The Great Northern Plains

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The Great Northern Plains 

This article deals with ‘The Great Northern Plains (Geomorphology of India).’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

  • Northern Plains are the ‘aggradational plains‘ or ‘depositional plains‘ formed by the depositional works of three major Himalayan river systems viz, the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. 
  • It extends from the foothills of the Himalayas to the northern edge of the Peninsular Plateau.
  • Surface features of Northern Plains include
    1. Northern Plains of India have a remarkably homogeneous, monotonous, levelled surface with an imperceptible slope. 
    2. This entire plain region has a network of rivers and choes, due to which Doab regions have been formed. 
    3. The uniform structure of soft alluvial soil with imperceptible slopes has helped in the development of the ‘Dendritic Drainage Pattern.’
    4. Because the whole of the plain is formed by the deposition of alluvium by the rivers, landforms like alluvial fans, alluvial cones, meandering river terraces, natural levees, and flood plains are found in it.
    5. These plains extend approximately 3,200 km from east to west, making it the largest arable land in the world. 
    6. The average width of these plains varies between 150-500 km. Width decreases from west to east.
    7. The average height is 200 m above sea level. This height increases between Ambala to Saharanpur, known as Delhi Ridge, which acts as a dividing line between the Indus and Ganga river systems. 

Formation of Northern Plains

Formation of Northern Plains
  • Northern Plains are the youngest physiographic feature in India. 
  • Northern plains were formed in the Tertiary period due to the deposition of sediments in the ‘depression’ or ‘foredeep’, which lies between the Himalayas and the Peninsular Plateau. This depression was formed because the Indian plate, after the collision, abducted (a type of subduction in which the tectonic plate doesn’t melt) below the Eurasian Plate. The mighty rivers originating from the Himalayas deposited the sediments forming one of the flattest land on the earth, known as the Great Plains. 
  • Note: The Peninsular rivers also contributed to forming Northern Plains like Chambal, Son etc. 
  • The Himalayan Frontal fault separates the Shivaliks from the Great Plains.

Divisions of Northern Plains

Northern Plains can be divided in two ways as follows

Divisions of Great Northern Plains

1. Division based on Structure

Division of Great Northern Plains based on Structure

The Great Northern Plains

1.1 Bhabar Plain

  • Bhabar is a narrow belt of 8-10 km parallel to the Shivalik foothills at the break-up of the slope. It consists of pebbles & boulders made of debris washed down from higher ranges.
  • The permeability and porosity of the surface are so high that streams go underground & even disappear.
  • It is wider in the western plains (Jammu Division) than in the east (Assam).
  • Bhabar plain is unsuitable for cultivation. Only big trees with extensive roots can survive in this region.

1.2 Terai Plain

  • The Terai belt has an approximate width of 15 to 30 km and is located south of the Bhabar. Here, most streams and rivers re-emerge without having a well-delineated course, resulting in marshy and swampy conditions. (the word ‘terai’ is derived from the Hindi word ‘Tar’ meaning ‘wet’)
  • Terai plains are heavily forested, and house varied wildlife.
  • Because of deep roots, Terai soils have good nitrogen and high humus. Therefore, the colour of Terai soils is black (dark).
  • Most of the Terai land in states such as Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand has been reclaimed and turned into agricultural land.
  • It is known for the excellent cultivation of sugarcane, rice and wheat.
  • Due to the varied wildlife, many National Parks and wildlife sanctuaries are also situated here (like Jim Corbett, Dudhwa, Manas, and Kaziranga National Parks).

1.3 Bhangar Plain

  • Bhangar plains are made of the older alluviums of the middle Pleistocene age, forming an alluvial terrace which lies above the flood limits of the rivers.
  • This soil is dark in colour, rich in humus content, well-drained and useful for agriculture.
  • There is a greater amount of lime-stone in the older alluvium known as Kankar, which decreases fertility. 
  • Bhangar has the fossils of species which have got extinct in India. Examples include Asiatic Cheetah, Two-horned Rhino etc.
  • In Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, these are called Reh, Kallar or Dhaya.

1.4 Khadar Plain

  • Khadar plains are the lowland areas within the flood limits of the river containing newer alluvium deposited by rivers flowing down plains. 
  • They are enriched by fresh silt each year during the rainy season.
  • These soils consist of sand, silt, clay & mud and are highly fertile.
  • Fossils of existing species are found in Khadar. 
  • In Punjab, they are known as ‘Bet‘ lands.

1.5 Deltas

  • Deltaic Plains are the extension of Khadar Plains.
  • Due to the sluggish river flow in this tract, it is an area of deposition.
  • The deltaic plain consists of old mud, new mud and marsh.
Deltas

1.6 Badlands

  • In the north peninsular plateau and foothills of western Shivalik hills, due to gully erosion by the rivers, streams and rain, narrow valleys and ravines are formed, making land unfit for agriculture. Such plain areas are known as bad land.

2. Regional Division

Regional Division of the Northern Plains of India

2.1 Rajasthan Plains

  • Rajasthan plain lies to the west of the Aravalli range and is divided into two parts, i.e. Marusthali and Bagar. Bagar region is part of the Northern plains while Marusthali is desert. 
  • The Rajasthan plains slope toward the west and south.
  • Rajasthan Bagar is a semi-arid region as it receives very less rainfall  
  • Rajasthan Bagar is further divided into three parts i.e.
    1. Luni: Region drained by river Luni and its tributaries 
    2. Shekhawati Region: Region was ruled by Shekhawati Rajputs in the past.
    3. Ghaggar Plain: River Ghaggar, an inland river, drains and terminates in this region. This region has benefited from Indira Gandhi Canal carrying Punjab’s water to Rajasthan.
Rajasthan Plains

2.2 Punjab-Haryana Plains

  • These are fluvial plains of Ravi, Beas and Sutlej  (tributaries of Indus). A large part of this plain is now in Pakistan.
  • The slope of this plain is towards the southwest. 
  • Punjab Plains has numerous seasonal rivers originating from the Shivaliks during the rainy season known as Choes. These rivers are responsible for the ravine and gully erosion.
  • Delhi Ridge acts as the dividing line between the Indus River system (Punjab-Haryana Plains) and the Ganga River system. 
  • It has the following divisions.
    1. Bari Doab: Lie between Beas and Ravi rivers
    2. Bist Doab: Area between Beas and Satluj rivers
    3. Cis-Satluj / Malwa: Area of Punjab lying eastward of Malwa. 
    4. Plain of Haryana: Area between Ghaggar & Yamuna consisting mainly of present-day Haryana state. It has a ‘saucer-shaped topography’. 
  • These plains are well irrigated but are now suffering problems due to over-irrigation leading to salination, over-use of fertilisers etc.
Punjab-Haryana Plains

2.3 Gangetic Plains

  • Gangetic Plains extends from the Yamuna River to Bangladesh. 
  • River Ganga and its tributaries constitute this plain by their sediments and make a great plain in India. 
  • It can be divided into three parts. 
    1. Upper Ganga Plains: Also known as Ganga-Yamuna Doab as it consists of the area between Yamuna in the west and Ganga in the east. Awadh and Rohilkhand plains also lie in them.
    2. Middle Ganga Plains: Also known as the Bihar Plain or the Mithila Plain. It consists of the area between the Ghaghra River to Kosi River.
    3. Lower Ganga Plains: It is a flat deltaic region lying between the gap in the Rajmahal and the Garo hill ranges. It is located in the state of West Bengal and Bangladesh. Duars of the Terai tract are found in its north, and the world’s largest Sundarbans Delta is located in its southern parts.
Gangetic Plains

2.4 Brahmaputra Plains

  • Brahmaputra Plains is also known as Assam Plains or Assam Valley.
  • The Brahmaputra enters India as Dihang and debouches in the flat Assam region, where it is known as the Brahmaputra. On entering the Assam Valley, the speed of the river decreases, and it engages in a deposition which causes the river to shift its course and develop multiple channels. Such a river is called the ‘Braided River’. Brahmaputra River is highly braided and known for floods.
  • There are numerous riverine islands, out of which Majauli Island is the largest riverine island in the world.
Brahmaputra Plains

Importance of Northern Plains

  1. Granary of India
    • It is a region of very fertile plains. Therefore, it is the most important agricultural region. 
    • Since it lies north of the Tropic of Cancer, Rabi and Kharif crops can be grown here.
    • Due to perennial rivers and underground water, canals and tubewell irrigation are well developed here. 
  2. Houses half of the Indian people
    • Northern Plains houses more than 50% of India’s population in one-fourth of the geographical area of India .’
  3. Well developed Transportation
    • Due to flat topography and high population density, road and rail density is highest in the Northern plains. 
  4. Well-developed Food Processing Industry
    • Because of well-developed agriculture, the food processing industry dominates in this region. 
  5. Birthplace of Indian religions
    • All the main religious movements, from Vedic Hinduism to Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, were born in the Northern Plains. Hence, the Northern plains represent the soul of India.

The Coastal Plains

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The Coastal Plains

This article deals with ‘The Coastal Plains (Geomorphology of India).’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

Andhra Coromandal Eastern Coastal Plains

The narrow coastal strip between the edges of the Peninsular plateau and the coastline of India running for a distance of six thousand kilometres from the Rann of Kutch in the west to the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta in the east is called Coastal Plains.

Indian Coastal Plains are of two types i.e.

  1. West Coastal Plains 
  2. East Coastal Plains 

1. West Coastal Plains

West Coastal Plains
  • It stretches from Rann of Kutch in the north to Kanyakumari in the south.
  • It is the coastline of Submergence except for the Kutch and Malabar regions.
  • These are very narrow (average width = 65 km). It is quite narrow in the middle and a bit broader in the north and south. 
  • They receive very heavy rainfall, because of which laterite soil is found here. As a result, they are not very important for agriculture except for some plantation agriculture such as Cashewnut (Maharashtra and Karnataka), Coconut (Kerala), Tapioca and Rice. 

