Privatisation of Banks

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Privatisation of Banks

This article deals with the ‘Privatisation of Banks.’ This is part of our series on ‘Economics’ which is an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

  • The government is also reducing its shareholding to less than 50% in Public Sector Banks. This is known as the Privatization of Public Sector Banks.
  • E.g.:
    • Government-owned UTI Mutual Fund applied for UTI Bank License in the 1990s. Later, after the scam, UTI Bank was privatized into Axis Bank.
    • 2018: IDBI Bank privatization 
Privatisation of Banks
  • 2021 Budget: The government announced to privatize two Public Sector Banks (PSBs).

Case for Privatisation of Banks

  • Improve the overall efficiency of the Banking Sector: Even though the PSBs and New Private Banks are operating in the same domestic market, the PSBs are considered less efficient, thus leading to the loss of taxpayers’ money.   
  • Government’s Monopoly: The Government ownership in the PSBs, which account for almost 70% of the Banking assets, has led to a kind of virtual monopoly of government that reduces the competition, breeds inefficiency and thus hurts the overall growth of the Banking Sector.
  • Better human resource management: Privatisation will help in introducing a high degree of professional management. On account of the huge human capital deficit, PSBs are seriously handicapped vis-à-vis their competitors. 
  • Reduce the burden on the government by doing away with the need for undertaking their recapitalization to comply with the higher BASEL III requirements

Arguments against Privatisation

  • Improve the Governance framework of PSBs: The main reason for the lower efficiency of the PSBs is actually the government’s political intervention in the functioning of the PSBs, which is in turn leading to a lack of autonomy and freedom to the PSBs and thus hurting their revenues.
  • Financial exclusion of weaker sections: It can lead to financial exclusion of weaker sections as the private sector cares about profits.
  • Job loss: Public Sector Banks employ a large number of people who can lose their jobs in case of privatisation of banks as one of the first things banks do after privatisation is employee retrenchment and branch closures.
  • Depriving SC/ST/OBCs of benefiting from reservation: Since private banks are not mandated to provide reservations to SC/ST/OBCs in jobs, it hurts the social empowerment of weaker sections of society.
  • Concerns regarding bank failures and safety of deposits: Private sector banks are prone to failures due to the absence of sovereign guarantees. Bank failures have a large contagion effect on the economy as the savings of the households get locked.
  • The macroeconomic effects of bank failures can cause tremendous contagion effect and derail the economy. E.g. From 1935 to 1947, there were 900 bank failures in our country. From 1947 to 1969, 665 banks failed. It became the driving factor for bank nationalisation in 1969.  

Ways to Control Climate Change

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Ways to Control Climate Change

This article deals with ‘Ways to Control Climate Change – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Environment’, an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles on Science and technology, you can click here.

Introduction

  • It is a deliberate, large-scale intervention carried out in Earth’s natural systems to reverse the impacts of climate change.
  • It involves techniques to physically manipulate the global climate to cool the planet.
  • These techniques fall primarily under three categories:
    • Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS)
    • Climate Engineering
    • Carbfix Project
    • Controlling the Emissions of Ruminants

1. Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS)

It is the process of removing carbon from the atmosphere & depositing it in a reservoir. 

First Capture CO2  

  • Firstly, we need to capture the CO2 directly from the atmosphere or at the end of combustion & industrial processes. 
  • It is done using technologies such as 
    1. Chemical Solvent: Preferred when dealing with gas streams that are lean in CO2 and have relatively lower pressures, such as flue gas streams from power plants etc. 
    2. Adsorption: Suitable for gas streams with moderate to high pressure and moderate CO2 concentration, such as steam methane reforming (SMR) flue gas.
    3. Cryogenic Separation: Preferred in cases where the cost of power is low.

Transport and then store CO2 in Reservoir (Carbon Sequestration) 

The captured CO2  is then stored in reservoirs, which can include

  • Depleted Oil and Gas Reserves 
  • Unmineable Coal Seams
  • Deep Saline Aquifers 
  • Enhancing the productivity of ocean biosystems through fertilization, e.g. algae 
  • Inject CO2 into the deep ocean  
  • Enhancing and manipulating the forests, wetlands etc.
  • Artificial Upwelling: This water will absorb more CO2 
  • Ocean fertilization 
Ways to Control Climate Change

Issues with the concept

  • There is general agreement about the need to halt fossil fuel emissions, particularly in industrialized countries. However, instead of moving ahead with drastic reductions in energy use and initiating a transition towards low-carbon economies, forests’ ability to (temporarily) sink carbon is being used to justify continued fossil fuel use.
  • Afforestation – especially afforestation in northern tundra regions – may accelerate global Warming. Dark green forests absorb more sunlight than tundra or farmland, adding to the warming trend (snow reflects).
  • All carbon is not the same. Fossil carbon is generally static, whereas that which is in the active carbon pool (the atmosphere and the biosphere) can be easily released through activities beyond government control, such as forest fires).
  • Lands dedicated to carbon sink projects require contractual agreements that lock the land up for years, often decades.  
  • High Cost: Upfront capital investment for carbon capture technology, transport pipelines, and geological storage is high, and significant energy and water usage is required to capture and compress CO2.
  • Insufficient geological information: Due to a lack of geological survey technology, companies lack geological information before the project is carried out. Therefore, they cannot accurately predict project risks.

2. Climate Engineering

  • Climate engineering describes a diverse and largely hypothetical array of technologies and techniques for intentionally manipulating the global climate to moderate or forestall the (most severe) effects of climate change.
  • These include
    1. Space Mirrors: Reflect Solar Energy and not allowing it to enter the atmosphere
    2. Reflective Aerosols in Stratosphere (proponents claim that it can reduce Global Warming by 1 C) 
    3. Cloud Seeding: Clouds are good reflectors of sunlight
    4. Using pale-coloured roofing material or growing high albedo crops
    5. Cirrus cloud manipulation: cirrus clouds are removed or thinned so that their long-wave trapping capacity is reduced, thus cooling the surface.

3. Other Projects for Carbon Fixation going on

3.1 Carbfix Project

  • It is a project in Iceland that aims to lock away CO2 by reacting it with basaltic rocks. 
  • Carbonated water is injected into the rocks to react with Calcium, Magnesium or Silicate material present in Basaltic rocks. It is called enhanced weathering. Thus, the CO2 is captured permanently without releasing any harmful by-products. 

3.2 Controlling the Emissions of Ruminants

Emissions of Ruminants

Philanthropists such as Bill Gates are funding startups to develop feed called Rumin8 that will reduce the amount of methane they emit in the atmosphere.

