruation Health.

Menstrual Hygiene for Adolescent Girls Scheme: To address the need for menstrual hygiene among adolescent girls residing in rural areas.
Project Stree Swabhiman (by Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology)
Menstrual Hygiene Scheme (by Health Ministry as part of Rashtriya Kishor Swasthya Karyakram. )
Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (by Ministry of Human Resource Development)

6. Drug Price Control Order

The Drug Price Control Order (DPCO) of India is a regulatory framework established by the government to control and regulate the prices of essential medicines in the country.
Schedule 1 of DPCO contains the List of Essential Medicines. Their price can’t be more than the ceiling price.

Public Health Policy, 2017

The previous policy was formulated in 2002. There was a need for a new policy because

15 years have passed, and new challenges have come up in the health sector.
At that time, Polio was a major problem. Now, WHO has declared India to be Polio Free.
That policy was keeping in view of Millennium Development Goals (MDG). Now, we are in the era of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG).
At that time, Communicable Diseases were a major problem. Now Non-Communicable Diseases have come into the scene.

Provisions of the National Health Policy, 2017

1. Finance

Presently, the government spends 1.15 % of GDP on healthcare. The target is to increase that to 2.5% of GDP by 2025.

2. Targets to be achieved

Increase the life expectancy from 67.5 to 70 by 2025.
Reduce premature mortality from Non-Communicable Diseases by 25 per cent by 2025.
Achieve the global 2020 HIV target (also termed 90:90:90)

3. Preventive and Curative Care

The policy will rely on Preventive as well as Curative Health Care (the 2002 Policy relied just on curative )

4. Focus on Primary Care

Policy advocates allocating two-thirds (or more) of resources to primary care.

5. Promote AYUSH

AYUSH will be promoted

6. Promote Make in India

Promote drugs and devices manufactured in the country.

Criticism

The policy has abandoned the idea of making health a right proposed under the Draft Health Policy. NHP (2017) speaks of an “assurance-based approach”.
Raising Government Expenditure to 2.5% of GDP till 2025 is too far-fetched given problem India is facing is serious. Along with that, no year wise plan of yearly incrementation is given. There is lesser hope that even this will be attained given the past experience that the health policy of 2002 had promised health expenditure of 2% of its GDP on Health by 2010
Governance issues are ignored: The policy is silent on whether health should be moved to the Concurrent list.
Professional issues are ignored, e.g., MCI issues and private practice by Govt doctors.

Basics of Radioactivity

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Basics of Radioactivity

This article deals with ‘Basics of Radioactivity .’ This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Constituents of Atom

Atom has the following three constituents

Particle	Mass (Kg)	Charge (Coulomb)
Proton	1.672 X 10^-27	+ 1.6 X 10^ -19
Neutron	1.675 X 10^-27	Neutral
Electron	9.108 X 10^-31	1.6 X 10^-19

Mass of Proton almost = Mass of Neutron = 1830 X Mass of Electron.

Atomic Structure

In an atom, Central Nucleus is surrounded by electrons at various energy levels.
The most successful model is Wave Mechanical Model, but that is a mathematical rather than a visual model.
For our purpose, Bohr Atomic Model is enough.

Bohr Atomic Model

Atom consists of
- Central Nucleus: Containing all Protons & Neutrons with almost the whole mass concentrated here.
- Electrons: Revolves around the nucleus in a circular pattern (like planets around the sun)
Electrons can revolve only in certain specified orbits, with the electron in the innermost orbit having the smallest energy and the electron in the outermost orbit having the largest energy.
When an atom is provided energy either by strong heating or by bombardment with some fast-moving particle, Electrons in a natural state can jump to higher energy levels. But the atom doesn’t remain in that state for more than 10^-8 s & comes back to a normal lower energy level, emitting surplus energy in the form of Photons.
Emitted energy can be Visible, UV or X-Ray, depending on the energy difference.

Radioactivity

The property under which a heavy nucleus of an element disintegrates itself into smaller nuclei along with alpha, beta & gamma rays without being forced by any external agent to do so is termed radioactivity.
The phenomenon of radioactivity is natural and can’t be stopped.
It is found that all atoms with more than 83 protons; and a neutron-to-proton ratio of more than 1 as they are unstable. To achieve stability, unstable nuclei disintegrate spontaneously with the Alpha, Beta & Gamma Rays emission.
Henry Becquerel discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity.