They can be divided into the following parts

a. Kutch Peninsula

  • Kutch region is an emerged coast. It was an island surrounded by sea and lagoons. The sediments brought by the Indus River, which once flowed across this region, eventually filled these seas and lagoons.
  • It is an arid and semi-arid region receiving very less rainfall. The Arabian branch of the South-West monsoon passes by without causing any rain because of the absence of any obstruction to cause Orographic rainfall. 
  • One of India’s busiest and most important ports, i.e. Kandla Port, lies in this region. 
  • It is famous for salt mining.
  • The grassland in the Kutch region is known as Banni grasslands.
  • Kutch region is famous for Kharai camels which are swimming camels and facing threats due to salt mining and the destruction of mangroves. 
  • The Kutch festival is celebrated every year, showing the unique landscape of white sands. Sands are white due to salt.
  • The most famous attraction is Mandvi Beach because of its white sand, purity of water and pearls. 

b. Kathiawar Peninsula

  • It is a submerged coastline. 
  • It is a region of black soil due to Deccan lava.  
  • Due to black soil, it is famous for cultivating cotton, groundnut and tobacco. 
  • Basaltic and volcanic mountains known as Gir Ranges are situated in this region. Gir ranges are also famous for Asiatic Lions.

c. Konkan Coast

  • It is a submerged coast extending from Daman to Goa, passing through Maharashtra.
  • India’s commercial capital lies in this region. Mumbai was an island, but parts of the sea lying between Mumbai and the mainland have been reclaimed in the recent past.  
  • It is also rich in Petroleum resources. Bombay High lies here.
  • Famous west flowing river Mandovi or Mahadevi flows through the Konkan Coastal plains. Dudhsagar waterfall lies on the Mandovi River.

d. Canara Coast

  • It is a submerged coast lying in Karnataka.
  • It is famous for west flowing river Shravati. Jog Falls (271 m) lie on the Shravati River. 

e. Malabar Coast

  • Malabar coast lies between Mangalore and Kanyakumari. It includes Southern Karnataka and Kerala.
  • It is a coastline of emergence and therefore has numerous lagoons and backwaters. 
  • It is much wider as compared to the other parts of the western coast.
  • It is a low-lying plain with a height at no place exceeding 30 m above sea level. 
  • Distinctive characteristics of the Malabar coast include lakes, lagoons, and “Kayals” (backwaters). Backwaters are shallow lagoons, and the largest among them is Vembanad Kayal or Vembanad Lake, which is 75 km long and 5-10 km wide. Kochi is situated on its opening. 
  • Lake Vembanad is linked 4 other large lakes by canals and fed by 38 rivers to form National Waterway 3 from Kottayam to Kollam.
  • This region is also famous for  Kuttanad underwater rice cultivation and has been given the tag of GIAHS (Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems) by Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO). ( India has three GIAHS- two others being Pampore Saffron cultivation of Kashmir and Koraput traditional agriculture of Odisha)
Malabar Coast

2. Eastern Coastal Plains

Eastern Coastal Plains
  • Eastern Coastal plains stretch from Subarnarekha river along West Bengal- Odisha border to Kanyakumari.
  • A major portion of the Eastern Coastal Plains has been formed by the depositional work of rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri, making some of the world’s largest deltas. 
  • In contrast to the Western Ghats 
    1. They are wider, with an average width of 120 km. 
    2. They are coastlines of submergence.

They can be divided into the following parts

a. Utkal Plains

  • Utkal plains comprise coastal Odisha.
  • It includes the Mahanadi Delta with Cuttack at its head.
  • The most prominent physiographic feature of Utkal plains is Chilika Lake having the following features.
    1. River Daya drains into the Chilika Lake (south of the Mahanadi delta).
    2. It is the biggest lake in India.
    3. It is famous for Olive Ridley Turtles, Salt Water Crocodiles and the largest number of migratory birds from Siberia, including Siberian Crane, Flamingos and White Bellied Eagles.
    4. It is famous for an island known as Nalbana Island, which has Nalbana Bird Sanctuary.
  • Apart from that, Bhitarkanika is another important feature. 
    1. It is India’s second richest mangrove region located in the delta of the Baitarani, Brahmini and Mahanadi rivers. 
    2. The dense forests of Bhitarkanika have made it an important breeding ground for Olive Ridley Turtles and an important habitat for Indian saltwater crocodiles.

b. Andhra Plains

  • It extends from the south of the Utkal plains to Pulicat Lake (40 km north of Chennai).
  • It is drained by Godavari, Krishna and Penneru rivers.
  • Vishakhapatnam, the only natural port on the eastern coast, lies in Andhra coastal plains. 

It is famous for Kolleru Lake and Pulicat Lake.

Kolleru Lake – It is between the delta of Godavari and Krishna. 
– It was once a brackish water lake or lagoon. But due to the extension of the delta, it has now been converted into a freshwater lake.
Pulicat Lake – It is the second-largest brackish water lake (or lagoon) in India.
– It is shared by Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. 
– It is famous for an island in its mouth known as Sriharikota, the satellite launching centre of ISRO.

c. Coromandal Coast

  • It extends from Lake Pulicat to Kanyakumari along the Tamil Nadu coast.
  • It is drained by rivers Kaveri and Vaigai.
  • The Delta of the Kaveri River and large-scale irrigation facilities have made this region the granary of South India.
  • It is famous for rice cultivation.

Side Topic: Difference between Eastern & Western Coast

Western Coast Eastern Coast
From Rann of Kutch to Kanyakumari as a narrow strip of land between the Arabian Sea & Western Ghats From Kanyakumari to Sundarbans, as relatively broader strip between Eastern Ghats & Bay of Bengal
Highly influenced by South West monsoon. Influenced by North East monsoon, although it get monsoon from South West monsoon as well
Rivers form estuaries Deltas, long beaches, salt marshes, lagoons etc., are  commonly formed
Example of Submergent coast Example of Emergent coast
Less attacked by cyclones More attacked by cyclones

Why does the West Coast provide good ports than the East? 

  • West Coast is Submergent Coast, whereas East Coast is Emergent Coast implying that Western Coast is deeper than Eastern Coast, providing favourable conditions for natural ports.
  • Western rivers form Estuaries, whereas Eastern rivers form Deltas, which require constant dredging to maintain the required depth necessary for the entry of ships.
  • Building excellent ports and harbours in the East is challenging since the continental shelf stretches 500 km into the ocean.
  • Due to the construction of the Suez Canal, the importance of the Western Coast increased as it provided a shorter route between India and Europe.

The Northern Mountains

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The Northern Mountains

This article deals with ‘The Northern Mountains (Geomorphology of India).’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

6 physiographic divisions of India

India can be divided into 6 Physiographic features. 

  1. The Northern Mountains
  2. The Great Northern Plains 
  3. The Peninsular plateau
  4. The Indian Desert
  5. The Coastal Plains
  6. The Islands

The Northern Mountains

  • Himalayas extend ~2500 km in length, passing through 12 Indian states covering 17% of the Indian geographical area  & consist of many valleys between them.
  • These mountains consist of the youngest and the loftiest mountain chains in the world because they were formed only a few million years ago due to the collision of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates.
  • The region is vast, rugged & versatile, supporting remarkable cultural, ethnic & biological diversity.

Formation of Himalayas

  • The Himalayas were formed due to the convergence of tectonic plates, i.e. Indo-Australian plate in the south and the Eurasian plate in the north. 
  • The place where the Himalayas are situated today was occupied by the Tethys Sea. On its sea bed, sediments were deposited, brought by the then rivers from the Tibetan plateau in the north and Gondwana land (Deccan Plateau) in the south.
  • About 70 million years ago, the Indo-Australian plate separated from Gondwanaland and started to move towards the Eurasian plate at a speed of 12cm/year. As a result, Tethys Sea began to contract. 
Formation of Himalayas
  • Since the Indian plate was made up of denser material than the Eurasian plate, the Indian plate started to subduct under the Eurasian plate causing the lateral compression and folding of sediments accumulated in the Tethys Sea. The Himalayas are thought to have formed as a result of the compression of sediments from the Tethys Sea over three distinct stages.
    1. First Phase: Started about 50 million years ago and completed 30 million years ago with the formation of the Great Himalayas.
    2. Second Phase: Took place between 30 to 25 million years ago, resulting in the formation of the Middle Himalayas.
    3. Third Phase: Took place between 20 to 2 million years ago, resulting in the formation of Shivaliks.
  • The Indo-Australian plate is still moving northwards at 5 cm/year, and the Himalayas are still rising. 

Divisions of Northern Mountains

  • The collision of the Indo-Australian plate with the Eurasian plate was not smooth. This collision led to the formation of a number of ranges. These ranges include Trans-Himalayas, Himalayas and Purvanchal. The Himalayas and other high peaks are joined by the Pamir Knot, also referred to as the “Roof of the Earth.”
  • In India, the Northern Mountains are grouped into three divisions. 1) The Trans-Himalayas, 2) the Himalayas, 3) the Eastern or Purvanchal Hills.
The Northern Mountains

1.1 Trans Himalayas

Trans Himalayas
  • It lies north of the great Himalayan range in Kashmir, Ladakh, and the Tibetan plateau.
  • They are of volcanic origin as they were formed by the volcanic eruption due to the initial interactions between the oceanic part of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates. 
  • They also contain the Tethys sediments.  
  • The prominent ranges of the Trans Himalayas are Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar and Kailash.
  • It has some of the highest peaks in the world, like K2 (the highest mountain peak in India and the second-highest peak in the world).  
  • To the north of trans-Himalayas lies the heavily dissected, eroded, flat region known as the Tibet plateau. This region has numerous saline lakes like Salt Lake, Pangong Tso, Tso Moriri etc.
  • Karakoram-Ladakh region has India’s largest notified protected area (i.e. national park) known as Hemis National Park. It has the highest density of Snow Leopards in the world.