Impacts of Climate Change

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Impacts of Climate Change

This article deals with ‘Impacts of Climate Change  – UPSC.’ This is part of our series on ‘Environment’, an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles on Science and technology, you can click here.

Introduction

The Climate Change we will talk about in this article pertains to the change in the climate because of human-induced factors.

Even before humans, the Earth’s climate changed throughout history. In the last 6.5 lakh years, Earth has passed through 7 ice ages. The last ice age ended approx. 7000 years ago, also marking the beginning of human civilization.

But the climate change that we are witnessing now is entirely different. The earlier changes were primarily attributed to minor variations in the Earth’s orbit, which changed the amount of solar insolation received by Earth’s atmosphere or volcanic eruptions.

The reason for present climate change is the increase in the concentration of heat-trapping gases (or Green House Gases) in the Earth’s atmosphere due to the increase in the rate of burning of fossil fuels.

Mauna Loa Atmospheric Baseline Observatory (Hawaii) has been recording the CO2 concentration since 1958. The concentration reached dangerous levels of 415 ppm in 2019 and 419 ppm in 2021.

Impacts of Climate Change

Many people, especially from countries like the USA, UK etc., known as Climate Sceptics, don’t accept that Global Warming and Climate Change are real. After fighting for years against denialism, scientists have now been successful in making world leaders realize that we need to act against climate change if we want to avoid the potentially huge cost to the economy and society worldwide caused by the “irreversible build-up of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and warming of the globe.”

Evidences and Impacts of Climate Change

1. Glacier Retreats

  • Glaciers have been melting rapidly due to global warming, leading to a phenomenon known as Glacier Retreat. The examples include Hindukush – Karakoram – Himalayan Glacier Retreat and Kaskawulsh Glacier Retreat (Kaskawulsh is Canada’s one of the largest glacier).
  • The breakdown of Larsen C Glacier (in the Antarctic) is the result of Climate Change and Global Warming.

Impact of Glacier Retreat

  • Shortage of Water: The glacier retreat can result in a water shortage in the river streams fed by the glaciers. Therefore, it will negatively impact the lives of people living in those river basins.
  • River Piracy: Climate Change has resulted in the retreat of one of Canada’s largest glaciers (Kaskawulsh Glacier). It led to an incident called ‘River Piracy’ by the researchers.
    • Earlier (Before Retreat): The glacier was feeding Slims River (taking water to the Bering Sea) 
    • Now (After Retreat): The glacier feeds Alsek River (taking water to the Gulf of Alaska)
  • Habitat loss: Animals that dwell on or near glaciers may be pushed towards extinction—for example, tiny ice worms. 
  • Contaminants: Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) such as PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls) are transported in the air from their source to cooler areas where they condense and are deposited in glacial ice. Rapid melting has begun to release them back into the environment. For example, in some Canadian lakes, glacial meltwater is the source of 50-97% of the various POPs entering the lake. 
  • Flooding: Rapid melting of glaciers can lead to flooding in rivers.  
  • Sea level rise: Sea-level rise will affect coastal regions worldwide, causing erosion and saltwater intrusion into aquifers and freshwater habitats. 
  • Economic impact: Industries that thrive on vibrant fisheries will be affected as warmer waters change where and when fish spawn.  

2. Climate Change and Oceans

Climate Change and global warming have impacted the oceans negatively in various ways.

1. Ocean Acidification

  • As CO2 concentration in the atmosphere has increased, more CO2 is being dissolved in Ocean Waters leading to the formation of Carbonic Acid. It increases the pH of Ocean Water (i.e. makes it acidic), which harms the calcifying animals.

2. Ocean Warming

  • According to IPCC Report, the world’s oceans have absorbed 90% of the temperature rise caused by man-made GHG emissions.
  • Ocean warming creates anoxic (i.e., waters with no dissolved oxygen) and hypoxic (i.e. waters with low oxygen concentration) zones. It will lead to the destruction of the ecosystem in those zones.

3. Sea Level Rise 

  • Sea Level rise happens due to two reasons
    • Glaciers melting at a faster pace
    • The density of warm water is lower (leading to higher volume)
  • Impact of Sea Level Rise is as follows
    • Large-scale displacement: 10% of the world’s population lives on the coast, which faces the danger of getting displaced. Additionally, many islands will disappear (Kiribati, Maldives, Tuvalu etc.)
    • The saltwater intrusion into surface waters will exacerbate the issue of drinking water shortage. 
    • Increasingly severe storm surges will cause damage to property situated on coasts. 
    • International Conflicts: Sea Level Rise will change nations’ exclusive economic zones, potentially creating conflicts between neighbouring nations. 

4. Changes in Ocean Current patterns

  • Oceans are now receiving more fresh water due to climate change. It is changing the patterns of Ocean Currents, thus resulting in strange weather phenomenon. E.g., an increase in the frequency of tropical cyclones and El-Nino.
  • It is disrupting the marine food chains. 

5. Negative impact on Food Security

  • Rainfall patterns affected: Precipitation patterns in a number of areas have changed, resulting from large-scale atmospheric teleconnections with ocean warming.   
  • Due to Ocean Warming, more rain happens over the ocean and rainfall on land decreases. It impacts agriculture negatively.
  • Due to Ocean Warming, the size of fish is decreasing. The experiment showed that fishes raised in warm waters weighed less and had lower metabolic performance than those raised in lower temperatures.

6. Deoxygenation (Creation of Dead Zones) 

  • Ocean warming leads to deoxygenation, i.e., reduced dissolved oxygen in ocean water. It negatively impacts the marine species, ecosystems and fundamental benefits humans derive from the ocean.

7. Migration of animals

  • Ocean Warming is leading to the migration of tropical marine creatures towards temperate areas, thus disturbing the food chain, food availability and biodiversity of a region. 

3. Climate Change and Island Submergence

  • Island states such as Tuvalu, Mauritius etc., are on the verge of submergence.
  • Kiribati  is on the verge of drowning and will become the first country to drown due to sea level rise due to climate change
  • A World Bank report stated that some of these states, including the Marshall Islands and Tuvalu, may lose their status as a nation if sea levels continue to rise at this rate.

4. Increase in frequency of Extreme Events 

  • As per the Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), human-induced climate change has likely increased the frequency and intensity of extreme events since pre-industrial times, including heatwaves, extreme precipitation events, marine heatwaves, etc.
  • For example: Since 2020, we have seen a large number of extreme events like
    1. Heatwave in Canada and parts of the USA. Temperatures in Canada have reached as high as 49.4 C.
    2. Floods in Germany, New South Wales (Australia) and Pakistan.