Reason of Radioactivity

Inside the nucleus, positively charged Protons & Neutral are present. Hence, if only Electrostatic Force is there, all nuclei must have split apart due to repulsive forces. But this is not the case & the nucleus is stable.
But another force called Nuclear Force is working here. IT IS ATTRACTIVE FORCE EXISTING BETWEEN PROTON & PROTON and PROTON & NEUTRON. BUT THIS FORCE ACTS AT A VERY SMALL DISTANCE. Generally, Nuclear Forces overpower Electrostatic Forces inside the nucleus.
But in the case of larger nuclei, nuclear forces cannot overpower electrostatic forces, and they exhibit radioactivity.

Alpha, Beta & Gamma Radiations

The most common types are

	Alpha	Beta	Gamma
	Similar to Helium Nuclei (He (2,4)) and generally emitted by a large nucleus	These are fast energy electrons	– Gamma Radiations are electromagnetic radiations of high frequency – Generally emitted by unstable atoms to become stable by releasing energy
Penetration	It can penetrate 5 cm of air only.	It can penetrate air and paper.	It can penetrate most things except a thick sheet of lead or a very thick concrete wall.
Mass	Heaviest (4 amu)	Lighter (9.1 X 10^-31 kg)	Massless
Speed	Around 1/100 of the speed of light	33% to 99% of the speed of light	Equal to the speed of light
Ionising power	Maximum due to maximum charge (+2) and maximum mass	Intermediate between beta & gamma	Minimum due to zero charge
Effect on Photographic plate	Produce smaller effect	More effect	Maximum effect
Effect of Electric and magnetic field	Show deflection	Show deflection	Don’t show any deflection
Effect on the human body	It causes a burning effect	It can cause a shock on longer exposure	It can cause cancer

Transmutation

Transmutation is the process of altering one element to another.
Reason = Natural Radioactivity, Artificial Transmutation etc.
Artificial Transmutation is used to obtain elements with Atomic numbers greater than 92.

Half Age

It measures the time it takes for a given amount of the radioactive substance to become reduced to half due to decay and, therefore, the emission of radiation.

Carbon Dating

The technique of estimating the age of the remains of a once-living organism, such as a plant or animal
It involves measuring the radioactivity of its C-14 Content (the half-life of C-14 is 5570 years).
The ratio of C-14 / C-12 in nature is 1/106.

Uranium Dating

Uranium Dating is used for dating older but non-living things like rocks.
The age of rocks from the moon has been estimated to be 4.6 X 10^9 years, nearly the time of Earth’s origin.

Isotope, Isobars & Isoneutrons

Atomic Number (Z) = Number of Protons
Mass Number (A) = Number of Neutrons & Protons

Isotope

Isotopes are nuclides with same Atomic Numbers but different Mass Numbers.
E.g., U (92,235) & U (92,238 ) + C-12 & C-14
Generally, isotopes don’t have different names except for isotopes of Hydrogen named Protium (H(1,1), Deuterium (H (1,2)) & Tritium (H(1,3)).

Isobars

Isobars are nuclides having same Mass Number but different Atomic Numbers.
E.g., K (19,40) & Ca (20,40) + C (6,14) & N (7,14)
They have different names.

Isoneutrons

Isoneutrons are nuclides having the same number of neutrons.
Examples include
1. C (6,14) & O(8,16): Both have 8 neutrons
2. H (1,3) & He (2,4): Both have 2 neutrons

Nuclear Fission Reactors

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Last Updated: June 2025 (Nuclear Fission Reactors)

Nuclear Fission Reactors

This article deals with ‘Nuclear Fission Reactors .’ This is part of our series on ‘Science and Technology’ which is important pillar of GS-3 syllabus . For more articles , you can click here.

Nuclear Fission

In 1939, Otto Hahn and Strassman discovered Nuclear Fission when they found that a slow-moving neutron collides with a uranium nucleus; it breaks into two smaller nuclei of comparable masses with the release of energy.
In simple words, Nuclear Fission means breaking up the heavier nucleus into two smaller nuclei and releasing an enormous amount of energy.

Reactant total mass is more than product total mass & EXCESS mass is converted to energy (using Einstein’s Mass – Energy Relation (E = mc^2)). The energy released from 1 nucleus of Uranium (235) is nearly 93 Mega Electron Volt. When one Uranium nucleus undergoes fission, the energy released might be small. But from each fission reaction, three neutrons are released. These three neutrons can cause further fission in three other Uranium nuclei. This process is called a chain reaction.
The energy produced in the nuclear reaction can be used to convert water into steam, which can be converted into electricity using Steam Turbine and Generator.

Types of Reactors

A simple Nuclear Reactor from which electricity can be generated is of following type

Fuel	U-235, U-233, Pu – 239 or Th -232 is used as fuel in the Nuclear Reactor
Moderator	– It reduces the speed of neutrons so that nuclear reactions can take place. – Graphite or Heavy Water (D2O) is used as Moderator.
Coolant	– The coolant absorbs the energy/heat released from the reaction and transfers it into turbines. – Heavy Water or Water can be used as coolant (depending on the type of Reactor)
Control Rods	– To control the speed of the Nuclear Reactor. – Boron or Cadmium is used as Control Rod.
Concrete Shield	Concrete wall with 2-5 m thickness to stop radiation from spreading.