1.2 The Himalayas

  • The Himalayas are the core part of the northern mountains.
  • The Himalayas extend from the Indus Gorge in the west to Namcha Barwa (or Dihang Valley or Brahmaputra Gorge) in the east (~2500 km). 
  • These are young fold mountains formed very recently in Earth’s geological history. 
  • The shape of the Himalayas is like a convex curve towards our country, whose middle portion is sagged inwards India. Its reason lies in the process of its formation. When Indo-Australian Plate collided with Eurasian Plate, Aravalli and Shillong Plateaus were situated at the western and eastern edge of the colliding region where the Himalayas were formed. Hence, the western and eastern edge was strong, but the middle part was plain & therefore weak, which got sagged, resulting in the convex shape of the Himalayas.  
  • The slope of these mountain ranges in the south towards India is very steep, whereas it has a gentle slope towards China in the north (due to the presence of the high Tibetan Plateau). That is why it is difficult to cross the Himalayas from the south. 
  • Many Antecedent rivers reach plains after passing through the Himalayan mountains. Antecedent rivers are those that were present before the formation of the Himalayas, and their water source is beyond the Himalayas. Although their path was blocked due to the formation of the Himalayas, they gradually made their way after eroding the Himalayas. These include Indus, Sutlej, Brahmaputra etc. 
  • The main divisions of the Himalayas are
    1. Greater Himalayas
    2. Lesser Himalayas
    3. Shivaliks

1.2.1 The Greater Himalayas

The Greater Himalayas
  • These are also known as Internal Himalaya or Himadri. 
  • They are about 25 km wide. 
  • The average height in this range is 6100 meters. Mount Everest (8,848 m), the highest peak in the world, is also situated in this range along with other high peaks like Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Dhaulagiri etc. 
  • Due to their great heights, the peaks of almost all mountains remain snow-covered throughout the year. Since it is a region with permanent snow cover, it has many glaciers like Gangotri, Yamnotri, and Siachin. 
  • It is the longest and most continuous sub-division of the Himalayas. Its length is 2400 km and extends from Nanga Parbat (or Indus Gorge) in north–west to Namcha Barwa (or Dihang Valley or Brahmaputra Gorge) in the east.
  • It contains sedimentary rocks (due to the folding of sediments of the Tethys Sea) as well as Metamorphic rocks (due to pressure created by the collision of two plates). 
  • It contains many passes. Although, it is very difficult and dangerous to cross this mountainous subdivision. But still, many passes are found to cross this, like Burzil and Zojila in Kashmir, Chang La in Ladakh, Shipki La in Himachal Pradesh, Lipulekh in Uttarakhand, Nathula and Jelep La in Sikkim and Diphu pass in Arunachal Pradesh.
  • The Greater Himalayas receive less rainfall than the Lesser Himalayas and the Shivaliks.

1.2.2 The Lesser Himalayas

The Lesser Himalayas
  • They are also known as Himachal or Middle Himalayas.
  • The height of this range varies from 3,700 to 4,500 m. 
  • Its width varies up to 80 km. (hence, it is lower in height but wider than Greater Himalayas)
  • Slate, limestone & quartzite are the major rocks found in this range.
  • This region is subjected to extensive erosion due to heavy rainfall, deforestation and urbanization.
  • It also contains famous hill stations of the Himalayas like Shimla, Mussourie, Nainital, Almora, Ranikhet and Darjeeling.  
  • Lesser Himalayas are not a continuous range (unlike Greater Himalayas) and is divided into
    • Pirpanjal (J&K) 
    • Dhauladhar (Himachal Pradesh)  
    • Nag Tibba (Uttarakhand)- Mussourie & Kumaon ranges are part of Nag Tibba
    • Mahabharata Range (Nepal)
  • The region between Greater Himalayas and Lesser Himalayas contains many valleys like Kashmir Valley, Kangra Valley, Kullu Valley, Bhagirathi Valley and Mandakini Valley.
  • Many passes are also present, which provide passage through Lesser Himalayas to reach these valleys like Banihal and Qazigund, connecting Jammu with Kashmir. 

1.2.3 The Shivaliks

The Shivaliks
  • Also known as Outer Himalayas and Southern Himalayas 
  • Siwaliks extend from Jammu and Kashmir to Assam. 
  • Their average height varies between 900 to 1200 metres. Hence, they are the lowest among all Himalayas. 
  • It is mainly made by the debris brought by the Himalayan rivers as they were geologically formed during the Tertiary period by the upliftment of the foothills of the Himalayas, where rivers have settled their sediments.
  • It is the most discontinuous range.
  • Longitudinal valleys are found between the Shivaliks and the Lesser Himalayas, which are called Duns. The most famous among these are Dehradun, Patlidun, Udhampur etc. 
  • They are known by various names like 
    1. Jammu Hills (in J&K)
    2. Dhang and Dundwa (in Uttaranchal)
    3. Churia Ghat Hills (in Nepal)
    4. Dafla, Miri, Abhor and Mishmi (in Arunachal)

1.3 Purvanchal

Purvanchal

After crossing Dihang Gorge, the Himalayas bends southward (syntaxial bend), forming a series of hills. They have the same progeny as that of the Himalayas & are part of the Northern mountain system. They are aligned north to south and are known by different local names. 

Patkai Bum Forms border between India and Myanmar
Naga Hills Situated in Nagaland and forms the border between India and Myanmar
Manipur Hills The physiography of Manipur is unique, represented by the presence of ‘Loktak’ lake in the centre and surrounded by mountains called Manipur Hills from all sides.  
Mizo Hills – They are also known as the Lusai Hills. 
– Mizoram is also known as the ‘Molasses Basin’ as it is made up of soft unconsolidated deposits brought by small rivers originating in these hills.
Arakan Yoma Purvanchal extends in Myanmar as Arakan Yoma, which further continues southwards as Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Above ranges in the Purvanchal are separated from each other by numerous small rivers.

Note: Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia hills of the Meghalaya plateau are not a part of Purvanchal or the Himalayas in general. They are an extension of the Peninsular Plateau.

2. Longitudinal Divisions of Himalayas

Longitudinal Divisions of Himalayas

There is another way to divide the Himalayas longitudinally into Kashmir-Punjab Himalayas, Kumaon Himalayas, Nepal Himalayas, Sikkim-Darjeeling Himalayas and Assam Himalayas.

2.1 Kashmir-Punjab Himalayas

Kashmir-Punjab Himalayas
  • Major Characteristic of the Kashmir Himalayas is deep valleys, and high mountain passes like Zoji la, Bara Lacha La, Banihal and Qazigund. 
  • Between Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal range lies the world-famous valley of Kashmir  
  • The Baltoro and Siachen glaciers, two significant glaciers in South Asia, can also be found here.
  • Kashmir Himalayas are famous for its Karewa formations, known for cultivating Zafran, a local variety of saffron.
  • Some of the important freshwater lakes like Dal & Wular and saltwater lakes like Pangong Tso & Tso Moriri are also in this region. ( Note: Dal Lake is Oxbow Lake).
  • Srinagar is located on the banks of the Jhelum River, and Dal Lake, situated in Srinagar, presents an interesting geographical feature. Jhelum River in Kashmir valley is still in its youth stage but forms a meander – a feature associated with the mature stage of rivers.

Side Topic: Karewas Formation

  • During the Quaternary period, when Pir Panjal Mountains were formed, the Kashmir valley, surrounded by Great Himalayan Range in the north & Pir Panjal Range in the south, was submerged under water, and a big lake of about 5000 sq km area was formed. All the sediments that rivers brought to this giant lake kept settling downwards.  
Karewas
  • Later, because of endogenic forces, Baramullah Gorge was created, and this vast lake was drained through the gorge leaving behind sediments. These deposits are called Karewas. Hence, Karewas are fluvio-lacustrine Plains
  • Examples of lacustrine plains include.
    1. The Kashmir Valley of India.
    2. The Imphal Basin in the Manipur hills  
    3. The watershed of the Red River in the USA and Canada
  • The Karewas are well suited for the cultivation of saffron, walnut, almond, and orchards.  

Jhelum is still in its Youthful stage in Kashmir, but it forms Meanders, characteristic of the Mature Stage. Why? 

  • Meanders are formed when moving water erodes the outer banks, whereas the inner part of the river, having less intensity, deposits silt and sediments, which results in a snake-like pattern of the water stream.
  • The main requirement for the Meander formation is the need for silt and sediments and the slow speed of river waters. 
  • In Kashmir valley, these sediments are provided by local base levels of formerly existing Karewas.
  • It is the reason Jhelum meanders. Along with that, the formation of Wular Lake, which is an Oxbow lake, is also explained by this phenomenon.    

2.2 Kumaon-Himachal Himalayas

Kumaon-Himachal Himalayas
  • Mountains in Kumaun Himalayas are 
    • Great Himalayas  
    • Middle Himalayas – Dhauladhar & Nag Tibha (Garhwal & Kumaon Ranges ).
    • Shivalik (locally called Dhang and Dundwa Range in Uttaranchal) 
  • In Lesser/Middle Himalayas section of the Kumaon-Himachal Himalayas, the altitude between 1,000-2,000 m attracted the British colonial administration due to its moderate climate (resembling the British weather). Subsequently, important hill stations such as Dharamshala, Mussorie, Shimla, Kaosani etc., were developed in this region.
  • Dun formation is an important feature of this part. The largest of all the duns, Dehra Dun measures roughly 35–45 km in length and 22–25 km in width.
  • This section, too, has passes like Shipki La and Lipulekh pass. Lipulekh is used as a pathway to reach Kailash Mansarovar in Tibet.
  • In the Great Himalayan section of the Kumaon-Himachal Himalayas, the valleys are inhabited mainly by the Bhotias. The Bhotias is a nomadic tribe that moves to the higher ranges’ called “Bugyals” (summer grasslands) in the summer and return to the valleys in the winter.
  • Kumaon-Himachal Himalayas has many glaciers like Nandadevi, Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri and Yamnotri, a source of rivers like Yamuna and Ganga. Many pilgrimages, such as the Gangotri, Yamnotri, Badrinath, Kedarnath and Hemkund Sahib, are also situated here.  

Side Topic: Duns formation

  • Duns are the same as Karewas, i.e. they too are fluvio-lacustrine plains formed with sediments left behind by a former lake, with the only difference being that they are formed between Middle Himalayas and Siwaliks.
  • When Shivalik was formed, drainage of the region was impounded & the whole area was submerged in water between Shivalik & Middle Himalayas, creating a huge lake. The river gradually finds weak rocks to cut across mountains & flows through it. Lake dries up & duns are formed by the sediments left by the former lake. 
  • E.g. Dehradun between Siwaliks and Mussoorie range, Jammu Dun between Pir Panjal and Shivaliks, Pathankot Dun between Siwaliks and Dhauladhar, Chandigarh-Kalka dun etc.
  • Some of the water remained in the depressions forming lakes known as Taals. Examples include Nainital, Bhimtal etc.
Duns Karewas Greater Himalayas Middle Himalayas Siwaliks

2.3 Nepal Himalayas

Nepal Himalayas
  • It is the tallest section of the Himalayas. 
  • Mountain sections in it include
    • Great Himalayas containing peaks like Dhaulagiri, Annapurna, Mansalu, Everest, Makalu etc
    • Middle Himalayas:  Mahabharata range
    • Shivaliks (locally called Churia Ghat Hills)
  • The famous and densely populated Kathmandu Valley is situated between Great Himalayas and Middle Himalayas. 
  • Passes like Kora La connects Kathmandu valley with Tibet (will be used by China to build railways and roads and was in the news).