5. Impact on Flora and Fauna

  • Rapid climate change is more than the ability of animals to adjust. In 1999, the death of the last Golden Toad in Central America marked the first documented species extinction driven by climate change. Experts opine that one-fourth of Earth’s species will face extinction by 2050.
  • Animal and plant species are responding to earlier springs—E.g., earlier frog breeding, bird nesting, flowering, and migration of birds and butterflies.
  • Increased frequency of Wildfires: As the Earth gets warmer and droughts increase, wildfires are expected to occur more often and be more destructive. Wildfires do occur naturally, but the extremely dry conditions resulting from droughts allow fires to start more easily, spread faster, and burn longer.
  • The distribution of tree lines, plants, birds, mammals, insects, fish, reptiles, and marine invertebrates is shifting towards the poles. 
  • The distribution of plants is shifting to higher elevations.
  • Tropical reef corals are expanding poleward.

6. Impact on Health

  • Global warming has led to greater frequency & severity of heat waves. In 2003, for example, extreme heat waves caused more than 20,000 deaths in Europe and more than 1,500 deaths in India.
  • Malaria is now being reported from countries like Bhutan for the first time.
  • Climate change has increased the spread of infectious diseases, mainly because warmer temperatures allow disease-carrying insects, animals and microbes to survive in areas where they were once blocked by cold weather.
  • According to Lancet Report, Climate Change will lead to undernutrition and obesity.  
    • Undernutrition: Global Warming will lead to lower yields, thus resulting in undernutrition. 
    • Obesity: Climate Change will reduce the production of fruits & vegetables, making them expensive and forcing people to move towards processed food (high in fats, sugars, and sodium).

7. Impact on Security

Climate Change is leading to environmental degradation, food shortages, and unfair distribution of resources, likely leading to tension and conflict. The civil war in Syria has successive droughts as one of the most important issues.

Climate Change is a security issue because

  • Local resource competition: Due to Climate Change, pressure on local resources like water is increasing, leading to instability and violent conflict. Transboundary river water issues will become violent due to water shortage.
  •  Forced Migrations: World Bank Report points toward the fact that by 2050, 140 million people from South Asia & Latin America will be forced to migrate 
  • Volatile food prices heighten the risk of protest, rioting and civil conflict.
  • Sea level rise and coastal degradation will lead to social disruption and disagreement over maritime boundaries (change in EEZ) and ocean resources. 

Keeping this in mind, United Nations Security Council deliberated on the impacts of climate-related disasters on international peace and security.

8. Impact on Women

Women are impacted by climate change disproportionately.

  1. Patriarchal norms: Socio-cultural factors like regulations on movement, childcare and elderly care responsibilities, gendered cultural codes of dress etc., limit their mobility and heighten vulnerability and exposure to climate change-related extreme weather events. 
  2. Dependence on natural resources: Women increasingly rely on natural resources for their livelihood, which is threatened by climate change. E.g., 75.7% of women in rural India are engaged in agriculture (PLFS, 2019-20).
  3. Public measures lack a gender equality perspective: Most policy documents lack explicit provisions for addressing the specific vulnerabilities of women across sectors.
  4. Inadequate access to and control over finance and productive resources: It affects women’s contribution to climate efforts and ability to recover from climate-related disasters or loss of livelihood economically. 
  5. Lack of gendered data: The scale and scope of women’s burden related to climate change are not well understood due to inadequate data. 

9. Impact on Health

  • Global Warming will lead to greater frequency & severity of heat waves and extreme weather events. In 2003, for example, extreme heat waves caused more than 20,000 deaths in Europe and more than 1,500 deaths in India.
  • Malaria is now being reported from countries like Bhutan for the first time.
  • Climate Change increases the spread of infectious diseases, mainly because warmer temperatures allow disease-carrying insects, animals and microbes to survive in areas once blocked by cold weather.
  • Climate Change will lead to undernutrition and obesity (Lancet Report Jan 2019) as
    • Global Warming will lead to lower yields. 
    • Global Warming might reduce protein and other micronutrients in plants. 
    • Climate Change will reduce the production of fruits & vegetables, making them expensive and forcing people to move towards processed food which is high in fats, sugars, and sodium.

Side Topic: Anthropocene Epoch

  • Currently, we are living in the Holocene epoch. It began 12,000 years ago at the end of the last ice age. All human civilizations have developed during this climatically and geologically stable period.  
  • An expert group at the World Geological Congress in Cape Town recommended that the new Anthropocene epoch, starting from the mid-20th century, be officially declared (coined in 2000 by the Nobel prize-winning scientist Paul Crutzen)
  • Since the 1950s, human beings have begun to alter Earth’s surface & atmosphere in unalterable ways. Human activity has:  
    • Pushed extinction rates: In the coming centuries, 75% of all species on Earth are expected to go extinct.
    • Doubled nitrogen and phosphorous in our soils in the past century with fertilizer use 
    • Airborne particulates have left a permanent layer in sediments and glacial ice. 
  • It sends out the statement that humans have fundamentally changed the planet to the point it will preserve sediments for millions of years to come to that record a world that is now fundamentally different to the one that preceded it.   
  • In 2019, 34 member panel of the Anthropocene Working Group (AWG) voted 29-4 in favour of designating a new geological epoch – The Anthropocene. Focus is now on identifying the golden spike to the signal beginning of the Anthropocene Epoch. Most probably, it will be artificial radionuclides which spread the world by the atomic bomb from the early 1950s.

Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir

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Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir

This article deals with ‘ Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir .’ This is part of our series on ‘Internal Security’, an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

The origin of the Jammu and Kashmir insurgency can be traced back to the partition of India when Pakistan attacked Kashmir to capture it. Since then, India and Pakistan have fought three wars on this.

Many terrorist organizations are active in Kashmir.