Reactors used in India

1. Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR)

Most of the Nuclear Reactors found in India are PHWRs.

Information at Glance

Fuel	Natural Uranium (without enrichment) (It is easier to make and less expensive to use, as Uranium enrichment is a complex process)
Coolant	Heavy Water/Deuterium Oxide
By Products	Plutonium (more amount )
Moderator	Heavy Water/Deuterium Oxide (Moderator and coolant are same) => Neutrons collide with Heavy Water molecules and slow them.
Why Pressurized	If water is heated, it expands & becomes less dense. As a result probability of collision between neutrons and water molecules to reduce the speed of neutrons decreases. It is crucial to decrease the speed of neutrons to ensure fission.
Cost	Less Expensive

Details of PHWRs

The primary reaction which leads to the generation of energy while using Uranium as fuel is

The most crucial point in Uranium Fission Reaction is the release of an extra 2.5 (average) Neutrons, which leads to the possibility of a chain reaction. If controlled, it can be used to produce energy called Nuclear Energy. At the same time, if it remains uncontrolled, it can result in an Atomic Bomb.
But the biggest hurdle, in this case, is the fact that neutrons liberated in the nuclear reaction are fast-moving & will not cause fission (instead, they will escape without causing any collision). To ensure a Fission reaction, these neutrons must be slowed. For this purpose, Moderators are used, which in this case are D2O (Heavy Water) & Graphite.
The reaction rate can be controlled by Control Rods, which are made up of neutron-absorbing material like Cadmium.
The energy released in fission is continuously removed by a suitable Coolant which transfers heat to a working fluid which in turn may produce steam to drive the turbine & generate electricity.
Pressuriser is used because when heavy water is heated, it expands & becomes less dense. As a result probability of collision between neutrons and heavy water molecules to reduce the speed of neutrons decreases. It is crucial to decrease the speed of neutrons to ensure fission. The Pressuriser ensures the suitable density of the heavy water.

2. Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

It is the oldest type of Nuclear Reactor.
Fuel Used: Enriched Uranium
Working: Energy released during the fission reaction directly heats the (light) water. The same water is used to turn the turbine and then recycled back, to be used again in the cycle.
Moderator: No Moderator is used. The probability of neutron colliding with U-235 is achieved by using Enriched Uranium.

BWRs are the second most widely used reactors in the world. But in India, we don’t use them on a large scale. Tarapur Atomic Power Station was constructed initially with two boiling water reactors (BWR) under the 1963 Agreement between India, USA & International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

Issue with BWR

The use of enriched Uranium increases cost and complexities.
Light water is directly heated by radioactive material. Hence, nuclear radiation fallout in case of an accident is maximum in such reactors. For example, Japan’s Fukushima Nuclear reactor, which caused great damage after a nuclear accident, was BWR.

3. Fast Breeder Reactor

Fast Breeder Reactor produces the same kind of fissile material as it burns.
While using Pu239 as fuel, it can produce more Pu239 than it consumes by converting non-fissionable U-238 present in the natural Uranium.
With fast neutrons, the chances of absorption by U-238 increase. Additionally, Pu-239 produces extra neutrons in the case of a collision with fast-moving neutrons only. Hence, these reactors don’t use moderators to slow down the neutrons.
Liquid sodium or steam coolants are used in FBRs.
India’s BHAVINI nuclear reactor is Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor.

Side Topic: Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)

SMRs are small reactors with a capacity of 30 to 300 MWe per Unit.
Utility: SMRs are a green option to balance the load of renewable power output (compared to thermal generators).
India has an edge in producing these reactors, and the government is pushing SMRs.

Updates regarding SMRs

Budget 2025: The Government has allocated Rs. 20,000 cr for R&D in SMRs and the development of at least 5 operational SMRs by 2033.
India’s Rail Vikas Nigam Ltd. Is in talks with Russia’s Rosatom to build Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) for its Mega-projects.

Prelims Related: List of BARC Atomic Reactors

Apsara	– First Atomic Reactor in 1957
Cirus	– Indo-Canadian Reactor – Operational Period: 1960-2010
Zerlina	– Operationalized in 1961 – To study Uranium Heavy Water Reactors
Dhruva	– Operationalized in 1984 – Completely indigenous reactor
Purnima -1
Kamini	– India’s first Fast Breeder Reactor. – Installed in Kalpakkam – India is 7th country in world to have FBR