2.4 Sikkim/Darjeeling Himalayas

Sikkim/Darjeeling Himalayas
  • Sikkim Himalayas lies between Kosi & Teesta Rivers. 
  • It is an area with deep valleys and lofty mountain peaks like Kanchenjunga (Kanchengiri).
  • Lepcha tribes inhabit the higher reaches of this region, while the southern part (Darjeeling) has a mixed population consisting of Bengalis, Nepalis and tribals from Central India. 
  • The British established tea plantations in this area by taking advantage of the favourable physical circumstances, which included a moderate slope, thick soil cover with high organic content, evenly distributed rainfall throughout the year, and mild winters. They, together with the Arunachal Himalayas, stand out from the other Himalayan ranges due to the absence of the Shivalik formations. Here, the “duar formations” are significant—which have also been exploited to create tea gardens.  
  • Sikkim & Darjeeling Himalayas are known for their scenic beauty & rich flora & fauna, particularly various orchids.
  • Sikkim Himalayas has passes like Jelep la ( forming a tri-junction of India-China-Bhutan) and Nathula. 

Side Topic: Duars

  • Duars are floodplains on the foothills of the Himalayas in Assam and the northern part of West Bengal (Darjeeling).
  • They are made up of loose sediments brought down by Himalayan rivers and deposited each season. The streams often than not shift course and spread the load over broad tracts. Some streams disappear underground and re-emerge only later. It makes duars very damp regions. 
  • Duars are not the peneplains (uniform and almost levelled plain). They may have considerable height. The altitude of this region varies widely, with as low as 90 m and as high as 1,750 m. 
  • The British introduced tea plantations in this region due to the following physical conditions. 
    • Moderate slope.
    • well-distributed rainfall throughout the year 
    • Thick soil with high organic content
    • Mild winters (tea can’t withstand frost & snow) 

2.5 Arunachal Himalayas

q , u 10
  • Arunachal Himalayas spans between Bhutan Himalayas (in the east) to the Namcha Barwa (in the west). 
  • They have the following sections
    1. Greater Himalayas 
    2. Middle Himalayas are absent
    3. Shivaliks are known by the names Dafla, Miri, Abor and Mishmi.
  • Important mountain peaks of the Arunachal Himalayas include Kangtu & Namcha Barwa. 
  • Rapidly moving rivers cut deep gorges in these mountain ranges. The Brahmaputra cuts a deep gorge after crossing Namcha Barwa called Dihang or Brahmaputra gorge. The Kameng, Subansiri, Dihang, Dibang, and Lohit are the other significant rivers of this region. They have huge hydroelectric power potential since they are perennial and have a high rate of fall.
  • Arunachal Himalayas are inhabited by numerous ethnic tribal communities. Some of the prominent ones are the Abor, Mishmi, Nyishi and Nagas. Primarily, they practise Jhumming agriculture. 

Side Note: Important Passes in the Himalayas

Khyber Pass olan Pass Aghi" Burzi Zoji La o Banihal Bara Lacha La Shipki La Rohtang Lipulekh Kora La civilspedia.com Bomdi L Nathu La Jelep La Pass

As previously discussed, the Himalayas and associated mountains have many passes. These types of questions can be asked in the exam. Hence we are going to provide a list in concentrated form

Aghill pass Ladakh Connects Ladakh with Xinjiang province.
Burzil Pas Ladakh Connecting link between India and Afghanistan and other Central Asian countries.
Zoji La J&K and Ladakh Connects Kashmir valley with Ladakh.
Bara Lacha La Himachal Connects Manali in Himachal Pradesh to Ladakh.
Shipki La Himachal River Satluj enters India through it and it is the sole trade route between India and Tibet
Lipulekh Uttarakhand – It is at the trijunction of India (Uttaranchal), Nepal and China. 
– Kailash Mansarovar Yatra use this pass 
– It was in the news due to the Kalapani dispute with Nepal because Lipulekh sits at the top of Kalapani. 
Jelep La Sikkim Tri Junction of India, Bhutan and China
Nathu La Sikkim Important trade route between India and China
Bomdi La Arunachal Connects Arunachal with Lhasa.
Diphu Pass Arunachal Tri Junction of India, Myanmar and China
Khyber Pass Pakistan Connects Pakistan and Afghanistan  (but important because in history, invaders  used this to invade India, and traders used this for trade with Central Asia)
Bolan Pass Pakistan In Pakistan (has the same history as that of Khyber Pass)
Kora La Nepal Connects Nepal and Tibet
Banihal & Qazigund J&K Connects Jammu to Kashmir & contains Jawahar Tunnel
Rohtang Pass Himachal  

Side Topic: Important Glaciers

Siachin Glacier UT of Ladakh In the Karakoram Ranges. It is the longest glacier outside the polar regions.
Baltoro UT of Ladakh Situated in the Ladakh ranges
Gangotri Glacier Uttarakhand Source of Ganga river
Yamnotri Glacier Uttarakhand Source of Yamuna river
Pindar Glacier Uttarakhand Source of Pindar river
Zemu Glacier Sikkim Source of Teesta river

Importance of Himalayas

Climatic Importance

  • The Himalayas protect us from the extremely cold winds coming from the north.
  • The Himalayas also forces southwest monsoon winds to shed whole moisture in India.
  • Due to the obstruction of the Himalayas, the Westerly Jetstream shed rainfall and snowfall in winters, known as Western Disturbances. 

Rivers

  • The Himalayas are the source of perennial rivers which has deposited large amount of alluvium, forming the Great Plains of India.
  • Various major rivers of India originate from the Himalayas. These rivers are a source of irrigation for a significant portion of agriculture in India.
  • They are the source of Hydroelectric power.

Biodiversity

  • Himalayas go through different bio-geographic and climatic zones. There is a succession of vegetation from topical to tundra. Hence, biodiversity is very high in the Himalayas with large endemism.
  • Many animals, including tigers, snow leopards, elephants, rhinoceros, etc., are found in the Himalayas.
  • A large number of herbs of medicinal value are also found in the Himalayas. 

Tourism and Religious Importance

  • Tourists from all over the world visit the hill stations situated in the Himalayas. E.g. McLeod Ganj, Shimla, Nainital Mandi, Mussoorie, Darjeeling etc.
  • Various religious places are also part of the Himalayas, e.g. Kailash, Amarnath, Kedarnath, Vaishno Devi, Jawala Ji, Chintpurni, Gangotri, Yamnotri, Hemkund Sahib etc.

Mineral Resources

  • The Himalayas are rich in metallic minerals such as copper, lead, zinc and gold. 
  • The Himalayan rock salt is used in traditional medicines and aromatherapy.
  • The Siwaliks are a very good source of limestone.
  • Coal is found in Jammu & Kashmir (Kalakot) and Arunachal Pradesh (Namchik-Namphuk)
  • Petroleum in India was first discovered in the Himalayas in the upper Assam region. 

Defence against Hostile Powers

  • The Himalayas act as a natural border with China. 

Factors responsible for the Location of Industries

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Factors responsible for the Location of Industries

This article deals with the Factors responsible for the Location of Industries.’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

The industrial sector refers to the part of the economy involved in producing goods through machinery, technology, and mass production methods. 

Classification of Industries

Classification of Industries

Primary Industry

  • They use natural raw material
  • E.g., Agriculture, fishing, forestry etc.

 Secondary Industry

  • Use material obtained from primary industries to produce complex products 
  • E.g. Fibre to readymade garments 

 Tertiary Industry

  • It provides services (not related to manufacturing) 
  • E.g. transport, consultancy, tourism, health services etc. 

Factors responsible for the Location of Industries

Where Industry can set up

Factors responsible for the Location of Industries

1. Nature of Raw Material

Industries using raw materials that lose weight are concentrated in the regions where raw materials are found.

  1. Sugar Industry: Conversion of sugarcane to raw sugar involves a lot of weight loss. Hence, the sugar industry is set up near raw materials.
  2. Steel Industry: Both Iron ore and coal are weight-losing. Therefore, a suitable location for the iron & steel industry is near raw material sources.

2. Market

  • Markets serve as outlets for manufactured goods.
  • Heavy machines, machine tools, and heavy chemicals are located near the high-demand areas as these are market-oriented. 
  • Similarly, Petroleum refineries are also located near the markets as crude oil can be transported easily compared to several products derived from it. Koyali, Barauni and Mathura refineries are typical examples. 

3. Historical Factors

  • Mumbai, Calcutta & Madras are industrially developed due to various historical factors such as the presence of capital and its proximity to power during British times as they were Presidency towns. 
  • The availability of coal in the region and the presence of navigable waterways provided the necessary resources and transportation routes for the growth of the textile industry in cities like Manchester and Liverpool.
  • The automobile industry developed in Detroit, Michigan, due to its proximity to raw materials like iron and coal and the Great Lakes waterway, which facilitated transportation. The establishment of the Ford Motor Company in Detroit in 1903 further solidified the city’s position as a hub for automobile manufacturing.
  • Once a particular industry develops in a certain area, the forward & backward linkages of the Industry in these areas become well-developed. It attracts new Industries to these cities. 

4. Government policies

Government policies become a major factor in deciding where the industry will be set up. For example, 

  •  If a government offers tax breaks or other financial incentives to companies that locate in certain regions, those companies may be more likely to choose those locations. In India, tax breaks were provided to industries located in hilly areas like Himachal, and as a result, large industries from the Punjab-Himachal border shifted to Himachal.
  • Similarly, companies may be less likely to locate if a government imposes strict environmental regulations in certain areas.

5. Transport

The industry is set up in an area where infrastructure is developed & area is easily accessible.

  • Switzerland makes wristwatches & not bulldozers because of transport reasons.
  • The Great Lakes area (in North America) is highly industrialised because it is well connected via rail, road and ships. 

6. Labour

Highly skilled labour is required to run Industry. Due to this reason

  1. African countries export rough diamonds because they don’t have skilled labour to finish them 
  2. Australia supplies raw wool & not woollen garments because there aren’t enough people. 

7. Availability of Capital

The term “capital” refers to the funds or financial resources needed to start and operate an industry. It is an important factor in deciding the location of an industry, illustrated by the following examples.

  1. The industry is located in Mumbai and Chennai because the capital is easily available there. 
  2.  Software companies, including Apple, Google, Facebook etc., are concentrated in California as many venture capital firms are present to fund startups.

8. Climate

Climate can be an essential factor in deciding the location of industries, as certain industries require specific environmental conditions to operate effectively,

  1. Tech companies are located in San Francisco (Silicon Valley), and Bangalore (Silicon Valley of India) because of the mild climate in the region, which provides a comfortable environment for workers, and the lack of extreme heat or cold can prevent equipment malfunctions.
  2. The Winter Sports equipment industry is located in Helsinki (Finland) because cold weather provides a natural testing environment for products, and snow and ice create demand for such products.