  • JeM (Jaish-e-Mohammed): Formed by Masood Azhar with the stated objective of uniting Kashmir with Pakistan. JeM was behind various terrorist activities, including the attack on Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly.
  • HM (Hizbul Mujahideen)
  • HuM (Harkat-ul-Mujahideen) 
  • LeT (Lashkar-e-Taiba)

Reasons for Upsurge

The unrest in Kashmir is not a new incident. The Valley has been the victim of such violence for many years. It started in 1947 with the State’s accession to India but worsened at the end of the 1980s (1988)  with the rise in the militant insurgency. Reasons are

  • Geographical: The presence of an envious neighbour in the form of Pakistan, which incites the sentiments of the Kashmiri people.
  • Historical background: The demand for a plebiscite has been there since 1947, which the people feel is their legal right as per the instrument of accession. However, due to the actions of Pakistan and changed conditions since 1950, a plebiscite cannot be performed in the Valley. It has enraged generations of Kashmiri people.  
  • Economic reasons 
    • Unemployment is a significant reason for youth frustration. Tourism has been down due to the disturbed security situation. 
    • Kashmir has limited industries and enterprises. Due to harsh weather conditions, there are limited days of productive work.
  • Mujahideen Infiltration: After the victory over the Soviet Union in Afghanistan, Mujahideen fighters, with the aid of Pakistan, slowly infiltrated Kashmir to spread a radical Islamist ideology. 
  • Political Reasons : 
    • Perceptions of the domination of politics in the State by one or two families (i.e. Abdullahs and Muftis) 
    • The immediate reason was the widely perceived rigging of state elections in 1987. 
    • Laws like AFSPA, regular curfews, presence of armed forces, allegations of human rights violations
    • Use of pellet guns on the protestors, including children. 
  • Weakening of Decentralization: History shows that Pakistan has tried to foster an anti-India jihad in Jammu and Kashmir since 1947 but without much success until the late 1980s. In the 1980s, they succeeded because, till that time, Article 370 of the Constitution had been rendered a dead letter.  
  • Social Cause/Wahhabization of Kashmiris: Increasing radicalization has choked the more tolerant Sufi tradition and introduced a new Wahhabi culture in the Valley.
  • New Generation raised in troubled times: The present generation of Kashmir was raised during troubled times that started in the 1990s. Hence, they feel alienated from the political establishment.
  • Social Media: The new generation having access to the internet has been radicalized by anti-India propaganda spread on the internet. Messaging apps such as Telegram and WhatsApp have helped the militants to mobilize the crowds and indulge them in stone-pelting incidents. 
  • “Doval Doctrine” which posits that under no circumstance should the State be seen as yielding, either tangibly or symbolically

Ways to address the problem

Multi-pronged approach consisting of Security, Development and Engagement (with all stakeholders is required). Although the government is looking after the first two, Engagement with Kashmiris is almost missing. As a result, the people of Kashmir feel alienated.

Methods to control Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir
  • Dialogue: Provide political healing touch to Kashmir using Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee’s Principles of “Kashmiriyat, Insaniyat, Jamhooriyat” (Kashmir-ness, humanity, democracy). Pursue dialogue with the separatists under the ambit of Insaniyat, which was supposed to be more accommodating than the Indian Constitution.
  • Take comprehensive confidence-building measures.
  • Development, especially economic development of the Valley in the field of Tourism, Timber industry, Saffron development, Fruits etc. 
  • Youth engagement & job creation: Although the government is already running various schemes like Nai Manzil, USTAAD etc., only creating more jobs will help take youth away from radical elements. 
  • Tight security and proper border management to stop infiltration
  • Stop the use of pellet guns: TVSN Prasad Committee report recommended the use of alternatives like PAVA (Pelargonic Acid Vanillyl Amide) Shells for crowd management instead of Pellet guns. PAVA Shell is chilli-based non-lethal ammunition which can temporarily immobilize and paralyze a victim.
Pellet gun issue in Jammu and Kashmir
Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir
  • Take steps for nation-building: Kashmiri youth feels alienated and, for many reasons, don’t see themself as part of the Indian nation. Some instances like discrimination faced by Kashmiri youth in mainland India alienate them further. Government should take steps towards their integration.
  • Control on Irresponsible Media: The situation has worsened due to the presence of social media, incitement by local media and irresponsible coverage by national media. 

Terror Financing

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Terror Financing

This article deals with ‘ Terror Financing .’ This is part of our series on ‘Internal Security’, an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

Terrorism Finance is termed as the ‘lifeblood of terrorism’, one of the most important factors in sustaining its continuing threat.

How are Terrorists funded?

Terror Financing
  • In the Northeast, extortion, drug trafficking and gun running are the fundamental basis for funding terrorism.
  • In Jammu and Kashmir, external funds from Pakistan and Gulf countries, along with counterfeit currency, are the primary sources of finance. 
  • Maoist terror movements rely on extortion, robberies of banks and drug trafficking for their funds. 

Funding of International Terrorist Organisation

  • ISIS: They use (1) control of Oil Fields, (2) Selling Antiques in Black markets, (3) Paying Cadres in the form of Sex Slaves (Yazidi & non-Sunni women) etc., to fund their operations. 
  • Taliban: They rely on the drug trade apart from funding from Pakistan’s ISI.
  • Petrodollars of Saudis fund various Islamic terrorist organizations. 
  • Some countries use terrorism as state policy and fund terrorists (like Pakistan and Iran (funding Hezbollah)).
  • Terrorist organizations use the loopholes in digital security and the “anonymity” provided by blockchain technology to access finances.

What world is doing to combat it?

Financial Action Task Force (FATF)

  • Financial Action Task Force (FATF) was established in 1989 by the Group of Seven (G-7) Summit in Paris.
  • FATF is the global money laundering (ML) and terrorist financing watchdog. The inter-governmental body sets international standards that aim to prevent these illegal activities.
  • Membership: FATF comprises 37 member jurisdictions and 2 regional organizations (Gulf Co-operation Council and European Commission). 
  • India joined the FATF in 2010.
  • FATF maintains two lists, i.e. Grey List and Black List, to deal with money laundering.

Sanctions Regime

  • UNSC Resolution 1267 and UNSC Resolution 1373 form the bedrock of the financial sanctions regime for terrorist organizations and individuals.

Steps taken by India

  • Member of FATF: India has been a member of FATF since 2010.  
  • India has passed laws like the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967 (UAPA) and the Prevention of Money-laundering Act, 2002 (PMLA) to combat Terrorist Financing and Money Laundering. The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act was recently amended with the provision that producing, smuggling or circulating high-quality counterfeit Indian currency is now designated as a terrorist act.
  • Demonetization & improved safety features: The government targeted the fake currency notes in circulation, an important source of terror financing.  
  • Making terrorist finance an offence: Under TADA and POTA, holding property derived or obtained from any terrorist activity or acquiring them through terrorist funds is an offence. 
  • A dedicated Terror Funding and Fake Currency (TFFC) Cell has been established in NIA.
  • Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU)- IND has been established in India to deal with terror financing.

Terrorism in India

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Terrorism in India

This article deals with ‘ Terrorism in India.’ This is part of our series on ‘Internal Security’, an important pillar of the GS-3 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Introduction

  • Terrorism has no globally accepted definition because one man’s terrorist is another’s freedom fighter. Palestinian militants call Israel terrorists, Kurdish militants call Turkey terrorists, and the nation-states call the militants who oppose their regimes “terrorists.”
  • In general terms, terrorism is any violent activity done by a non-state actor against common people or their property for political purposes.
  • The motivation behind terrorist acts can be political, ideological or religious. 
  • What do Terrorists try to achieve through such activities?
    1. Revenge: Eg – Bombay blasts in revenge for Ayodhya Mosque demolition
    2. To invoke a reaction.
    3. To become famous.