9. Electricity

  • Electricity is a major determinant as it powers the industry and is needed in many industrial processes.
  • E.g., in Aluminium Industry, massive electricity is required for Bauxite refining. Hence, Aluminium Industry will be set up where electricity is cheap. 

With the increase in science and technology, geographical factors are becoming less relevant in deciding the industrial location.

  • Climate control is made possible for industrial purposes. For example, artificial humidifiers are used for climate control in dry areas. 
  • Electricity as a source of energy is easily transmitted over a long distance; similarly, pipelines and improved transportation have increased the availability of petroleum fuel as a source of energy even at distant locations. 
  • Rails and roads can now reach anywhere, breaching even the Himalayas and other mountains. E.g., China is building Industry in Xinjiang province, which was impossible earlier. 

The Cycle of Seasons in India

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The Cycle of Seasons in India

This article deals with ‘The Cycle of Seasons in India.’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here

Introduction

India has four seasons as mentioned below.

The Cycle of Seasons in India

Winter Season

  • Winter season commences in January and remains till the end of February.
  • During this period, due to the sun’s apparent movement towards the south, vertical rays of the sun fall over the Southern Hemisphere. That is why the temperature starts to decrease in the Northern Hemisphere, and pressure belts along with Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) start to move southwards.  
  • As the temperature over Indian Subcontinent starts to decrease in winter, the pressure starts to increase. The high pressure replaces the low pressure over Northern India.
  • The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) starts to move southwards and gradually moves out of India. As a result, monsoon winds also start to retreat, moving towards ITCZ, i.e. from North-West to South-East. These winds are dry as they move from land towards the sea and have already shed moisture. These are known as retreating monsoon or North East Monsoon.

Cold Waves

  • During this period, high-pressure areas develop over central and western Asia. Dry and cold continental winds from the Caspian Sea and Turkmenistan enter the Northern Plains, which cause a fall of many degrees in the temperature of the great plains. These north-western cold winds, moving at a speed of 3 to 5 km per hour, are termed as the Cold Waves.
Cold Waves in India

Jet Stream and Upper Air Circulation

  • Along with that, Sub-Tropical Westerly Jet (STWJ), flowing over Tibet Plateau in the summers, shifts southwards and creates high pressure over North India. STWJ extends from the Mediterranean sea to Western Asia, the Persian Gulf, Iran and Pakistan, crosses the great plains of India and reaches the China sea. 
Sub-Tropical Westerly Jet (STWJ) and rains in India

Rainfall due to North East Monsoon over Coromandal Coast in Winter

  • Rain occurs in winter due to the North-East monsoon as well. 
  • When Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) moves out of India, dry continental winds start to blow from North East to South-West.  
  • But a part of North-East winds pass over the Bay of Bengal & cause rainfall on the Coromandal Coast. It is known as North-East Monsoon and precipitates over Coromandal Coast only.
North East Monsoon over Coromandal Coast in Winter

Western Disturbances

  • Sub-Tropical Westerly Jet reaches Northern India after passing over the Mediterranean Sea, where it rains during winter. These winds bring cyclonic disturbances formed over the Mediterranean Sea to north India. 
  • Due to Sub-Tropical Westerly Jet,  
    1. Punjab, Haryana, northern Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir and Western Uttar Pradesh receive an average of 20 to 50 cm of cyclonic rainfall, which is very useful for the Rabi crops. 
    2. Neighbouring Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir and Kumaon Hills experience snowfall.
  • Precipitation during the winter season is good for Rabi crops, especially wheat. 
  • But excessive rainfall can also cause crop damage, landslides and avalanches. 
Western Disturbances

Weather in Cold Season

  • The weather is pleasant in winter. 
    1. Days are pleasantly warm (moderate)
    2. Nights are cold. 
    3. Skies are clear with dry weather.
  • Temperature decreases from south to north. It falls from 31° C in Trivandrum, 26° C in Calicut, 24° C in Chennai, 16° C in Varanasi, and Drass Valley has a temperature of -45° C
  • Due to the sharp fall in night temperature, sometimes dense or heavy fog appears.
  • Due to the cold waves in the plains, a severe frost occurs.

Summer Season

  • At the end of February, the temperature rises as sun-rays fall vertically over areas north of the equator. Hence, the summer season remains from March till the end of May, and it is the longest season in India.
  • Interior areas record the maximum daily temperatures. E.g., The maximum daily temperature recorded is 
    1. 38° C in Nagpur  
    2. 40° C in Madhya Pradesh  
    3. 45° C in the North-Western parts
    4. 48° C in the Barmer (Rajasthan)
  • But coastal lands have moderate climates due to moderating effect of ocean and sea breeze. The temperature remains between 30 to 32° C in South India.

Pressure Systems 

  • With an increase in temperature, Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) starts shifting towards the north.
  • In May and June, due to high temperatures, a low-pressure Thermal Depression develops in the north–western parts of the country. Additionally, the Sub-Tropical ‘Jet’ stream shifts towards the north of the Himalayas. In this way, a special situation develops in the north–west, in which till the height of 6–7 Km from the surface of the land, the low-pressure cycles join each other and attract the monsoon winds fastly towards themselves.

Loo

In summer, North India comes under the influence of Loo. Loo is a strong, dusty, hot, and dry summer wind blowing from the west over the western Indo-Gangetic plains region of Northern India. It is especially strong in May and June. Due to its very high temperatures, exposure to it leads to fatal heat strokes. Due to its high temperature and dryness, it has severe drying effects on vegetation leading to browning in the areas it affects.

Loo in India

Norwesters or Kalbaisakhi

  • The Loo ends in late summer due to the arrival of the monsoon. Loo (dry winds at high temperature) from the North-West and warm & moist winds from the Bay of Bengal converge around the Chotanagpur plateau. It causes thunderstorms and lightning accompanied by strong winds and heavy rainfall, mainly in the states of Assam and West Bengal. 
  • These local winds are known as ‘Norwesters’ or ‘Kalbaisakhi,’ i.e. calamity of the month of Baisakh. They bring rainfall in Assam, West Bengal and Odisha. This rainfall is quite beneficial for the cultivation of Jute and Rice in West Bengal and Tea in Assam.  
Kalbaisakhi

Blossom and Mango Showers

  • The coastal areas of Kerala and Karnataka receive rainfall close to the end of summer. These showers are extremely useful in the cultivation of tea, coffee and mango. They are also known as Mango Showers in Kerala (as they help in the early ripening of mangoes) and ‘Blossom Showers‘ in Karnataka, as with these showers, coffee flowers blossom in these areas.  

Monsoon Season

Due to the rapid temperature increase in May over the north-western plains, the low-pressure conditions further are intensified. By early June, low pressure is powerful enough to attract the monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean. (we have discussed this already in the previous article)

The rain in this season begins abruptly. This sudden onset of monsoon with violent thunder and lightning is called the “burst” or “break” of the monsoons. The monsoon burst can happen in the first week of June in coastal Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra, while it may be delayed to the first week of July in interior parts. 

With the onset of monsoon winds, the weather conditions change in the whole country. Its chief characteristics are

  1. High heat
  2. High humidity
  3. Extensive clouding
  4. Several spells of heavy to moderate rain with strong surface winds

Side Topic: Long Period Average (LPA)

  • LPA is the average annual rain received by the country during the South-West monsoon (June to September) for 50 years.
  • For 50 years ranging from 1960 to 2010 (used by IMA presently), India’s LPA is 88 cm (approx.)
Deficient If rainfall is less than 90% of LPA.
Below Normal If rainfall is between 90-96% of LPA
Near Normal If rainfall is between 96 to 104% of LPA
Above Normal If rainfall is between 104% to 110% of LPA
Excess If rainfall is above 110% of LPA

March of Monsoon Winds in India

When moisture-laden winds reach the southernmost tip of the Indian Peninsula, it divides into two parts due to its topography. These branches are the Arabian Sea Branch and the Bay of Bengal Branch.

1. Arabian Sea Branch

  • First of all, it encounters the Western Ghats. Full of moisture, when this branch tries to cross the 2000 metres-high Western Ghats, it gets cooled at the ‘lapse rate’ and starts raining. But it rains only on the windward side, i.e. western slopes of Western Ghats, while the leeward side, i.e. South Karnataka Plateau, Rayalaseema, Vidarbha etc., receives very scanty rainfall. Also, the amount of rainfall decreases as the moisture decreases while moving north of the Arabian Sea. For example, Mangalore receives 330 cm. of rainfall, and Mumbai receives 100 cm.
Arabian Sea Branch of Monsoon and Western Ghats
  • The second sub-branch of the Arabian Sea moves through the valleys of Narmada and Tapi and reaches the Chota-Nagpur Plateau, where it joins the Monsoon winds coming from the Bay of Bengal and causes more than 150 cm of rainfall. 
Arabian Sea Branch of Monsoon- valleys of Narmada and Tapi and reaches the Chota-Nagpur Plateau
  • Third sub-branch of the monsoon winds of the Arabian sea moves towards the north, through Gujarat and Sind delta. It causes very less rainfall over Kutch, Saurashtra and Thar Desert due to the following reasons.
    1. By this time, the moisture content is largely decreased
    2. Aravalli range is parallel to these winds, and these just move straight, without rising high, along these mountains.
Monsoon and Aravallis
  • On reaching Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh, these monsoon winds join the Bay of Bengal monsoon branch and bring rainfall to these regions. 

2. Bay of Bengal Branch

  • First of all, Monsoon winds hit Andaman and Nicobar Island on 20 May (MCQ = first of all, it hit A&N . Hit Western Ghats and North East on 1 June)
Bay of Bengal Branch - Andaman and Nicobar Island
  • Bay of Bengal Branch is then directed towards Myanmar and South-East Bangladesh. However, owing to the presence of Arakan Yoma hills along the coast of Myanmar, a large part of the Bay of Bengal Branch is deflected towards the Indian subcontinent. The monsoons, therefore, enter West Bengal and Bangladesh from the South and South-East. 
  • The Bay of Bengal branch then bifurcates into two branches. One branch moves along the Ganga Plain, pouring rain on the Northern plains. It rains very heavily in West Bengal. But by the time monsoon winds reach Punjab and Haryana, they become dry resulting in lesser rainfall over these regions. The rainfall decreases from East to West, i.e. Kolkata receives 120 cm, Patna receives 102 cm, Allahabad receives 91 cm, Delhi receives 56 cm, Ludhiana receives 40 cm, and Amritsar receives 25 cm from the Bay of Bengal branch.
The Cycle of Seasons in India
  • The second sub-branch of the Bay of Bengal Branch moves towards the Brahmaputra valley. First, it strikes the Garo, Khasi and Jaintia hills of Meghalaya. While crossing the 1500 m high hills, these saturated winds bring heavy rainfall. Chirapunji and Mawsynram, which are situated in the southern part of Khasi hills, receive the highest average rainfall in the world. Then these winds move towards Assam and Arunachal Pradesh and cause rainfall in Guwahati, Darjeeling etc.  
Monsoon Mechanism in North East India

Note: Tamil Nadu Coast doesn’t receive any rainfall from the Bay of Bengal branch because the Tamil Nadu Coast is situated parallel to the direction of the Bay of Bengal Branch and in the rain-shadow area of the Arabian Sea branch.