Characteristics of Terrorism

  • Terrorism is always associated with violent activities. 
  • It operates on the principle of instilling fear in the minds of people.
  • It is always driven by a certain ideology.
  • Their motivation includes revenge, anger, jihad, self-righteousness and exclusiveness. 
  • They use public statements for propaganda, justification and branding.

Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism  (CCIT)

  • One of the significant challenges in combating terrorism is there is no internationally accepted definition of Terrorism. 
  • To fill this lacuna, CCIT was drafted by India in 1996.
  • It includes the following major objectives:
    1.  To have a universal definition of terrorism that all 193 members of the UNGA will adopt into their criminal law.
    2. To ban all terror groups and shut down terror camps.
    3. To prosecute all terrorists under special laws.
    4. To make cross-border terrorism an extraditable offence worldwide. 

Challenges

It is yet to be adopted by the UN General Assembly because of various challenges. These challenges include 

  • Difference in threat perception: E.g., Hezbollah is considered a threat by Israel and Saudis but not by Iran, who considers them Freedom fighters. Similar is the case with many other organizations like East Turkestan Movement, Lashkar etc.
  • Some states (like Pakistan) use terrorism as state policy and will not allow this.
  • Other problems 
    • US: Concerned that its armed interventions without a UN mandate can declare its soldiers terrorist.
    • OIC: Concerned that it will undermine groups fighting for self-determination of Palestine and Kashmir and declare them terrorists.

Different Types of Terrorism

Terrorism in India

Leftist Terrorism

  • Leftist ideology believes that the existing social relations and socio-politico state structures in the capitalist society are exploitative in character, and a revolutionary change through violent means is essential.
  • Examples of Leftist Terrorism include 
    1. Naxalism in India 
    2. Red Brigades of Italy
    3. 17th November Movement of Greece
    4. People’s Revolutionary Army and Motoneros of Argentina

Rightist Terrorism

  • Right-wingers are conservative. These people either want the status quo or to return to a specific time in the past that they feel should be conserved. When Right Wingers resort to terrorist activities to achieve their objectives, this is known as Rightist Terrorism.
  • Examples include 
    1. ISIS: Want to establish Muslim Caliphate
    2. Ku Klux Klan in the USA to establish White Supremacy

State Sponsored Terrorism

  • When nation-states incorporate terrorism as a deliberate tool of foreign policy to achieve certain defined foreign policy goals, it is known as State Sponsored Terrorism.
  • Examples include 
    1. Pakistan is using Lashkar-e-Taiba, Harkat-ul-Mujahidin etc., against India by permitting them to establish safe houses, train on their soil and provide significant financial contributions to them. 
    2. Iran is supporting Hezbollah in Lebanon against Israel.
    3. During the cold war, US and USSR used this strategy on a massive scale. E.g., the US sponsored the Taliban militarily and financially to achieve its goals in Afghanistan.

State Terrorism

  • When the government systematically uses terror mechanisms to control its population, it is known as State Terrorism.
  • Examples include 
    1. Reign of Terror by Jacobins during the French Revolution
    2. Violence by Saddam Hussein against the Kurds.
    3. The recent killing of Saudi journalist Jamal Khashoggi in the Saudi consulate in Istanbul, allegedly by Saudi government agents

Cyber Terrorism

  • Cyber Terrorism is an unlawful attack against computers, networks and the information stored therein to intimidate a state and its people. In simple words, it is the convergence of terrorism and cyberspace.

Ethno-Nationalist Terrorism

  • They either emphasize the establishment of a separate state or the advancement of one ethnic group over others.
  • For example 
    1. LTTE in Sri Lanka.
    2. Insurgent groups in North-East India.
    3. Irish Republican Army in the UK 
    4. Kurdish groups active in Turkey and Iraq

Narco-Terrorism

  • The attempt by drug traffickers to coerce government policies through systematic intimidation or the use of violence.
  • For example, Narco-Terrorism is carried out by various Cartels in Mexico and Latin America.

Bio-Terrorism

  • It is the deliberate release of viruses, bacteria, or other biological agents used to cause illness or death in people, animals, or plants
  • E.g., During World War I, Germany used Bacillus Anthracis and Burkholderia Mallei against their enemies’ livestock and military personnel.

Insurgency

  • Insurgency is the struggle between a non-ruling group and the ruling group, where the non-ruling group uses political resources and violence. Insurgency aims to gain enough strength to have a regular army strong enough to conquer the ruling group. 
  • Although Insurgency and Terrorism are used interchangeably, there are differences 
    • Insurgents usually target only combatants and not non-combatants. Terrorists deliberately target combatants as well as non-combatants. 
    • Insurgents seek territorial control by establishing “liberated areas”. Terrorists do not seek territorial control. 
    • Insurgents try to create the paraphernalia of a seeming State in the areas controlled while Terrorists don’t. 
    • Insurgent work quite visibly on a regular basis. Terrorist does not let their presence be felt in their area of operation.
  • Examples of Insurgency 
    • Purely insurgent groups. E.g., North-East Insurgent Groups, Irish Republican Army (in the UK) and Euskadi ta Askatasuna (fighting for freedom of Basque in Spain).
    • Purely terrorist groups. E.g., Hizb-ul-Mujahideen and Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT)
    • Mix of the two. E.g., Maoists and LTTE (which fought a war against Sri Lankan armed forces from the 80s till the 2009 war for the formation of Tamil State in Sri Lanka)

Causes of Terrorism

Terrorism is the outcome of various reasons including

Ethno-nationalism

  • They are a group of people who desire to break away from the union government and form a terrorist group to achieve this objective.
  • For example Kashmiri Terrorist Groups, Khalistani groups, Naga Insurgents etc. 

Feeling of alienation and discrimination

  • Discrimination of a particular group (ethnic or religious) can lead that group to take up arms and indulge in terrorist activities.
  • For example 
    1. Rohingya National Army in Myanmar due to discrimination of Rohingyas by Buddhists.
    2. LTTE in Sri Lanka where Tamils revolted against the majority Sinhalese.
    3. Muslims in European countries like France and UK, where such social misfits frequently resort to Lone Wolf Attacks

Religion

  • Religion is the major cause of terrorism. However, any religion doesn’t preach terrorism per se. But some spiritual leaders do preach this.
  • For example 
    1. Global Salafi and Wahabi ideologies preached by Saudi-backed spiritual leaders  
    2. Myanmar’s Buddhist Monk named Ashin Wirathu started Islamophobic 969 movement, which led to riots against Rohingya Muslims in the Rakhine state
    3. Khalistani movement and organizations like Babar Khalsa aim to create Sikh majority nation-state
    4. Hindu fundamentalist/terrorists carried out incidents like the burning alive of an Australian Christian missionary and his children in 1999, the Samjhauta Express bombings of 2007, the Ajmer Dargah attack of 2007, the Malegaon blasts of 2008 and the Mecca Masjid bombing of 2007.

Unequal distribution of resources

  • Unequal distribution of resources is the main cause behind Left Wing Terrorism. 
  • For this reason, followers of Karl Marx, Lenin and Mao, popularly known as Naxalites in India, frequently take up arms against the state.

Regional disparities

  • Neglect of a particular region and use of its resources for the development of metropole can lead locals to take up arms to attack the state, and its machinery in the region, often creating their own structure of bureaucracy. 
  • E.g., Various terrorist organizations in the North East such as NSCN (Nagaland), Mizo National Front (Mizoram) etc.

Unemployment

  • In the absence of jobs, unemployed youth frequently take up arms. 

Envious and jealous neighbours

  • India has envious neighbours in the form of Pakistan and China, which are ever ready to foment disturbances in India.
  • China funds and supports the Maoists and various insurgent groups active in the North-East. Along with that, it frequently stops India’s attempts to designate individuals involved in planning and orchestrating acts of terror in India, such as Masood Azhar, as a global terrorist under the UNSC Resolution.
  • How Pakistan use terrorism as state policy is dealt with in detail below. 

Pakistan = Sponsor of Terrorism in India

Deep State in Pakistan has nurtured Islamic Radical Groups (Mujahideen) as strategic assets to be used against its adversaries (especially India). This strategy has been increasingly adopted after the success of US-funded Mujahideen in Afghanistan against the USSR in the late 1980s.

Timeline

1970-80

After failing in two conventional wars, Pakistan adopted the path of sub-conventional/proxy war with the motto of ‘bleeding India with a thousand cuts‘. Hence, they started to fund various local insurgent groups to strengthen the secessionist demand of different groups in India.

Causes of Terrorism in India

1980-90

  • Support and Fund Punjab Insurgency: In the 1980s, they started to fund the Khalistan movement to create a sovereign buffer state between India and Jammu & Kashmir.
  • Encourage terrorism in Kashmir: In the late 1980s, Pakistan started to fund and train Kashmiris to indulge in terrorism by tapping into the anti-India sentiment of the Kashmiri population. Terrorists were trained in Pakistani Occupied Kashmir and financed by the ISI and Pakistani military. 

1990-2000

After the Ayodhya incident in 1992, there was a subsequent rise in reactionary activities all over the country, providing a ripe opportunity for the ISI to further its objective of spreading terrorism and communalism in India.

2000 onwards

  • The rise in reactionary right-wing extremist activities in the form of bomb blasts in Malegaon, Ajmer Sharif Dargah, Samjhauta express etc., allowed ISI to exploit the communal fault lines in our society and ensure that the Muslim community remains vulnerable to mobilisation, recruitment and radicalization.

Effects of Terrorism

  1. Terrorist activities damage the life and property at the location of the attack.
  2. Due to terrorist activities, consumers’ confidence dips, and the country’s economy is pushed toward recession.
  3. It negatively impacts the business as commercial activities in such regions go down. 
  4. Governments are forced to increase their spending in the defence sector, and as a result, social welfare spending suffers.
  5. Rise of xenophobia against the community whose members indulge in terrorist activities. E.g., European Muslims face xenophobia due to Islamic terrorist groups. 
  6. Survivors of terrorist attacks are forced to pass through Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).
  7. It gives legitimacy to the government to pass Counter-terrorism legislation (like TADA and UAPA) that infringes on individual freedom and personal privacy.
  8. Due to terrorism, the tourism industry suffers drastically, as seen in Kashmir valley.

Apparatus to Counter Terrorism in India

Intelligence gathering

  • State Police and Central Intelligence Agencies (RAW and IB) are involved in intelligence gathering.
  • NATGRID has been set up after 26/11.

Neutralising Terrorists

  • State Police is the first respondent in case of terrorist operations.
  • In Jammu and Kashmir, and North-East, Army is also involved in counter-terrorism operations. 
  • National Security Guards (NSG) are also used to neutralize highly specialized terrorist attacks like airplane hijacks and hostage rescue operations.

Investigation

  • National Investigation Agency (NIA) was formed under the NIA Act of 2008 to investigate terrorist activities (after the Mumbai terrorist attacks)

Prosecution

  • In the past, prosecuting terrorists was a prolonged process. However, with the 2019 amendment to the NIA Act, Sessions Courts can now be designated as Special Courts for the purpose of trying Scheduled Offenses under the NIA Act.
Apparatus to Counter Terrorism in India

Steps taken in the recent past to combat Terrorism

1. Strengthened Legislations

NIA (Amendment) Act, 2019

  • Under the amendment, the NIA is empowered to investigate offences related to 
    1. Human Trafficking
    2. Offences related to counterfeit currency  
    3. Manufacture or sale of prohibited arms
    4. Cyber-terrorism
    5. Offences under the Explosive Substances Act, 1908
  • The NIA will have the authority to look into specified offences committed outside of India, subject to international agreements and other nations’ internal laws.
  • Enables the central government to designate session courts as special courts for NIA trials.

UAPA Act

Parliament has passed the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Amendment Act, 2019 with provisions like

  • Individuals can now be designated as terrorists on certain grounds (Earlier, only Organizations could be declared Terrorist Organisations).
  • Empowers the National Investigation Agency (NIA) Director General to authorize the seizure or attachment of property while the case is under investigation.

2. Institutional framework strengthened

  • NATGRID has become the one-stop destination for security and intelligence agencies to access databases related to immigration entry and exit, banking and telephone details of a suspect on a “secured platform”.

3. International Steps

  • Christchurch Call To Action: It outlines collective, voluntary commitments from governments and online service providers intended to address the issue of violent extremist content online.

Way forward to end terrorism in India

To tackle the menace of terrorism, a multi-pronged approach is needed, which includes

  • Socio-economic development is a priority so that vulnerable sections of society don’t fall prey to the propaganda of terrorists.
  • The administration needs to be responsive to the legitimate grievances of people so that these are redressed promptly and cannot be exploited by terrorist groups.
  • Good governance to provide clean, corruption-free and accountable administration at all levels
  • Government agencies should respect the rule of law and human rights. If the existing laws cannot deal with an extraordinary situation, new laws may be enacted so that law enforcement agencies do not resort to extra-legal or illegal methods.
  • International Cooperation becomes crucial as terrorism is a global threat and cannot be handled by nations acting in silos. As a first measure, the international community should develop a globally accepted definition of terrorism.