Depressions in the South West Monsoon

An Easterly Jet Stream flows in the Upper Troposphere of the southern part of Peninsular India in June. It is confined to 15 N in August and 22 N in September. This Easterly Jet Stream usually does not extend north of 30 N.

ITCZ while passing over the Bay of Bengal, cause the formation of Tropical cyclones in the Bay of Bengal.  These Tropical cyclones are then steered inwards through the gaps in the Eastern Ghats (made by the eastern flowing rivers) by the Tropical Easterly Jet Streams and cause cyclonic rainfall.

Tropical Easterly Jet and Indian Monsoon

Dates when South West Monsoon hits various regions

Dates when South West Monsoon hits various regions

Characteristics of the Indian Monsoon

Some of the unique features of the Indian monsoon are

  1. Sudden onset: start of the monsoon is very abrupt. 
  2. Gradual advance: once started, it advances very slowly & gradually
  3. Gradual retreat: monsoon winds go back slowly
  4. Seasonal in Character: Rainfall received from the southwest monsoon is seasonal in character and occurs only between June & September.
  5. Largely governed by topography: Monsoon rains are governed by the region’s topography. E.g., Western ghats receive massive rainfall, and Aravallis receive almost none (explained above). 
  6. Monsoon has ‘breaks,’ i.e., wet spells of few days interspersed by rainless days. 
  7. Monsoon has Variations: These variations are both regional & temporal.

Variation in Monsoon

We will cover both Temporal and Spatial Variation when asked about variations.

1. Temporal Variations

The distribution of rainfall varies temporally during the four seasons.

  • Winter Season
    • In winter, there is little rainfall in regions of India.
    • The reason for the winter rainfall in North-West India is Western Disturbances. 
  • Summer Season 
    • In Summer, torrential local rains happen when there is a sudden contact between dry and moist air masses.  
  • South-West Monsoon season
    • The four wet months of June through September account for more than 80% of the annual precipitation.
    • In the coastal regions, the monsoon begins in the first week of June; however, it may not begin until the first week of July in the nation’s interior parts.
    • Rainfall from monsoons is mostly influenced by relief or topography, and it tends to decrease as one gets farther from the sea. 
  • Retreating Monsoon
    • In response to the sun’s southward march, the monsoon begins to weaken around the end of September.
    • India’s north experiences dry weather, whereas the Coromandal Coast experiences rain.

2. Spatial Variations

  • Areas of High Rainfall (Over 200cm): Maximum rainfall occurs along mountain ranges that block moist winds, such as the west coast, as well as in sub-Himalayan regions in the northeast, such as the Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia hills.
  • Areas of medium Rainfall (100-200 cm): Medium rainfall happens in the north-eastern Peninsula covering Orissa, Jharkhand, Bihar and eastern Madhya Pradesh, east Tamil Nadu, southern parts of Gujarat, and northern Ganga plain.  
  • Areas of low Rainfall (50-100 cm): Most regions showing continentality, like Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, eastern Rajasthan, Western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Deccan Plateau and Gujarat. 
  • Areas of inadequate Rainfall (Less than 50 cm): In Ladakh, western Rajasthan and the Interior Peninsula (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra)

4. North East Monsoon /Retreating Monsoon

  • Rain happening in October and November is known as Retreating Monsoons. 
  • The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone begins moving southward in response to the sun’s southward movement towards the end of September, which weakens the southwest monsoon. Hence, the temperature in the Northern Plains starts decreasing, and consequently, pressure starts increasing. In response to this, Monsoon winds start to retreat from northern India, and this is also known as North-East monsoon as the winds blow from North-East to South-West.
Retreating Monsoon
  • These monsoon winds retreat in almost the same sequence as they arrive in the country. 
    • They first leave Punjab till 15 September, 
    • Uttar Pradesh till 1 October, 
    • Ganges Delta till 15 October 
    • Till 15 November, these leave southern parts of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
North East Monsoon
  • The retreat of the monsoon is marked by clear skies and a drop in the night temperature. But the land still remains moist. The combination of high temperature and humidity gives rise to oppressive weather and is known as ‘October Heat.’
  • The North-East monsoons are generally dry as they originate on land except on the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, i.e. Coromandal coast because when they pass over the Bay of Bengal, they collect moisture and shed that moisture on the Tamil Nadu coast.
Rain over Coromandal Coast

Cyclones on the Eastern Coast during retreating monsoon

  • Due to the shifting of ITCZ over the Bay of Bengal and the convergence of winds on both sides of ITCZ, cyclonic depressions are created in the Bay of Bengal, whose water is already at high temperature due to continuous heating throughout the summers. These cyclones move towards the west or north-west. 
  • These cyclones frequently hit the eastern coastal region and cause significant damage to life and property. The areas most vulnerable to these storms include the coastal belt of Tamil Nadu, Andhra, Odisha and West Bengal. 
  • The number of devastating severe Cyclones hitting the Indian coasts has been increasing owing to the increase in sea surface temperature in the northern Indian Ocean.

Knowledge-Based Industry in India

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Knowledge-Based Industry in India

This article deals with the ‘Knowledge-Based Industry in India.’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

  • The advancement in information technology has profoundly influenced the country’s economy. The Information Technology (IT) revolution opened up new economic and social transformation possibilities.
  • The Indian software industry has emerged as one of the fastest-growing sectors in the economy.  
  • A majority of the multinational companies operating in the area of information technology have either software development centres or research development centres in India.  
Knowledge-Based Industry in India

Knowledge-Economy

Knowledge-Economy is primarily based on intangible assets such as the value of its workers and IPR. These sectors include Space, Pharma, IT, e-learning etc. 

India’s competitors in Knowledge-Economy

China China is the most formidable competitor to Indian companies in the knowledge economy.
ASEAN Nations ASEAN countries such as the Philippines, Vietnam, Indonesia etc., have graduated with command over the English language, thus encroaching upon the Indian market.

Indian Knowledge-Based Economy

1. Space

  • India has been able to develop Space Sector due to the support given by the Indian government. But, apart from ISRO, India has not been able to produce a world-class space company (such as SpaceX of the USA)

2. BPO

  • Indian BPO sector is well developed and is a major contributor to Forex earnings of India.

3. Electronics

  • The Indian government has not supported developing the electronics sector in the past. Hence, India’s electronics sector was not able to develop. 
  • The present government wants to develop the Electronics sector in India and has started schemes like Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme. Companies such as Samsung and Apple have started manufacturing their products in India. 

4. Pharma

  • India is known as the ‘pharmacy of the developing world’ and the 11th largest drug producer globally. But private companies are not spending on R&D and hence not able to produce novel and revolutionary drugs, for which Indians are dependent on foreign companies such as Pfizer, Novartis etc. 

IT Industry in Bangalore. Why? 

Bangalore is known as the silicon valley of India.  

1. Historical perspective

  • In the 1950-70s, Bharat Electronics Limited, IISC, National Defence lab, HAL, and ISRO were set up here. It created backward & forward linkages in the field of electronics.  

2. Well Connected

  • The city is well connected by road, railways & air.

3. Skilled Labour

  • IISC & a large number of institutions around Bangalore provide a large number of professionals to work in the software industry.

4. Progressive Government

  • The government’s policies helped, like providing land at reasonable rates, tax concessions etc. 

5. Pleasant climate

  • A pleasant climate is a perk for professionals, especially in Tropical countries like India. It is an ideal place to living   

But Bangalore has not been able to cope with the rapid increase in population. Due to jammed roads & increased pollution, other cities came up to compete like Pune, Gurgaon, Noida etc.

Challenges faced by India’s IT Sector

1. Loss of Market  Access

Indian IT Industry is losing market access 

  • USA: Due to the “Buy American, Hire American” Policy & H1B Visa restrictions 
  • EU  has also introduced Data Protection and Privacy Rules (DPPR) that effectively prevent Indian companies from providing services from India, while the US has been given safe harbour status.  

2. Competition from new entrants

  • Indian service companies are now challenged by startups like Luxoft, which are using cloud-based technology, and new digital entrants from Eastern Europe and Latin American countries. 

3. Domestic challenges

There are also some domestic challenges like 

  • shortage of skilled talent
  • underdeveloped infrastructure in Tier 2 & 3 cities
  • Some restrictive regulations for product startups. 

Meanwhile, the  Government of India’s rapid adoption of technologies as a platform for delivering government-to-government and government-to-citizen services is a tremendous push factor for the domestic ITBPM market.

Mercury Poisoning

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Mercury Poisoning

This article deals with ‘Mercury Poisoning  – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Environment’, which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles on Science and technology, you can click here.

Introduction

Mercury concentrates as highly toxic Methyl Mercury in the bodies of fish.

Mercury Poisoning

Minamata disease

  • The disease was searched in Japan’s seaside town of Minamata.
  • Strange behaviour was seen in cats, birds & also in humans. The investigation found that petrochemical companies had been discharging mercury waste into the sea.
  • Around 5,000 people were killed & 50,000 were poisoned to some extent by Mercury.
Minamata disease

Humans have controlled the Minamata disease and the use of Mercury to a large extent. But such cases are sporadically noticed in 

  • Mercury Mining, mainly in China
  • Central Asian nations like Kyrgyzstan 
  • In India 
    1. Kodaikanal (Tamil Nadu): The thermometer factory was dumping waste (the factory was of Ponds and later acquired by Hindustan Unilever in 1987 ) 
    1. Singrauli Region in Uttar Pradesh 
    2. Ganjam in Odisha 

Applications of Mercury

Applications of Mercury

Side Topic: Diseases from Metal Poisoning

Mercury Minamata Disease
Cadmium Itai Itai
Nitrate Blue Baby Syndrome
Water with little or no fluoride Cavity in teeth
Arsenic Black Foot Disease (disfigures the skin, impacts kidney and, heart & lung fatalities.