Introduction to Indian Climate

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Introduction to Indian Climate

This article deals with ‘Introduction to Indian Climate.’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

General Observation

  • India has an extraordinary variety of climates ranging from Tropical to Alpine.  
  • The climate of India can be broadly described as Tropical Monsoon Type.

It is most affected by two seasonal winds.

South-West Monsoon – Blow from sea to land after crossing the Indian ocean, Arabian sea & Bay of Bengal.
– Bring most of the rainfall in the country.
North-East  Monsoon – They blow from land to sea.
– Cause rainfall only on the Coromandal coast.

The whole of India can be broadly divided into two climatic zones.

North India Continental Climate with winters freezingly cold & summers with extremely high temperature
South India Equable Climate, i.e. same temperature throughout the year

Factors affecting Climate in India

1. Longitudinal Extend

Since the Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of India. Hence, 

  • Northern India lies in the subtropical & temperate zone
  • Southern India falls in the tropical zone. 
Introduction to Indian Climate

2. Distance from Sea

  • Places situated near the sea have Equable Climates. A large area of India, especially the Peninsular region, is not very far from the sea. This part of the country does not have a very clearly marked winter, and the temperature is almost equal throughout the year. Kerala, situated on the coast, has an annual range of temperatures less than 3° C. 
  • On the other hand, places situated away from the sea have Continental climates. In areas of central and north India, summers are hot, and winters are cold. 

3. Altitude

  • Every 1000 metres of elevation gain results in a 6.5°C drop in temperature. Hence, places situated at higher altitudes are cooler than places on the plains.

4. Mountain Ranges

4.1 Himalayan Mountains

  1. The Himalayas acts as a barrier to the freezing cold wind blowing from central Asia and keep the Indian subcontinent warm compared to Central Asia.
  2. The Himalayas compel the South-West monsoon to shed whole rainfall in India.

4.2 Western Ghats

  • Significant rainfall happens on the western slopes of the Western Ghats. In contrast, the eastern slopes & Deccan plateau receive very little rain as they lie in the rainshadow region of Western Ghats.

5. Direction of Surface Winds

  • Summer: winds blow from sea to land, bringing widespread rain.
  • Winter: winds blow from land to sea, and hence, they are dry & cold.

6. Upper-Air Circulation

They affect Indian Climate in the following ways 

  • The onset of the South-West Monsoon is driven by the shift of the Sub-Tropical Westerly Jet (STWJ) from the plains of India towards the Tibetan plateau (explained in the next article in detail). 
  • Sub-Tropical Westerly Jet (STWJ) reaches India after passing over the Mediterranean Sea, where rainfall occurs during winters. These winds bring cyclonic disturbances to Northern India, causing rain in Northern India during winters known as Western Disturbances. 
  • The Tropical Easterly jet streams that blow over Peninsular India (approx. 14° N during summer) cause tropical depressions during the South-West and retreating monsoon.
Tropical Easterly jet streams

Rare Earth Metals

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Last Updated: May 2023 (Rare Earth Metals)

Rare Earth Metals

This article deals with ‘Introduction to Mineral Resources of India.’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.


Introduction

Rare Earth Metals
  • Rare Earth Metals include 15 lanthanides with Atomic numbers 57 to 71 and two non-lanthanide metals, i.e. Scandium and Yttrium.
  • As they frequently occur in the same ore deposits as the lanthanides and have comparable chemical characteristics, scandium and yttrium are also regarded as rare-earth elements. But they have different electronic and magnetic properties.
  • Although they are termed Rare Earth elements, they are not so rare in occurrence. However, 
    • They tend to occur together and are difficult to separate from one another. 
    • Along with that, they do not occur in concentrated form and are dispersed throughout the world. It makes their extraction difficult and economically unviable. 
    • They are also hazardous to extract due to their radioactive nature.  
  • Two main ores from which Rare Earth Metals can be extracted are Monazite and Bastansite.

Uses of Rare Earth Metals

  • They are used in various high-end electronic devices due to their useful magnetic, chemical and spectroscopic properties.
  • They have the unique property to accept and discharge electrons, enabling them to be used in electronic devices, rechargeable batteries & fluorescent lighting.  
  • Due to their spectroscopic properties, they are used as fluorescent and as the main component in night vision glasses.
  • Due to their magnetic properties, they are used in electromagnetic circuits and also to make powerful and stable magnets.
  • Military uses 
    • They are used in night-vision glasses & precision-guided weapons. 
    • They are the critical component in making ultra-hard alloys used in making armoured vehicles.
  • Some Rare Earth Metals and their uses 
    1. Scandium: Television and fluorescent lamps
    2. Yttrium: Treat cancer and rheumatoid arthritis 
    3. Lanthanum: Night vision glasses 
    4. Neodymium: Guidance systems and wind turbine motors
    5. Europium: Fluorescent lamps 
    6. Samarium: Powerful permanent magnets which are stable even at high temperature
    7. Cerium: Space program, especially space shuttles

Global Distribution

  • There are two main sources
    • Bastnasite deposits in China and the United States constitute the largest percentage  
    • Monazite deposits found in Australia, Brazil, China, India, Malaysia, South Africa, Sri Lanka and Thailand.  
  • China is the world leader, accounting for around 97% of world production. India, Brazil, Australia, the USA, Russia, Thailand and Malaysia comprise the rest. 
  • In 2023, large deposits of rare earth metals were found in Sweden. Until then, no rare earth deposits have been reported from the continent.
  • Rare earth metals are also being recycled from e-waste. 

Indian Distribution

  • India has 3% of world reserves. 
  • The main source in India is monazite which is found in the form of sand on the beaches of Kerala. 
  • The Geological Survey of India recently found a high concentration of rare earth elements in western Rajasthan.  

Introduction to Mineral Resources of India

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Introduction to Mineral Resources of India

This article deals with ‘Introduction to Mineral Resources of India.’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

Mineral Resources

  • Minerals are aggregates of two or more than two elements having a definite chemical composition and atomic structure & formed by the inorganic process.
  • The development of the entire secondary sector is based on minerals. India has vast deposits of minerals. 
  • In the earth’s crust, they are in the form of ore. They are extracted, processed & then utilised for the economic benefit of society.

Minerals have certain characteristics

  • These are unevenly distributed over space. 
  • There is an inverse relationship between the quality and quantity of minerals, i.e., high-quality minerals are less in quantity than low-quality minerals. 
  • All minerals are exhaustible over time. These take a long to develop geologically, and they cannot be replenished immediately at the time of need. Thus, they have to be conserved & not misused as they do not have a second crop.

Classifications of Mineral Resources

Classification into Metallic and Non-Metallic Minerals

Introduction to Mineral Resources of India

Classification into Renewable and Non-Renewable Minerals

1. Renewable Resources

  • Resources which can be renewed or replenished fast
  • They are always available & not affected by human activities.
  • E.g., Solar Energy, Wind Energy etc.

2. Non-Renewable Resources

  • These have been built over a large geological time.
  • They need to be used judicially & in a planned way.
  • Fossil fuels, iron, gold etc.

Distribution of Minerals in India

  • Minerals are mainly associated with metamorphic & igneous rocks of Peninsular India. The vast alluvial plain tract of north India is devoid of minerals of economic use. 
  • Mineral resources provide the country with the necessary base for industrial development.
  • Each mineral region is associated with a prior geological activity.

Geological Events which led to the formation of Minerals

3 Geological events happened in India due to which minerals are found in those areas.

1. Shield Regions

  • These were mountains millions of years ago but have now eroded to plateaus.
  • Metallic Minerals are found in large quantities, particularly in Chotanagpur Plateau & Dharwad Plateau.  
  • Reason for minerals: Volcanic Activity when it passed over Reunion Island.
Shield Regions and Minerals in India

2. Rift Valley during Gondwana Time

  • During Gondwana times, the rifting along Damodar & Mahanadi led to large-scale forest submergence. Over the years, this has resulted in the formation of Coal deposits.
  • The main regions where these are found are  
    • Damodar Valley
    • Mahanadi Valley
    • Godavari and Wardha Valley
Rift Valley during Gondwana Time

3. Marine transgression during Tertiary time

  • Petroleum reserves are found at sites of marine transgression.
  • These regions Include
    1. Gulf of Khambat and Gulf of Kutch. 
    2. Brahmaputra-Shillong Shelf
    3. Bengal-Bangladesh Shelf
    4. KG Basin 
Marine transgression during Tertiary time

5 Mineral rich Regions of India

There are 5 mineral-rich regions in India where most minerals are concentrated.

1. Northern-Eastern Belt

  • It is the richest mineral region of India.
  • It consists of following 
    1. Chotanagpur Plateau
      • Kyanite (100% of India’s reserves)
      • Iron (90% of India’s reserves)
      • Chromium (90% of India’s reserves)
      • Mica (75% of India’s reserves)
      • Coal (70% of India’s reserves)
      • Others: Manganese, Copper and Limestone 
    2. Assam 
      1. Petroleum Reserve
      2. Lignite Coal
Northern-Eastern Belt

2. Central Belt

It is found in the Chhattisgarh region

  • It is an extension of the Chotanagpur Plateau.
  • Iron and limestone are found here.
  • Coal is found here due to the Godavari-Wardha valley rifting.
Central Belt

3. South-East Region

In this region, the following minerals are found

  • East Karnataka (Hospet Bellary Region): Iron
  • Andhra (Cuddapah & Kurnool): Iron
  • Andhra (Nellore): Mica, Manganese and Coal
  • Telangana: Bauxite
  • Tamil Nadu (Neyveli): Lignite coal
South-East Region

4. South-West Region

In this region, the following minerals are found

  • Karnataka Dharwar: Iron, manganese, and limestone are found here 
  • Goa: Iron is found here 
  • Maharashtra (Ratnagiri): Iron is found here.   
  • Kerala has deposits of Monazite and Thorium and Bauxite clay.
South-West Region

5. North-West region

In this region, the following minerals are found

  • Petroleum 
    • Rajasthan: Barmer 
    • Gujarat: Gulf of Kutch 
  • Building material 
    • Rajasthan is rich in building stones, i.e. sandstone, granite, and marble. Gypsum and Fuller’s earth deposits are also extensive. Dolomite and limestone provide raw materials for the cement industry.
  • From Lakes
    • Salt from Playa lakes of Rajasthan. 
    • Lake Sambhar and Lake Didwana of Rajasthan – contain gypsum & borax deposits.

India State of Forests Report

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India State of Forests Report

This article deals with the ‘India State of Forests Report.’ This is part of our series on ‘Geography’, which is an important pillar of the GS-1 syllabus. For more articles, you can click here.

India State of Forests Report, 2021

  • The Forest Survey of India (FSI) released the India State of Forest Report for 2021.
  • FSI undertakes a biennial assessment of the country’s forest resources.

Definition of Forest

  • According to FSI, all lands more than 1 hectare with a tree canopy of more than 10%, irrespective of the land usage, ownership or legal status of the land. 
  • The assessment is done using satellite data. The efficiency of this system is around 95%. 

Types of Forest Cover

There are three types of Forest cover.

  1. Very Dense Forest: Tree canopy density of more than 70%
  2. Moderately Dense: Tree canopy density between 40% and 70%
  3. Open Forest: Tree canopy density of more than 10%

Issues with the System

  • Plantations are also included in forest area, although they don’t provide the full benefits of forests and lacks biodiversity. 
  • Satellite data is not foolproof. 

Key Highlights of the report

India State of Forests Report

1. Forest and Tree Cover at the National level

  • India’s total Forest and Tree Cover is 80.9 million hectares, i.e. 24.62% of the Indian geographical area. 
  • It is an increase of 2,261 compared to the State of Forest Report of 2019.

2. Forest Cover in States

  • The states with the largest forest cover are Madhya Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.   
  • In terms of forest cover as a percentage, the top three States are Mizoram (85.41%), Arunachal Pradesh (79.63%), Meghalaya (76.33%) 
  • Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Odisha witnessed the highest increase in forest cover. 
  • Arunachal, Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, Tripura, Mizoram, Meghalaya and Sikkim are the states showing the maximum loss in forest cover.

3. Mangroves

  • The total mangrove cover in India is 4,992 sq. km. 
  • It has observed a net increase of 17 sq. km in the mangrove cover as compared to the 2019 assessment. 
  • The mangrove cover in the country is  0.15% of the country’s total geographical area. 
  • West Bengal has 42.45% of India’s mangrove cover, followed by Gujarat and the A&N Islands.  

From 2017 Report

4. Forest Fires

  • 21.40% of the country’s forest cover is high to extremely fire-prone. 
  • Most fire-prone forest areas are found in the north-eastern region and the central part of the country. 

5. Biodiversity

  • Maximum tree diversity is found in tropical evergreen forests of Western Ghats (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka) followed by north-eastern states.