Minamata Convention on Mercury

  • Minamata Convention aims to control the use of Mercury.
  • The convention was signed in Kumamoto (Japan) in 2013 and ratified by India in 2014.
  • Minamata Convention is part of the cluster of agreements, including 
    • Basel Convention to control transboundary movement of hazardous wastes
    • Rotterdam Convention to manage international trade of hazardous chemicals and pesticides
    • Stockholm Convention to restrict and eliminate persistent organic pollutants.

What does India have to do?

  • India will have to establish and enforce mercury emission standards for coal-fired power plants(and coal mining).  
  • The Chlor-alkali industry has to use mercury-free technologies.
  • Replace CFLs with LED.

Noise Pollution in India

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Noise Pollution in India

Last Update: March 2023

This article deals with ‘Noise Pollution in India – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Environment’, an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles on Science and technology, you can click here.

Introduction

Noise Pollution in India
  • The unwanted and undesirable sound or sound that can disrupt one’s quality of life is called noise.
  • Noise pollution is the phrase used to describe when there is excessive “noise” in the environment.
  • World Health Organization has prescribed optimum noise level as 45 dB by day and 35 dB by night. Anything above 80 dB is hazardous.

Sources of Noise Pollution

Sources of Noise Pollution
  • Industrialization (industries use big machines)   
  • Poor Urban Planning: Congested houses and large families sharing small space
  • Social Events:  Such as marriage, parties, pubs or places of worship 
  • Vehicles: A large number of vehicles run and honk on roads
  • Construction Activities  
  • Household appliances like noise from the TV, Radio, Air Conditioner, cooking appliances etc. These might be minor contributors but affect the quality of life badly.

India suffers from high levels of Noise pollution. For example, World Health Organisation’s “Worldwide Hearing Index” reported that Delhi is the second-worst city with the highest noise pollution (Guangzhou in China is the worst and Zurich in Switzerland is the best). 

Effects of Prolonged Noise Pollution

  • Physical Effects: It leads to irreversible Noise-Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL), heart disease, high blood pressure, stress-related illness, sleep disruption and productivity loss. 
  • Physiological effects: 
    • Depression and fatigue 
    • Aggressive behaviour 
    • Straining of senses and annoyance 
    • Psychomotor impacts
  • Sleeping disorders: Loud noise can impact a person’s sleeping cycle. Due to this, a person’s performance may go down in the office.
  • Effect on Wildlife: Wildlife is dependent on sounds for their various functions, and animals may become easy prey.

Legal and Constitutional Provisions 

  • Article 48-A regarding protection and improvement of the environment) 
  • Article 51-A (fundamental duties) of the Constitution of India.
  • Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981: The act includes noise in the definition of ‘air pollutant’.
  • Noise Pollution (Regulation & Control) Rules: Under the rules, permissible noise limits are as follows
    1. Industrial Areas: 75 decibels during the day and 70 decibels during the night
    2. Commercial Areas: 65 decibels during the day and 55 decibels during the night
    3. Residential Areas: 55 decibels during the day and 45 decibels during the night
  • The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has set up the National Ambient Noise Monitoring Network (NANMN), covering 35 locations in seven metro cities like Delhi, Lucknow, Hyderabad, Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai and Bangalore.
  • Article 48-A, i.e. protection and improvement of the environment
  • Article 51-A, i.e. fundamental duties of the Constitution of India
  • Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has established the National Ambient Noise Monitoring Network (NANMN), covering 35 locations in seven metro cities like Delhi, Lucknow, Hyderabad, Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai and Bangalore.

Preventive measures

  • Personal Level: NIHL can be prevented by  
    • Dietary supplements rich in antioxidants  
    • Use of earplugs  
  • Scientific urban planning: Transport terminals, Industries, airports, and railway terminals sight should be far from living spaces.
  • Green Belt, i.e. planting trees in and around noise sources.
  • Lubricating the industrial machinery to reduce their noise levels
  • Making and implementing laws in effective ways to control noise pollution. E.g., regulations regarding loudspeakers are present but not applied strictly.

Monsoon Theories

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Monsoon Theories

This article deals with ‘Monsoon Theories.’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

  • The Monsoon is traditionally defined as the seasonal reversal of winds and related changes in precipitation. Monsoon is a surface wind that blows in a particular direction in one season but reverses completely in the other season.
  • Monsoon is the main characteristic of the Indian Climate and requires special study. Hence, we will study that in detail.

Monsoon Theories

Monsoons are a complex meteorological phenomenon. Meteorologists have proposed numerous theories explaining the origin of monsoons.

1. Halley’s Thermal Theory

Mechanism of  summer Monsoon

  • During summer, interior parts of the North Indian Plains covering Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana etc., are heated strongly. As a result, low pressure develops, resulting in the formation of the monsoonal trough.
  • Temperature over the Indian Ocean is still low. Hence, high pressure prevails over the Indian Ocean.
  • Hence, the general movement of air in JUNE is from the South-West (Indian ocean) to North-East (Indian Subcontinent) (this direction is directly opposite to trade winds prevailing during Winter).
  • When these moist winds from the Indian Ocean pass over Indian Subcontinent, they cause widespread Monsoon from June to September.
Halley's Thermal Theory

Winter Monsoon

  • During Winter, high pressure is developed over land, whereas low pressure prevails over oceans. Hence, winds start to blow from North-East towards South-West (North East Trade Winds).
  • These are dry & cold winds causing no rainfall except on the Coromandal Coast, where it gathers moisture after passing over the Bay of Bengal.
Halley's Thermal Theory for Winter Monsoon

Shortfalls

  • But this presents a very simple picture and fails to explain the following:-
    • Why low-pressure areas on land are not stationary & suddenly change their location?
    • Why are there no anti-monsoon circulations in the upper-troposphere which must be there if they were thermally induced?
    • Low pressure in Northern India develops in April & May, but rain starts there in June. Why??
  • Monsoon rains are an amalgamation of convectional, orographic & cyclonic rainfall & the thermal concept fails to explain this.

2. Fohn Dynamic Concept of Monsoon

  • Fohn tried to explain the monsoons using shifting of ITCZ (Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone), i.e., where northern and southern Trade winds converge. This ITCZ zone keeps shifting towards the north and south according to the apparent movement of the sun.
  • According to this theory, Monsoon is the result of the seasonal migration of planetary winds & pressure belts around the Equator due to the apparent shifting of the sun during different seasons
    1. During Summer, the sun moves directly above the Tropic of Cancer due to the apparent northward movement of the sun. As a result, all the pressure belts of the globe shift northwards. ITCZ moves up to 25° N & low pressure develops over the whole Indian Subcontinent. Trade winds blowing towards ITCZ need to pass through the Equator to reach ITCZ. Due to the Coriolis effect, while crossing the Equator, these winds get deflected and take the southwest direction, becoming a southwest Monsoon. Indian landmass gets rain due to these South-West winds as these winds carry moisture from the Indian Ocean to Indian Subcontinent.
    2. During Winter, due to the apparent southward movement of the sun, all the pressure belts shift southwards. As a result, ITCZ moves southwards out of India, establishing the North-East Monsoon. Hence, during Winter, winds in India start to blow from North East to South West, creating a North-East monsoon.
Monsoon Theories

3. Real Mechanism

But in reality, the mechanism is more complex than what even Fohn proposed. A large number of factors impact the Indian Monsoon & the exact mechanism is not known to date. Major factors which impact the Indian Monsoon are

3.1 Maskarenes High

  • When there are summers in the North Hemisphere, there are winters in the Southern Hemisphere. As a result, a High-pressure zone develops near a small island in the Southern Hemisphere in the South Indian Ocean called Mascarene. Winds from this high-pressure area, termed as Mascarene High by scientists, start blowing towards low-pressure areas in the Northern Hemisphere, along the east Somalia coast.
  • The strength of Mascarene High is a crucial factor in determining the intensity of the Monsoon in India. Stronger is the Mascarene High, stronger will be the push caused by them and stronger will be the rainfall over Indian Subcontinent.
Mascarene High

3.2 Somali Jet / Findlater’s Jet

  • The monsoon wind that is deflected to the east as it crosses the Equator (due to Coriolis Force) is further deflected to the east by the mountains of Africa on the Somalian Coast and Somali Jet. The Somali Jet transits Kenya and Somalia and exits the African coast at 9 degrees north at a low altitude at very high speed.
  • Hence, it gives a strong push to the Monsoon winds & also deflects them towards India.

(This Jetstream was discovered by J. Findlater, a British meteorologist & it is most pronounced between 1.0 and 1.5 km above the ground.)

Somali Jet / Findlater's Jet

3.3 Tropical Easterly Jet / Role of Tibet Plateau

Tropical Easterly Jet
  • The first instance of the relationship between the Indian Monsoon and Tibet plateau came some 130 years ago, when Sir H.F. Blanford, Chief Reporter of the newly-established India Meteorological Department (IMD), noticed more Himalayan snow cover during the preceding Winter resulted in a poor monsoon. Hence, scientists began to study the relationship and reached the following explanation. 
    • In summer, the apparent movement of the sun is northwards. Due to this, there is intense heating of land in Northern India & Tibet.
    • Since the Tibetan plateau is situated at a great height, it receives 2-3° C more insolation, and extreme low pressure develops there. As a result, air from Tibet Plateau rises to the Upper-Troposphere and starts moving towards Mascarene High in the form of a Tropical Easterly Jet. After reaching Mascarene high, it descends & further strengthens the Mascarene High-Pressure Cell.
    • More strength of Tropical Easterly Jet means stronger Mascarene High, which further means good rainfall in the Indian Subcontinent.

3.4 Sub Tropical Westerly Jet Stream

India is under the influence of Sub-Tropical Westerly Jet (STWJ). It impacts the Monsoon in the following ways

1. Winters

  • Due to the sun’s southward apparent movement during winters, all the earth’s pressure belts move southwards. As a result, STWJ also moves southwards & comes over North India (from the Himalayas).
  • These Jet streams create High-Pressure Zone over North India, so no rainfall occurs during Winter. 
Sub Tropical Westerly Jet Stream in Winters

2. Summers

2.1 Early Summer

  • With the onset of summers, the sun starts to move northwards; as a result, pressure belts of the earth, along with STWJ, also starts to move northwards. 
  • During early summers, half of the STWJ is over the Northern plains, while the other half moves north of the Himalayas. Hence, high pressure continues to be maintained over Northern India. Until the whole of STWJ doesn’t move out of North India, Monsoon cant strike Indian Subcontinent. 
Sub Tropical Westerly Jet Stream in Summer

2.2 Late summer, near June

  • During late summer, STWJ entirely moves north of the Himalayas, and low pressure develops over North India. Hence, Monsoon strikes Indian Subcontinent in June.
Monsoon Theories

3.5 El Nino 

El Nino
El-Nino Year
  • El Nino creates High Pressure near Northern Australia & as a result, Walker Cell between Western Pacific Pool (WPP) and the Western Indian Ocean (Mascarene High) is altered. In normal conditions, this Walker Cell helps to strengthen the High Pressure in the Western Indian Ocean. But during El Nino, Mascarene High is not strengthened.
  • As Mascarene High helps push monsoon winds towards India, in case of weak Mascarene High during El-Nino years, the push would be weaker, resulting in lower rainfall in Indian Subcontinent. 

La Nina

  • La Niña is the reverse of the El-Nino. Here, extreme Low Pressure prevails over Northern Australia. It strengthens the Mascarene High more than what happens in normal conditions.
  • La Niña years are infamous for frequent and intense hurricanes and cyclones in the Atlantic Ocean and the Bay of Bengal, likely due to multiple aiding factors, including high relative moisture and relatively low wind shear over the Bay of Bengal.

3.6 Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)

  • In 1999, N H Saji of Japan’s University of Aizu and others discovered an El-Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) -like phenomenon in the Indian Ocean, which they named the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD).
  • The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is defined as the difference in the sea surface temperatures between two poles, i.e. Western pole in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean) and the Eastern pole near Indonesia in the eastern Indian Ocean.  
Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)
  • The IOD affects the climate of Australia, India and other countries surrounding the Indian Ocean and is a significant factor in deciding the rainfall variability in this region.

Case 1: Positive IOD

  • In this, waters in the Western Indian Ocean (Arabian Sea) become relatively warm compared to waters in the Eastern Indian Ocean (south of Indonesia). 
  • Studies have shown that a positive IOD year sees more than normal rainfall in central India. It happened in 1994 and 1997.  
Monsoon Theories

Point to note: The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) and El Nino are independent climatic phenomena but often co-occur. When they co-occur (60% of the time), then two competing factors come into play at the same time i.e.

  • El-Nino reduces high pressure at Mascarene high, which negatively impacts the Indian Monsoon.
  • But at the same time, positive IOD favours good rainfall over Indian Subcontinent. 

This is the reason why we can’t say with certainty that El-Nino will result in lower rainfall over Indian Subcontinent. In 1997, there was intense El-Nino but above-average rainfall in India; in 2002, there was moderate El-Nino but intense drought in India. The reason for this was in 1997, there was a positive IOD which overpowered El-Nino, but in 2002 there was a Negative IOD which exacerbated the impacts of El-Nino.

Case 2: Negative IOD

  • In this, waters in the Eastern Indian Ocean (south of Indonesia) become relatively warm compared to waters in the Western Indian Ocean (Arabian Sea). 
  • In this case, more rainfall will happen in southern Indonesia and the eastern Indian Ocean.
Negative Indian Ocean Dipole Heavy Rainfall Cool water Warm water

Note: Worst drought occurs when El-Nino and Negative or Neutral IOD co-occur.

Climate Funding

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Climate Funding

This article deals with ‘Climate Funding – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Environment’, an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles on Science and technology, you can click here.

Introduction

As per the Sharm el-Sheikh Implementation Plan, released during COP27, an annual investment of $4 trillion must be invested in renewable energy until 2030 to reach net zero emissions by 2050. No single source will be sufficient for this amount.

Classification of Finance Sources

We can classify the cash streams based on who is the prominent player

Climate Funding

1. Government Funding

1.1  Environment Tax

Environment Tax
  • An ‘‘environment” or ”green” tax is imposed on a product that damages the environment to reduce its production or consumption. 
  • It is in line with the ”polluter pays principle”. 

Benefits of Environment taxes

  • They internalize environmental costs into prices.
  • Deter actions that lead to environmental damage 
  • Encourages innovation and development of new technology
  • Government can use the revenue raised by environmental taxes for development activities and thus reduce the level of other taxes (e.g. income tax or excise duty on medicines) 

Government’s initiatives in this regard

1. Clean Environment Cess

  • The government introduced Clean Energy Cess on coal at Rs.50 per ton in 2010.
  • The rate is subsequently increased to Rs. 400 per ton presently.
  • The money thus collected is transferred to the National Clean Energy and Environment Fund.

2. Higher Excise Duties on SUV

  • Government charges higher excise duty on fuel-guzzling SUVs.

2. Market-based Mechanisms

2.1 Carbon Trading or Cap and Trade

Carbon Trading, also called carbon emissions trading, is a market-based system of buying and selling permits and credits that allow the permit holder to emit carbon dioxide. The model used in most carbon trading schemes is called ”cap and trade”.

How does ‘cap and trade’ work?

  1. Setting a cap: An overall limit or cap is set on the amount of emissions allowed from significant carbon sources, including the power industry, automotive and air travel.
  2. Issuance of permits: Governments issue permits up to the agreed limit. Each permit is usually measured in terms of one tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e).
  3. Selling and buying of permits: If a company curbs its own carbon significantly below the cap, it can trade the excess permits on the carbon market for cash. If it’s not able to limit its emissions, it may have to buy extra permits.
Carbon Trading

2.2 PAT (Perform Achieve and Trade) & ESCerts

  • It was launched by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (Ministry of Power) under the National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE).
  • It is a market-based mechanism in which sectors are assigned efficiency targets. Industries that over-achieve targets get incentives through Energy-Saving Certificates (ESCert). Other companies can buy those ESCerts to meet their targets

2.3 Renewable Purchase Obligations (RPO) &  Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs)

  • Under the Renewable Purchase Obligations (RPO) mechanism, DISCOMs must purchase certain percentage of their total energy in the form of renewable energy.
  • Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) are provided under the RPO mechanism if DISCOM is using more than the required Renewable Energy. DISCOM is entitled to RECs equivalent to the surplus
  • Those Discoms, which are not able to use the required Renewable Energy can buy these RECs and claim that they have purchased renewable energy.

2.4 Green Bonds

What are green bonds?

  • The Green Bond is a type of bond (debt instrument). But the issuer of a green bond publicly states that capital is being raised to fund ”green” (environment-friendly) projects, like renewable energy, clean transportation etc. 
  • It can be issued by Banks as well as Companies. 

Timeline

2007 In 2007, green bonds were first launched by European Investment Bank & the World Bank
2015 Yes Bank  & later EXIM bank launched India’s first dollar-denominated green bond.
2016 SEBI issued Green Bond guidelines.
2017 L&T issued the first SEBI-approved Green Bonds. 
2022 Budget 2022 announced that the Government of India would issue Sovereign Green Bonds (SGB) for projects leading to a less carbon economy. 

Importance

  • India has set an ambitious target of generating 40% of its energy through Renewable sources by 2030 as part of its Paris Climate Deal obligations (INDC). It requires massive funding, and Green Bonds can help in raising that.
  • Higher interest rates in India raise renewable energy costs by about 25%. Green bonds carry a lower interest rate  
  • Green bonds enhance an issuer’s reputation by showcasing its commitment towards sustainable development. 
  • It allows issuers to tap into pools of global investors & capital funds dedicated to ethical climate change and green investing. 

Risks & challenges

  • Greenwashing: There have been heated discussions regarding whether the projects that green bond issuers fund are environmentally friendly. E.g., Reuters reported how activists were claiming that the proceeds of the French utility GDF Suez’s $3.4 billion green bond issue were used to fund a dam project that hurts the Amazon rainforest in Brazil.
  • Most green bonds in India have a shorter tenure of about 10 years (compared to international issuances). A typical loan is for minimum 13 years. 
  • Most Indian Green Projects are small and unattractive to investors due to their small scale.
  • Borrowing costs and information asymmetry: In India, the cost of green bond issuance has consistently remained higher than that of other bonds.

Further steps required

  • Standardizing the definition of green 
  • Going towards securitization & aggregation: Many standalone green projects such as rooftop solar, energy efficiency, and rural water supply remain unattractive to institutional investors owing to the smaller scale and vast geographical spread. Aggregation and securitization of such projects could be a welcome move in providing mainstream debt to small-scale green projects.

Side Topic: Blue Bonds

  • It is a sub-type of green bond.
  • Blue bonds are sustainability bonds used to fund initiatives to preserve and protect the ocean and its surrounding ecosystems. E.g.,
    • Sustainable fisheries
    • protection of fragile ecosystems
    • reducing pollution and acidification
  • E.g. 2018- Seychelles issued the world’s first ”Blue Bond” to expand its marine protected areas and fisheries sector. 

3. International Funds

3.1 Adaptation Fund

  • Adaptation Fund was established under United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). 2% of the trade of Carbon Credits goes to Adaptation Fund. 
  • From the Adaptation Fund, the funds are sent to the National Implementation Entity (NIE) of countries. 
  • For India, this Agency is NABARD (it is the only NIE in the Asia Pacific) 

3.2 Global Environment Facility (GEF)

  • Global Environment Facility (GEF) was established during the Rio Earth Summit of 1992 to address the world’s most challenging environmental issues.
  • GEF provides funding for 5 things 
    1. UNFCCC
    2. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
    3. Stockholm Convention on POPs
    4. Minamata Convention on Mercury 
    5. UN Convention to Combat Desertification  
  • World Bank serve as the Trustee of the GEF 

3.3 Green Climate Fund (GCF)

  • It was established in 2010 at COP 16 held in Cancun. 
  • GCF raise money from rich countries to fight climate change. Projects will be carried out in developing countries to fight climate change using this fund.
  • The aim is to spend $100 Billion per year from 2020.
  • Countries have to appoint a National Designated Authority (NDA) that acts as the interface between their government and GCF. India’s NDA is NABARD.

Issues with GCF

  1. How to define Green Climate Finance. E.g : 
    • Will US NGOs (e.g. Ford Foundation or Melinda Gates Foundation) working on providing clean water in Africa be considered within US Green Climate Obligations in Account books? Developed countries are re-categorising all these funds under GCF Obligations. 
    • Is Technology Transfer part of Green Climate Finance? Suppose Patents are transferred like the US transferred patents to produce Solar Cells in India. Will the cost of the patent be counted under GCF obligations? Developed countries are in favour while Developing countries are opposed to this. 
  2. Which Countries have the first claim over GCF Corpus? Should AOSIS Nations, which are most affected by Climate Change, get these funds or African Nations or Other developing countries? 
  3. Whether to spend it on Mitigation or Adaptation projects